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Yôga: Japanische Malerei Im Westlichen Stil

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Yôga: Japanische Malerei Im Westlichen Stil Yôga: Japanische Malerei im westlichen Stil Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Universität Heidelberg vorgelegt von Tassilo Reiner Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Michael Hesse, Zweitgutachterin: Frau Prof. Dr. Melanie Trede Heidelberg, September 2010 Vorwort Herrn Matsushita Fumio, den Gründer des Unternehmens Nichidai Megane, traf ich, wenige Monate bevor er starb, ein letztes Mal inTokyo. Unser kurzes Gespräch berührte alle aktuellen Themen, bis er mich schließlich fragte: "Machst du noch Iai?1 Die japanische Kultur darf nicht in Vergessenheit geraten." Mehr denn je schien er sich, Bürger eines hochindustrialisierten, verwestlichten und gespaltenen Landes, der die Möglichkeiten des Kapitalismus voll ausgeschöpft hatte, seiner Wurzeln zu erinnern. Meinen besonderen Dank möchte ich allen denen aussprechen, die dazu beitrugen, daß ich dieses Dissertationsprojekt durchführen konnte: Mit unendlicher Geduld unterstützte mich mein Doktorvater Herr Professor Michael Hesse. In allen japanologischen Fragen stand mir Zweitbetreuerin Frau Professorin Melanie Trede zur Seite. Gemeinsam verhinderten sie, daß ich in der cultural gap versank. Auch möchte ich Frau Katharina Halstenberg, Heidelberg, Herrn Dr. jur. Gerhard Halstenberg, Richter am Bundesgerichtshof a.D., Karlsruhe, Herrn Prof. Kusunose, Tokyo, postum Herrn Matsushita Fumio, Shizuoka, Familie Kataoka, Tokyo und weiterhin der Bibliothek Chûôtoshokan, Tokyo, danken. Sie alle standen mir auf unterschiedliche Weise ebenfalls bei. Bis auf wenige Ausnahmen - z.B. die schwierigen japanischen Namen - nahm ich alle Übersetzungen aus dem Japanischen selbst vor. Es war mir wichtig, bei der Übertragung z.B. japanischer institutioneller Einrichtungen ins Deutsche darauf zu achten, daß keine Mißverständnisse entstehen und die Wortbedeutung gewahrt wird. Ich habe weiterhin versucht, die gezielte terminologische Verwendung bedeutungsschwerer Kanji nicht in einer allgemein gehaltenen Übersetzung, die sich dem textualen Zusammenhang problemlos einfügt, der leichteren Lesbarkeit wegen untergehen zu lassen, sondern den tieferen Bedeutungssinn einfließen zu lassen (Kô-mô-jin: „die Rotborstigen“, bzw. „die Rotfelligen“, der Spottname für die Niederländer, statt „die Holländer“). Hierarchische Strukturen und institutionelle Bezeichnungen, sowie epochale Entwicklungen werden in Japan wesentlich differenzierter, d.h. in kleineren Abschnitten wahrgenommen als in Deutschland und entsprechend terminologisch gekennzeichnet. 1 Die älteste japanische Schwerttechnik 2 Inhalt Seite 1. Einleitung 6 2. Definition der Terminologien Yôfûga, Yôga, Seiyôga 27 3. Yôfûga I, Malereien in westlicher Manier in der Zeit des Handels mit den Südlichen Barbaren (Nanban bôeki) 30 3.1 Seiga, christliche Bilder im Dienst der Kolonisierung Japans 32 3.2 Nanban byôbu, Stellschirme mit Südbarbarenszenen: narrative Darstellungen wirtschaftlicher Interaktionen in der Monumentalmalerei 36 3.3 Sezokuga, Säkulare Malereien an Jesuitenkollegien im Dienst der Koloni- sierung 40 4. Die Niederlassungen der Vereenigden Oostindischen Compagnie (VOC) in Japan, Voraussetzung für die Entwicklung der zweiten Phase der Malerei in westlicher Manier (Yôfûga II): Bild-Dokumente und Informationen über „die Hollander“ in Westtechnik 47 4.1 Die Betriebsärzte der VOC: Keimzelle der Niederlandforschungen (Rangaku), der Niederlandmalerei (Ranga) und der Akitaschule der Niederlandmalerei (Akitaranga):frühe Dokumente medizinischer Tätigkeit, kulturelle Schranken 55 4.2 Der Minengutachter Hiraga Gennai: zoologisches Abbildungsmaterial, Kulturschranken 60 4.3 Odano Naotake: erstmalige Überwindung der Kulturschranke 65 4.4 Die Maler der Akitaschule der Niederlandmalerei: zoologische und botanische Abbildungen, Überwindung der Kulturschranke 71 4.5 Shiba Kôkan: Hauptvertreter der Edoschule der Niederlandmalerei (Edokei yôfûga), der erste Kupferstecher und Kartograph Japans 75 4.6 Die farbige topographische Karte des Kawahara Keiga 81 4.7 Yasuda Raishû: japanische Veduten, städtebauliche Dokumente der Handelsstraße Tôkaidô an der Ostküste 84 5. Darstellungen westlicher Kriegsschiffe auf ukiyo - Holzschnitten während der wirtschaftlichen Öffnung des Landes in der Endphase des Tokugawa-Regimes (Bakumatsu goki): westliche Rationalität, japanisches Sentiment 87 3 5.1 Bakumatsu kaikôki, die Öffnung des Hafens Yokohama für den internationalen Handel gegen Ende der Bakufuzeit: Yokohama-e 90 5.1.1 Goseda Hôryû: profitabler Handel mit westlicher Porträtmalerei 91 5.2 Kawakami Tôgai und das „Amt zur Erforschung der Westmalerei (Gagakukyoku)“ 94 6. Meiji isshinki, die Phase der Meiji-Restauration: Die geplante Industrialisierung nach westlichem Vorbild 99 6.1 Die 1870er Jahre (Meiji shoki): Der Krieg um die Verwestlichung, frühe bildliche Reaktionen 101 6.2 Die beginnende Umstrukturierung Japans in einen Industriestaat moderner Prägung: Das Ministerium für das Ingenieurwesen (Kôbu shô) 105 6.2.1 Die "Kunstschule der Ingenieurwissenschaften" (Kôbu bijutsu gakkô), erste Staatliche Kunstschule für Westmalerei in Japan am Ausbildungskomplex für das Ingenieurwesen 109 6.2.2 Goseda Yoshimatsu, Tokonami Seisei, Takahashi Yuichi: Bilder erster Ingenieursleistungen 118 6.3 Das Innenministerium (Naimu shô) und die Landsteuerreform (Chiso kaisei): Bilder der Bauern 126 6.4 "Europa" auf japanischen Ölbildern während der "Überwinterungszeit der Westmalerei (Fuyugomori)" in den 1880er Jahren: Propaganda 129 6.5 Der Meiji-Kunstverein (Meiji bijutsukai), erster Verein Japans für West- malerei während der Fuyugomori 136 7. Sangyô kakumeiki, die Phase der Industriellen Revolution in Japan (1890 - 1910): Integration der Westmalerei als kulturelles Symbol des japanischen Kapitalismus 140 7.1. Kuroda Seiki und Kume Keiichirô, die Neue Schule (Shinha): uneingeschränkte Macht der Industrie, französische Einflüsse 142 7.1.1 Der Schimmelverein (Hakubakai): moderner japanischer Realismus in der Mitte der Industriellen Revolution 147 7.2 Mitsutani Kunishirô, Nakamura Fusetsu und der Pazifik - Kunstverein für Westmalerei (Taihei yôgakai) in der Zeit der Kolonisationen 154 7.3 Die Bunten, Ausstellungen des Kultusministeriums in der Endphase der Industriellen Revolution(Sangyô kakumei matsuki) 156 4 8. Zusammenfassung 164 9. Anhang 170 9.1 Benutzte Literatur 170 9.2 Abbildungen 182 5 1. Einleitung Westliche Formen der Malerei sind in Japan so selbstverständlich, daß der Eindruck entsteht, dies sei schon immer so gewesen. Doch das ist nicht der Fall. In drei zeitlich voneinander getrennten Transferphasen bemühte man sich in Japan um technische Fertigkeiten der europäischen Bildherstellung: 1543 gelangten die europäischen Maltechniken mit den Missionaren des Jesuiten Franz Xaver erstmals nach Japan, hatten eine kurze Blütezeit und wurden mit Beginn des totalen Landesabschlusses im Jahre 1639 wieder abgelehnt. Mit den Niederländern2 kamen die Westtechniken um 1705 im Zusammenhang mit der Arbeit der Betriebsärzte der Vereenigden Oostindischen Compagnie (VOC) ein zweites Mal nach Japan. Vor allem ab 1750 kam es zu einer intensivierten, definitiven Aneignung dieser Techniken unter bewußter Vermeidung japanischer Darstellungsmodi. Diese zweite Phase ging mit der Industrialisierung ab 1855 über in die dritte Phase: Die europäische Maltechnik wurde jetzt ab 1876 an einer Lehrinstitution unterrichtet. Erst im Jahre 1907 wurde sie als Neokulturgut am japanischen Kultusministerium etabliert. Dies evoziert die Frage nach den Funktionen, welche die westlichen Maltechniken in den genannten Blütezeiten hatten. Denn da Japan eine eigene Kulturtradition hatte, kann nicht selbstverständlich davon ausgegangen werden, daß man das Produkt einer unbekannten, fremden Kultur ohne weiteres übernehmen wollte. Einen substantiellen Unterschied der Kulturen, die sich auf den extrem weit auseinananderliegenden Kontinenten entwickelten, versuche ich mit einem Beispiel aus der religiösen Kunst deutlich zu machen. Daß die Religion in Japan, wenngleich mit völlig anderen Vorstellungen und Inhalten arbeitend, ähnlich wie im europäischen Mittelalter eine äußerst mächtige, kulturprägende Instanz war, zeigt die Tatsache, daß man sich bei der Erstellung von Karten nicht um Fakten kümmerte, sondern buddhistische Glaubensvorstellungen darin verankerte. Diese Form buddhistischer Kartographie existiert bis heute neben Karten in westlicher Manier. Die über China nach Japan gelangte Gattung Sansui ("Berge und Wasser"), eine Form der chinesisch-japanischen Landschaftsmalerei, wird einerseits von Literatenmalern hergestellt, ist andererseits jedoch auch eine von Mönchen produzierte Variante des 2 Siehe Kap.4, Anm. 158 6 buddhistischen Andachtsbildes. Abb.a zeigt die Jahreszeiten Frühling und Sommer der 4- Jahreszeiten-Sansui3 des Mönchs Kenkô Shôkei aus der Muromachi-Zeit, die sich im Besitz der Tokugawa befand. Vermeintlich ist nur die Schönheit der Natur, eine Landschaft mit Flüssen und Gebirgsregionen, vereinzelten Tempelgebäuden und kaum identifizierbaren Personen das Bildthema; die Gebirgslandschaften sind komprimiert und in stark ästhetisierender Manier dargestellt. Tatsächlich ist jedoch in einer Andachtssansui das religiöse Empfinden der Mönchsmaler thematisiert: Diese Bilder dienten der Kontemplation, im Bild Kenkô Shôkeis ist die tiefe Beziehung zur Natur und den jahreszeitlichen Wechseln zum Ausdruck gebracht. In einer Literatensansui ist der Wunsch verankert, die spirituelle Essenz der Natur, eines früheren Meisters oder einer historischen Situation wiederzugeben: Auch diese Bilder enthalten
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