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Death by twins: a remarkable case of dystocic in Early Siberia

Angela R. Lieverse, Vladimir Ivanovich Bazaliiskii and Andrzej W. Weber

Antiquity / Volume 89 / Issue 343 / February 2015, pp 23 - 38 DOI: 10.15184/aqy.2014.37, Published online: 30 January 2015

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0003598X14000374

How to cite this article: Angela R. Lieverse, Vladimir Ivanovich Bazaliiskii and Andrzej W. Weber (2015). by twins: a remarkable case of dystocic childbirth in Early Neolithic Siberia. Antiquity, 89, pp 23-38 doi:10.15184/aqy.2014.37

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Downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/AQY, IP address: 129.234.252.66 on 02 Feb 2015 nre .Weber W. Andrzej gvn it)i h at(..H (e.g. parturition and past the with associated in been have birth) must (giving that mortality high the Despite Introduction Lieverse R. Angela Siberia Neolithic Early in of childbirth case dystocic remarkable a twins: by Death 3 2 1 labour Keywords: 0csso rgato aorn eae ie nerdwt ea remains fetal about with only interred 1970s, (i.e. the females since labouring Indeed, or . pregnant soft record, of preserved archaeological cases of the 20 in absence uncommon the are in childbirth) particularly (obstructed dystocia fatal of cases ANTIQUITY C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity eateto nhoooy nvriyo let,Emno,A,TG24 aaa(Email: Canada 2H4, T6G AB, Edmonton, Alberta, [email protected]) of University Anthropology, (Email: of Russia Department 664003, Irkutsk University, State Irkutsk Ethnography, [email protected]) Canada and 5B1, S7N of SK, Department Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, of University [email protected]) Anthropology, (Email: and Archaeology of Department Moscow 9(05:2–8doi: 23–38 (2015): 89 akl al elti,tis rehbrh rgac,pruiin obstructed parturition, pregnancy, birth, breech twins, Neolithic, Early Baikal, 0km 3 1 Lokomotiv ldmrIaoihBazaliiskii Ivanovich Vladimir , ogberg ¨ 2000 N tal et 23 . 00yasago. to years 7000 8000 some Siberia southern in Lokomotiv the at woman in hunter-gatherer twins young Holocene deliver middle a to of attempting died labour who the obstructed from for comes earliest evidence The twins. to confirmed attitudes compounded social is past difficulty by that case the births In twin death. of of practices type ritual this is with special associated the childbirth by in obscured often mortality confirmed Maternal few cases. been with likewise in circumstantial, has twins largely record for archaeological evidence the documented The been archaeology. rarely by has it but significant pre-modern societies, and prehistoric a in women was for risk childbirth during Death 1987 Arriaza ; tal et 2 & . 1988 10.15184/aqy.2014.37 ;Slaus nsitu in 2000 have ) ),

Research Death by twins been published in the archaeological literature, the vast majority appearing to represent complications due to childbirth (e.g. Sjovold et al. 1974; Hawkes & Wells 1975; Wells 1978; Owsley & Bradtmiller 1983; Pounder et al. 1983; Persson & Persson 1984;Hogberg¨ et al. 1987;Malgosaet al. 2004;Rascon´ Perez´ et al. 2007; Cruz & Codinha 2010; Willis & Oxenham 2013). The explanation for this apparent contradiction—high maternal and fetal mortality in antiquity but little direct evidence for it—may lie largely in the fact that both the mother and child must have died together, the former being buried with her unborn (or partially born) in utero, in order for the event to be archaeologically visible. In fact, one study of pre-Columbian female from Chile found that not only did 14 per cent of those of child-bearing age die from complications associated with parturition, but of those, only 17 per cent (or 3 out of 18) failed to deliver their infants completely (Arriaza et al. 1988). This archaeological ‘invisibility’, compounded by possible cultural practices to remove fetal remains from the bodies of their deceased mothers (e.g. the Roman Empire’s Lex Caesarea), potential (albeit rare) cases of ‘coffin birth’ (e.g. Schulz et al. 2005;Rascon´ Perez´ et al. 2007; Lasso et al. 2009), and the myriad taphonomic factors differentially affecting the preservation of delicate infant and fetal remains (Guy et al. 1997), can account for the rarity of pregnant and labouring females recovered from archaeological contexts. In a similar vein, although human twins were undoubtedly present in the past, just as they are today, confirmed evidence of them is exceptionally infrequent. Most archaeologically documented twins (e.g. Black 1967; Chamberlain 2001; Einwogerer¨ et al. 2006; Crespo et al. 2011;Halcrowet al. 2012; Flohr 2014) represent possible or probable cases, with twin status being inferred from circumstantial evidence such as physical similarities of the remains themselves or peculiarities of their burial context. In fact, several presumed cases of ancient twins have been subsequently disproved (Hawass & Saleem 2011; Marshall et al. 2011). Only very rarely can twin status actually be confirmed by irrefutable evidence, such as the discovery of dual sets of fetal remains in utero (e.g. Owsley & Bradtmiller 1983). Here we present not only one of the oldest archaeologically documented cases of dystocic death, but also the earliest confirmed set of human twins in the world. The remains are those of a young adult female from the middle Holocene Cis-Baikal cemetery of Lokomotiv (Siberia, Russian Federation), found with the partial skeletons of two full-term located in her pelvic area and between her thighs. Radiocarbon dates obtained from both the mother and infants place the remains firmly within the Early Neolithic period (8000– 7000/6800 cal BP; Weber et al. 2006). All three individuals appear to have died together from complications associated with childbirth.

Materials and methods Lokomotiv is a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer cemetery located in the Cis-Baikal, the vast mountainous region north and west of Lake Baikal in south-eastern Siberia. The cemetery is situated on the west bank of the Angara River, at its confluence with the Irkut (Bazaliiskii 2010); today, it is located within the modern city of Irkutsk (Figure 1). Due to its present urban setting, Lokomotiv has yet to be completely excavated. However, a considerable portion of it—that situated within a large municipal park—was excavated between 1980 and 1997. During this period, 59 graves, representing 101 individuals (including the C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

24 ogret.LR1. a ietyrdoabndtdt 7573 a P(TO-10189: BP cal 7725–7630 to dated affixed radiocarbon accessories directly 6750 in decorative was found represented 11.1 being probably LOR region, goods, and garments. the grave to graves, common in sub-adult were interments and cemetery), teeth EN female the Marmot of male, (within particular. typical location in all its Lokomotiv with goods of way, grave and any and in orientation unusual positioning, or body unique not was burial The neeysneo h od oiefrgr ussigpeoiatyo aehunting, game on predominantly subsisting foragers arrow mobile (Weber and word, sealing bow the were, and Cis-Baikal fishing and of the ground-stone of sense inhabitants and every Holocene pottery, middle in other of and introduction EN archaeology the the Siberian Indeed, technology. in by agriculture, characterised and sedentism is implies it ‘Neolithic’ term the West the in msl ntergtsd) n v utifro otelwrrgtrb (Figures ribs right lower ribs the the to among inferior seven just cranium, five the and of side), side Angara right right the the the of on on bank (mostly three the teeth: (towards marmot east The (decorative) a the position. towards was supine cranium 11.1, (Figures and the LOR River) extended with individual, an orientated anatomical main in was the The skeleton by body well-preserved burial. indicated and main as complete interment, the relatively primary of a articulation represents and It 1997. positioning in Raisovet, as to et siaeo 02 er a ae nteiicarclrsraeadeihsa fusion epiphyseal and surface auricular iliac the at on age based conservative (Moorrees was A years method). 20–25 [1984] of Smith the estimate using with death 4–5 erupted, and stages complete superior formed (i.e. A fully wear recovered, and good. dental also moderate thorax was generally dentition was the mandibular and preservation of maxillary skeletal of those set fragmented, particularly quite were bones, vault, some cranial While elements. vertebral and oooi uil ersn h i-aklsEryNoihc(N cuain aigto dating occupation, (EN) Neolithic (Weber Early BP Cis-Baikal’s cal 8000–7000/6800 the Savelyev represent & (Bazaliiskiy recovered Lokomotiv were paper), this of subjects ot rw)wr iie otepli ie oae ntelf n ih sacxeadthe and coxae ossa right and left the all on deciduous located formed skeleton, Figure (i.e. partially main see pelvis a the sacrum; the and to of corpus limited area were mandibular crown) abdominal left vertebral tooth a the ribs, (including in remains bones, located fetal long were cranial (fragmented 11.1). fragments) LOR coxal bones of and femora fetal arch the arches postcranial between vertebral (i.e. other and area while bones uterine the Furthermore, long of fragmented outside specifically situated were remains, fragments, fetal postcranial only that 1989 rmgaeR1 hs eersrce oteadmnladpli eino h female’s (Figures the thighs of her region between pelvic area and the abdominal to the as to well restricted as were skeleton, These R11. grave pathological from dental or skeletal no molar, first Ubelaker mandibular observed. right were & conditions the Buikstra on by lesion outlined carious small (as indicators pelvic and rv 1 a xaae rmtesuhr oto fteLkmtvcmtr,referred cemetery, Lokomotiv the of portion southern the from excavated was R11 Grave O 11wsrpeetdb l ao ibbnsadms aul ea,cail costal cranial, pedal, manual, most and bones limb major all by represented was 11.1 LOR nadto otemi niiuldsrbdaoe ea ean eeas recovered also were remains fetal above, described individual main the to addition In − + let&Maples & Albert ; 0B) lcn ti h al ato h N(Weber EN the of part early the in it placing BP), 70 tal et neaR ivre ldmrIaoihBzliki&AdzjW Weber W. Andrzej & Bazaliiskii Ivanovich Vladimir Lieverse, R. Angela . 2 1963 & 3 .Asml fftlbn rget a ietyrdoabndtdto dated radiocarbon directly was fragments bone fetal of sample A ). oel&Brodie & Powell ; 3 .Gaeacmaiet eerpeetdecuieyb fifteen by exclusively represented were accompaniments Grave ). 1995 tal et .Tesxwsceryidctda eaeb o-erccranial non-metric by female as indicated clearly was sex The ). . 2002 tal et . , 2006 2011 1963 Bazaliiskii ; 25 ). eb&Suchey & Webb ; 2010 2 .I utb tesdta,while that, stressed be must It ). tal et 1994 & C 2003 niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 3 . 1985 .I sipratt note to important is It ). 2006 62) te hna than Other 16–21). : Bazaliiskii ; enl&Lovejoy & Meindl ; ). 2010 2 .The ). & 3 ).

Research Death by twins

Figure 1. Map of Cis-Baikal, showing the location of the Lokomotiv cemetery.

C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

26 8074 a P(O110 6829 (TO-10190: BP cal 7810–7640 niae v amtteh(rv copnmns,not column accompaniments), vertebral (grave lower elements. teeth fetal the marmot of side five right indicates the the The on within thighs. ellipse remains (LOR the grey fetal between burial the and region are main abdominal/pelvic The as lower visible, the R11. clearly grave of is Lokomotiv, 11.1) completeness of and drawing positioning Plan 2. Figure ihtemtra date. maternal the with neaR ivre ldmrIaoihBzliki&AdzjW Weber W. Andrzej & Bazaliiskii Ivanovich Vladimir Lieverse, R. Angela − + 0 P Weber BP; 100 27 o diinlmaueet ob taken be to (Table measurements additional nor for these demonstrated, conclusively among be of to duplication them allow condition not did poor remains documented), generally being the diaphyses humeral unsided three (with humerus the individuals, than fragments other two with cranial inconsistent not additional was and bones postcranial fetal of representation the While and fragmentation to due measured be not could the post-sphenoids) (e.g. elements cranial (Table duplicated analyses Other metric for enough preserved well were and partners elements contralateral their these of Several (Figure duplicated. post-sphenoid the and rfl-emftss ihae tdeath at ages with fetuses, full-term near of or characteristic and another one with ers ftelf eprlbn (Figure bone temporal left the of petrosa asbslrsadlf asltrlsof lateralis (Figure pars bone left elements—the occipital and the cranial (Figure basilaris 11.3 pars different LOR and individuals, Four distinct 11.2 indicating two LOR cranial of documented, presence of the later. duplication was clear years elements a 15 2012, until In anthropologist Lieverse) biological (Angela not a were by they but examined 1997, by in labelled excavators the and collected photographed, esrmns(Table measurements cranial represented Fetal development. and of stages similar mother labouring their were remains recovered fetal of sets identifiable Both twins Confirmed discussion and Results h rv 1 ea ean were remains fetal R11 grave The tal et 2 ). . nsitu in 2006 C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity ,mkn hmconsistent them making ), ihteseeo of skeleton the with post-mortem 1 eeconsistent were ) 5 ,tepars the ), 7 damage. )—were 1 4 6 ). ). )

Research Death by twins

Figure 3. In situ photograph of Lokomotiv, grave R11. Postcranial fetal remains are situated within the lower abdominal/pelvic region and between the left and right femora of the main burial (LOR 11.1), while cranial fetal remains are restricted to the inferior pelvic region. Note that the ellipse on the right side of the lower vertebral column encircles five marmot teeth (grave accompaniments), not fetal elements. ranging largely between 36 and 40 prenatal weeks (Fazekas & Kosa´ 1978; Scheuer & MacLaughlin-Black 1994; Schaefer et al. 2009: 11–23). One measurement (maximum width of the left pars petrosa of Fetus 2 [LOR 11.3]) was smaller than typical for a 36-week fetus but, given the fact that twins are often smaller than single infants, particularly after 36 weeks gestation (Ghai & Vidyasagar 1988;Lukeet al. 1991), this was not unexpected or contradictory. In addition to confirming similar developmental stages, measurements C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

28 hn1 e et(siae it egt,aentcniee ob bomlo detrimental or abnormal be to considered Kalish not less are if & weight), and, (Blickstein twins birth in (estimated atypical cent not per are 18 discrepancies than Size basilaris). pars the of width (maximum 2012 au rmtelre n n iiigtedfeec ytelre au a e Miller per (as value larger the by difference the dividing and one larger the from value oa,terfeunishv aidoe ieadgorpial cosvrospopulations various across Hill geographically and & time (Ball over varied have frequencies their today, twins. full-term or near with consistent were remains fetal the eeldasih iedsrpnybtentetoftss ihoebiglre hnthe than larger being one with fetuses, two the between (Table discrepancy other size Image (bottom). slight bone a of sphenoid revealed basilaris the pars of and post-sphenoid lateralis the and pars the and left left and bone, bones, the the temporal temporal by the by the represented of represented of is petrosa petrosa is Schaefer 11.3) pars partes from 11.2) (LOR left right modified (LOR 2 and the Fetus left 1 bone, (top). the Fetus occipital bone, bone the bones. occipital sphenoid cranial the the of fetal of basilaris duplicated post-sphenoid pars and and lateralis identified partes of right Diagram 4. Figure utpebrh aeicesdcnieal,rflcig tlati at dacsi modern in advances part, in (Tough least assistance at reflecting, reproductive considerably, increased have births multiple fti et aebe dnie rmteacaooia eodi h atdecade, births, last multiple the on in perspectives record Einw past (e.g. archaeological of practice the mortuary understanding and from death our personhood, identified to been immensely have contributing death twin of Halcrow lhuhhmntisaerltvl nomn ersnig13prcn fbirths of cent per 1–3 representing uncommon, relatively are twins human Although —agdfo .1prcn sgta egho h asbslrs o1.7prcent per 12.87 to basilaris) pars the of length (sagittal cent per 0.91 from )—ranged tal et 1 1996 . .Teedfeecscluae o ahdmninb utatn h smaller the subtracting by dimension each for differences—calculated These ). neaR ivre ldmrIaoihBzliki&AdzjW Weber W. Andrzej & Bazaliiskii Ivanovich Vladimir Lieverse, R. Angela 2012 tal. et ;Tough Flohr ; 2003 2009 9 rpoue ihpriso rmElsevier). from permission with (reproduced 397 : Breathnach ; tal et 2014 . tal et 2000 .Wiems rvd opligagmnsi support in arguments compelling provide most While ). . ;Chauhan 2000 tal. et ;Chauhan 29 2011 tal et .Aleiec,teeoe niae that indicated therefore, evidence, All ). ogerer ¨ . 2010 tal et . tal et .I eetyas o example, for years, recent In ). 2010 C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity . 2006 .Svrlptnilcases potential Several ). Crespo ; tal et . 2011 tal et . ;

Research Death by twins

Figure 5. Left) superior view of left and right partes lateralis and pars basilaris (occipital bone) of Fetus 1 (LOR11.2); right) left pars lateralis and pars basiliars (occipital bone) of Fetus 2 (LOR 11.3).

Figure 6. Left) superior view of left pars petrosa (temporal bone) of Fetus 2 (LOR 11.3); middle and right) left and right partes petrosa (temporal bones) of Fetus 1 (LOR 11.2).

C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

30 eotdi h rhelgclltrtr,fo nhsoi racsrlAiaa(1600–1832 been Bradtmiller Arikara has & ancestral (Owsley twins USA or human Dakota, historic South confirmed an from of burial from AD) case literature, other archaeological one the only in reported criteria, stringent most these from on Based confirm to impossible together virtually are they past, the human uncommon) in contexts. (or archaeological been common dental however have or that or might types remains skeletal unusual fact twins matching and contemporaneous The positioning goods). death, body as grave unique at of such (e.g. ages amounts ritual evidence mortuary similar of circumstantial with peculiarities or coupled on traits, infants rely two ultimately of all interment status, twin of and (left) 11.3) (LOR 2 Fetus of bones) (sphenoid elements post-sphenoid the of (right). views 11.2) superior (LOR B) 1 and Fetus inferior; A) 7. Figure rao nautfml kltn et i o pert aersle rmcomplications from Bradtmiller resulted & have (Owsley to appear childbirth not (premature) did death with abdominal and skeleton; associated pelvic female the adult from an recovered were of gestation, area weeks 24 about aged remains, fetal 3 te ideHlcn ua kltn 21autad10sbaut documented sub-adult) 140 and among adult Cis-Baikal authors. (291 the present in skeletons the unique by human also Holocene is middle It other worldwide. twins 431 human the of represents Lokomotiv set from confirmed case earliest the therefore, BP, cal 7810–7640 approximately of dates nyudrtems nsa fcrusacssc sbt nat en interred being infants both as circumstances—such of unusual most the under Only nutero in neaR ivre ldmrIaoihBzliki&AdzjW Weber W. Andrzej & Bazaliiskii Ivanovich Vladimir Lieverse, R. Angela si h aehr—a eb boueycranta wn r represented. are twins that certain absolutely be we here—can case the is as , 31 1983 C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 1983 .I htcs,duplicated case, that In ). .Wt radiocarbon With ).

Research Death by twins

Table 1. Duplicated fetal cranial elements recovered. Element Portion Side MW Age ML Age SL Age

Fetus 1 (Burial LOR 11.2) Occipital pars lateralis left 15.75 40 21.95 36–40 n/a n/a Occipital pars lateralis right 14.98 40 ∗∗ n/a n/a Occipital pars basilaris n/a 14.53 40 16.28 40 12.15 38–40 Temporal pars petrosa left 16.01 36–38 35.10 38 n/a n/a Temporal pars petrosa right 15.75 36–38 34.01 36–38 n/a n/a Sphenoid post-sphenoid n/a ∗∗∗∗n/a n/a Fetus 2 (Burial LOR 11.3) Occipital pars lateralis left ∗∗∗∗n/a n/a Occipital pars lateralis right not recovered Occipital pars basilaris n/a 12.66 36–38 ∗∗ 12.04 36–38 Temporal pars petrosa left 14.73 34 31.92 34–36 n/a n/a Temporal pars petrosa right not recovered Sphenoid post-sphenoid n/a ∗∗∗∗n/a n/a

Notes: MW: maximum width (in mm), after Schaefer et al. 2009:9,21 ML: maximum length (in mm), after Schaefer et al. 2009:9,21 SL: sagittal length (in mm), after Schaefer et al. 2009:9 Age: estimated age in fetal weeks, after Fazekas & Kosa´ 1978 n/a: not applicable ∗ no data (measurements could not be taken due to post-mortem damage)

Table 2. Other fetal remains recovered (LOR 11.2 and/or LOR 11.3). Element Portion Quantity

Mandible left corpus 1 Deciduous molar partially formed crown 1 Humerus diaphysis 3 Ulna diaphysis 2 Tibia diaphysis 2 Long bone diaphyseal fragment 7 Os coxae ilium fragment 2 Os coxae ischium fragment 1 Cranium cranial vault fragment 16 vertebral arch fragment 8 Costae shaft fragment 11

What is interesting to consider for both the Baikal and South Dakota cases is that, while twins have been posthumously confirmed, their identity was unlikely to have ever been known to their mothers and community members because they were never born. In fact, the typical EN burial treatment extended to LOR 11.1—whose grave was typical in every way for the region and time period (see above)—may suggest not only that the uniqueness of her twin pregnancy was unknown, but also that death during childbirth (see below) was not particularly unusual at the time. Due to this possible twin anonymity, therefore, it is difficult to use this case to interpret perceptions of multiples, or the significance of the mortuary practices ascribed to them, in the Cis-Baikal’s middle Holocene. C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

32 n rhelgcl(Rasc archaeological and endcmne nbt h oescptooia (Schulz pathological forensic as the to referred both death process in of documented a time been , the during at created delivered gases partially by post-mortem was expelled infant breech being the than that rather certain, not if likely, also fetol r-em(n hsrltvl ml)vre-rsnigftss(Schulz fetuses vertex-presenting small) relatively thus (and pre-term only affect eoee rmotieo h trn ra(..btentemte’ eoa,adta all (Figures that pelvis and maternal femora), the mother’s in the low together, between were located bones (i.e. were fetal area elements post-cranial cranial uterine only fetal the that of normal clear outside is a from it and recovered elements, infant skeletal first of possible the and shifting fragmentation of post-mortem considering Even birth second. the bottom-first) of presentation or (head-down) strongly (feet- vertex development, breech full-term or incomplete near- an their and suggest remains, fetal the of locations relative The dystocia Fatal ihitrokn setmtda ewe 0ad5 e eti asra eto snot is section Caesarean a if cent per 50 and 30 between (Cohen performed at estimated is interlocking with nfc,o h he eetcssrpre nteltrtr,ftlaerne rm2 o32 to 28 from ranged age fetal literature, the in reported cases (Schulz recent gestation three weeks the of fact, In icmtne,ee mn igeostdy(..seHannah see (e.g. today singletons among even circumstances, Chisholm & curn prxmtl 0prcn ftetm,bti smc oelkl o h rttwin first (Chervenak the breech for be likely to more it much common, for is relatively it than but vertex is time, be fetuses the to both of twin cent or Among per one 60 below). approximately of (see occurring childbirth transverse) conditions during or both death (breech singleton; of malpresentation risk breech births, high a already delivering the increase while to another appear and twins probable birthing the is telling more interred even was Perhaps fetus delivered. breech birthed completely partially via be the expelled could that was fact infant twin either first before the but that full-term unlikely or exceedingly near- it and post-mortem positioning make Both then, twins. development, R11 grave fetal the than mature less considerably ti ot oigta ftetrepeClminfml ume etoe above, mentioned mummies female (Arriaza infants pre-Columbian their three deliver completely the to of failed that had problems” who noting mechanical worth to due is progress It to failure labour—“a obstructed (Neilson an caused have the to with even body, mother’s the from removed death. be) accompanies not that could laxity (or muscle not was it that indicating eue eoelce,ci nci,drn aia eiey(Nissen delivery vaginal during chin, on chin locked, breech/vertex become which in fetuses twins, interlocking of the condition is dangerous factor extremely complicating but One uncommon ones. breech/vertex especially deliveries, twin in compounded and here, case the be to appears (Chervenak as risk vertex, high be second to the considered and generally breech are is these infant first the which in hl eyrr,ocrigi esta .5prcn fti its ea otlt associated mortality fetal births, twin of cent per 0.15 than less in occurring rare, very While eiaa n aenlmraiyi eaieyhg o rehbrh ne h etof best the under births breech for high relatively is mortality maternal and Perinatal h rsneo wn,adtebec rsnaino h rtti,i atclr appear particular, in twin, first the of presentation breech the and twins, of presence The tal et ea xrso.Rte,dahapast aeocre uigtebrhprocess, birth the during occurred have to appears death Rather, extrusion. fetal ea xrso r‘ofi it’ lhuhrare, Although birth’. ‘coffin or extrusion fetal . 1997 neaR ivre ldmrIaoihBzliki&AdzjW Weber W. Andrzej & Bazaliiskii Ivanovich Vladimir Lieverse, R. Angela 2003 .Ol bu 0prcn fmdr wndlvre r breech/vertex, are deliveries twin modern of cent per 20 about Only ). tal. et 9)adt aecnrbtdt h et faltreindividuals. three all of death the to contributed have to 192)—and : tal et 1965 nP on ´ . Kahunda ; erez ´ 2005 tal et ;Rasc . 2007 1972 nP on ´ 33 ieaue ihtecniinapaigto appearing condition the with literature, ) yhto Cullberg & Rydhstrom ; erez ´ tal et tal et . 1985 . nsitu in 2007 tal et DeVeciana ; tal et post-mortem tal et . ewe t ohrsthighs, mother’s its between , C ,Lasso 1985 . niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 1988 . tal et 2005 ao Dattel & Laros ; tal et ,oehdde while died had one ), 1958 . tal et 1990 Lasso ; 2000 ea xrso has extrusion fetal . 2009 . ;Kurzel 1995 ;Kurzel ,btti is this but ), 2 tal et tal et ,wihis which ), & Boggess ; . . 3 2005 1998 1998 2009 1998 .I is It ). ). ). ). ) ;

Research Death by twins

Nassar et al. 2004; Carroll & Yeomans 2006; Borah & Das 2012). If the first infant is partially delivered, as appears to have been the case here, manual manipulation such as the Kimball-Rand manoeuvre (Kimball & Rand 1950) may allow for vaginal delivery, but with a high risk of maternal tissue damage (Bowman 1983). In fact, in many modern cases, interlocked twins can only be delivered vaginally if the cranium of the first (deceased) infant is perforated and/or removed, and the birth of the second infant is assisted with forceps (Gordon 1956;Bowman1983;Kurzel1998). Another risk factor for breech deliveries, whether for twins or singletons, is head entrapment, the failure of the infant’s cranium to negotiate the birth canal following its body. The occurrence of entrapment among breech births today is in the range of 5.6–9.3 per cent, being somewhat more frequent among pre-term fetuses because of the larger size of their heads compared with their bodies (Van Eyk & Huisjes 1983; Anderson & Strong 1988; Robertson et al. 1995; Tunde-Byass & Hannah 2003). Whether the ultimate mechanism behind entrapment stems from the infant (e.g. deflexed cranium, hydrocephaly) or mother (e.g. contracted lower , incompletely dilated , pelvic tumours), fetal death can occur quite quickly due to compression of the (i.e. asphyxia) or trauma to the neural tissues (Anderson & Strong 1988; Dolea & AbouZahr 2003; Tunde-Byass & Hannah 2003). In fact, the relatively high likelihood of head entrapment, necessitating complex and sometimes risky obstetrical manoeuvres or surgical intervention to free the fetus, has prompted many modern medical practitioners to opt for planned Caesarean sections rather than vaginal deliveries of breech infants (Anderson & Strong 1988; Hannah et al. 2000; Tunde-Byass & Hannah 2003). While this approach has not gone unchallenged (e.g. see Kotaska 2004), it emphasises the perceived, if not actual, risks associated with breech births even today. Given the relative positions and developmental stages of the grave R11 twins, as well as the fact that the breech infant was not (or could not be) removed from its mother’s body before burial, it seems almost certain that labour was obstructed, whether by interlocked twins, head entrapment or another condition, such as extended or nuchal arms (where the infant’s arms are beside or behind its head) (Tunde-Byass & Hannah 2003). It is impossible to speculate on the condition of the mother—whether her health, young age and/or previous experience of childbirth (or lack of) might have contributed to the difficult and ultimately unsuccessful birth—or on the effectiveness of those who may have assisted her during labour. Regardless, without the skills, experience and technology of modern medical practitioners, this case of dystocia would have been a virtual death sentence for all three individuals, accounting for as many as 70 per cent of maternal worldwide even in the late twentieth century (WHO 1994). for the mother would probably have been , haemorrhage (e.g. from ) or exhaustion, while that of the infants would most likely have been asphyxia (Neilson et al. 2003). Grave R11 easily represents one of the oldest examples of dystocic childbirth documented in the archaeological literature. One case from the Mesolithic Swedish cemetery of Skateholm (Persson & Persson 1984) may be similar in antiquity, but the vast majority of other studies reported are considerably more recent, generally within the last 4000 years (e.g. Sjovold et al. 1974; Hawkes & Wells 1975; Wells 1978; Owsley & Bradtmiller 1983;Hogberg¨ et al. 1987;Malgosaet al. 2004;Rascon´ Perez´ et al. 2007; Cruz & Codinha 2010; Willis & C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

34 A A B A References Council paper. Research this Humanities of and version Sciences earlier Siˆ Social an to on the grateful are by We largely Canada. University funded of the at (SSHRC) and based Canada) (BHAP) Project (Edmonton, Archaeology Baikal-Hokkaido Alberta the of of part as out carried was research This Acknowledgements on with, literature associated of risks and body of, growing occurrences the but from antiquity. and in inferred small past, twinning the status the human in twin to death probable perinatal adds most and or with case maternal possible unequivocally, This the reflecting establish evidence. that literature to evidence given circumstantial the impossible confirmed relevant in virtually oldest particularly discussed is is the archaeologically cases twins distinction as earliest ancient latter well the of This as occurrence of worldwide. childbirth, twins one during human represent death of Lokomotiv of from cases remains documented R11 grave The Conclusion Oxenham 70yasmr eetta h oooi one. Lokomotiv the than recent more years 3700 about 3650 (TO-10347: River albeit fetus, BP Angara Late near-term cal a recent the of more remains on the one, the located with single from recovered a 40.1) I, also (burial was Ust’-Ida Lokomotiv, female of of adult north 150km young cemetery A Age oldest. Bronze the Neolithic–Early far, by is, it but ALL RRIAZA NDERSON LBERT infanticide’. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jme.14.1.18 Ethics labour? Medical of of trial or section caesarean breech: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330770107 Anthropology Chile. of Arica, Indians pre-Columbian in mortality Maternal Sciences teenage skeletons. for adult determination young age and of method a vertebral as lumbar centra and thoracic for union epiphyseal http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/204569 ,H.L.&C.M.H ..&WR M W.R. & A.M. , . .A M. B., , ,G.&C.S 0 623–33. 40: 2013 urn Anthropology Current nutero in mrcnJunlo Physical of Journal American 7 35–41. 77: neaR ivre ldmrIaoihBzliki&AdzjW Weber W. Andrzej & Bazaliiskii Ivanovich Vladimir Lieverse, R. Angela LLISON .Itrsigy hscs sntuiu otemdl ooeeCis-Baikal, Holocene middle the to unique not is case this Interestingly, ). 4 18–24. 14: ILL TRONG APLES 96 evlaig‘twin Reevaluating 1996. . &E.G h aenlseeo a ietyrdoabndtdt 4070–3945 to dated radiocarbon directly was skeleton maternal The . 98 h premature The 1988. . 95 tgsof Stages 1995. . ora fForensic of Journal ERSZTEN − + 0B;Weber BP; 60 7 856–63. 37: 1988. . nHlrwada nnmu eiwrfrterhlflcomments helpful their for reviewer anonymous an and Halcrow an Journal tal et 35 B B B B B . OGGESS LICKSTEIN LACK AZALIISKIY AZALIISKII 2006 nin itrclSociety Historical Indiana study ethnological and historical, 136905203322686536 526–31. 6: pregnancy multiple in discordance 00006254-199712000-00003 728–35. the of review literature. a twin: second nonvertex the enyvnaPress. Pennsylvania of University (PA): ways Philadelphia life 51–86. past of studies bioarchaeological region, Siberia: Baikal the of hunter-gatherers (ed.) Prehistoric Schurr T.G. A.W. & in Katzenberg region, M.A. Weber, Baikal the in complexes mortuary eeeyi iei (Russia). Neolithic Siberia Early in ‘Lokomotiv’ cemetery the Baikal: of wolf The ..1967. G.A. , ..&CA C C.A. & K.A. , ,mkn h s’IaIcs about case I Ust’-Ida the making ), ..21.Mslti n Neolithic and Mesolithic 2010. V.I. , .&RB K R.B. & I. , [B http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ bttia n yeooia Survey Gynecological and Obstetrical AZALIISKII http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/ C ne ie narchaeological, an site: Angel niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity ,VI ..S N.A. & V.I. ], ALISH HISHOLM 03 Birthweight 2003. . Antiquity 97 eieyof Delivery 1997. . Indianapolis: . wnResearch Twin . AVELYEV 7 20–30. 77: 2003. . 52: :

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36 L K L M L M M N M N N M UKE ASSO AROS URZEL ISSEN EILSON ASSAR OORREES ILLER EINDL ARSHALL ALGOSA eiiaForense Medicina extrusion]. fetal [Postmortem Gynecology interlocking. and compaction, Research 10.1375/twin.1.3.138 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21557 Anthropology Physical perspective. DNA ancient An L 0002-9378(88)90364-X Gynecology 1330–38. and Obstetrics safe. of still Journal is American route vaginal the pregnancy: twin A http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2011.06.075 Gynecology management. and evaluation, diagnosis, twins: Discordant http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oa.714 Osteoarchaeology Age. Bronze Spanish ..A M.M. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/JPM.2004.129 safe? Medicine delivery Perinatal vaginal is A: twin presenting ..Is in M.Y. paleodemography, for implications pelvis: the 3–8 piged(L:CalsC Thomas. C. Charles (IL): Springfield 137–68. N K bmb/ldg018 191–204. 67: labour. 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Received: 2 January 2014; Accepted: 27 March 2014; Revised: 29 April 2014

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