To speak or not to speak

How important is the Gathang language to culture and identity?

27102921

Contents

Contents Page 2

Introduction Page 3

Log Page 5

Chapter One The purpose of language for Aboriginal peoples Page 7

Chapter Two Is language related to culture? Page 10

Chapter Three What is the Gathang language? Page 13

The relationship between the Gathang language and Worimi Chapter Four Page 15 cultural identity

Chapter Five The loss of Aboriginal languages in the 21st century Page 18

Chapter Six Loss or rejuvenation? Page 20

Conclusion Page 23

Resource List Page 25

Page 2

Introduction

Before European contact, over 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages were spoken, including over 600 dialects. Today, 145 traditional languages are still vocalised in , however just 18 remain strong and spoken by a range of people of all ages.1 How this colossal loss of language would influence Aboriginal culture and identity for future generations flourished as a personal topic of interest.

As an Aboriginal woman living on Worimi country, I decided to investigate the traditional language of this area, the Gathang language, and its potential to influence Worimi culture and identity.

Continuity and change is extensively examined throughout my PIP. I have explored how traditional languages have remained highly regarded as an important component of Aboriginal culture, along with the enduring connection between the Gathang language and Worimi identity; whilst also conveying the loss of language due to the nature of European settlement, and the contemporary push for language revitalisation.

Throughout my research, I also addressed a cross-cultural component. Because I identify as a person and cannot speak the Gathang language, I was exposed to innovative perspectives and understandings about Aboriginal culture and identity by those who do know the Gathang language, which in turn heightened my social and cultural literacy.

1 J Buckskin, Australian Voices, 2012 https://www.reconciliation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Australian-voices.pdf (Accessed 16/6/15)

Page 3

Due to the triangulation of primary research (which contained two focus groups, four interviews, and personal reflection), along with copious secondary research; I was exposed to boundless knowledge about not only my local Worimi history, but also general Aboriginal history and life before European colonisation. It occurred to me that by learning about and immersing myself in my traditional culture, my sense of identity and Aboriginality prospered.

The interviews I conducted were tremendously valuable to the advancement of my PIP. All four interviewees directly related to the core of my focus question, however from differing angles. Two linguistic experts, a Worimi elder, and a Gathang language TAFE teacher all offered unique, cultivated answers in relation to Aboriginal language and its influence on culture and identity.

Due to my interviewees all being adults, I incorporated two focus groups of varied demographics and gender in order to acquire a comprehensive assortment of insights. One focus group consisted of eight students who participated in a Gathang language course, and the other consisted of eight Aboriginal people whom could not speak Gathang. Overall my methodologies, including personal reflection and secondary research, allowed me to gain diverse qualitative data that I was able to contrast, compare and interpret.

The journey of developing my PIP continues to enrich my understanding of my own culture and identity. Discovering the significance of traditional Aboriginal languages and the power they have to sway culture and identity has educated me to develop stronger connections to my own cultural identity within my micro world. Although in past times, my family history had been somewhat secreted, I now desire to unveil my personal Aboriginal history and ancestral connections; as well as to encourage language revival in the local Worimi area.

Page 4

Log

The initial process of determining an area of study proved to be a huge challenge for me. I juxtaposed between various ideas and contextualised notions that related to my own micro and meso world experiences. I considered feminist-based topics, the socialisation process and body image (to name a few).

I soon realised that nothing concerned and intrigued me more than my own Aboriginal heritage. I contemplated the contemporary issues currently facing , and with further reflection upon my personal experiences, I developed a broad topic investigating language erosion and language awareness within the Aboriginal community. With further refining, I decided to shift this to a more specific focus concentrating on the influence the Gathang language has over Worimi culture and identity, the language and tribe of my local area.

I began my secondary research hoping to find useful information, current statistics, and proficient studies revolving around Aboriginal language attrition in Australia, as well as the link between language, culture and identity. Predominantly through online research along with various books, I scrutinised a plethora of resources that momentously assisted the development of my PIP. Such data allowed me to attain authoritative opinions (which in turn increased validity), became the framework of my chapters, and funnelled the course of my project.

However due the specificity of my topic, which relates explicitly to the Gathang language and the Worimi people, I relied heavily on my primary sources to further fortify my research. I conducted four interviews and two focus groups, which shaped an accommodating range of qualitative data that precisely focused on my central question. The analysis of this qualitative data allowed me to obtain an in-depth understanding of the issue through detailed, conceptual portrayals of the attitudes, beliefs and opinions of people in reference to traditional language loss and it’s long- term effects on culture and identity.

Page 5

After collating the results of my four interviews, I began to consider the reliability, accuracy and validity of this methodology. Despite my interviewees having different occupations, levels of education and hometowns; I realised that all four people were of approximately similar ages. This narrow demographic would dramatically hinder the validity of my results.

In order to broaden my range of acuities, I incorporated two focus groups consisting of people aged 13-44. These focus groups proved to be exceedingly beneficial and accomplished a diverse array of insights. Unfortunately, my results may have been biased due to the small sample sizes, and the presence of two Aboriginal education workers, who have the power and authority to make the younger participants sometimes reluctant to express their opinions.

Although my PIP journey was challenging and at sometimes stressful; it was also satisfying, empowering and certainly boosted my time management and organisational skills. Being exposed to such wide range of knowledge from bounteous perspectives (linguistic experts, a teacher, an elder, Gathang speakers and Worimi people) has amplified my understanding of my own culture and identity, and has challenged me to strive for language revival and continuity within the Aboriginal community.

Page 6

Chapter One

The purpose of language for Aboriginal peoples

Language is a complex method of human communication that can be both verbalised and written. A language system is fundamental for social interactions within micro, meso and macro operations; as well as maintaining social relationships and control.

It is common for individuals to overlook the power and substance of languages and traditional languages. “Traditionally, language is viewed as a code. In this view, language is made up of words and a series of rules that connect words together.”2 This rudimentary description represents language as “fixed and finite and does not explore the complexities involved.”3 Such a constricted view ignores the many dimensions of language, and for the purpose of my PIP, my definition has been rehabilitated to portray such intricacies that will be further discussed throughout my project.

Dr. Raymond Kelly, an academic cultural standards coordinator from the University of Newcastle, supports a multifaceted elucidation of language, with his metaphorical statement, “Language is intrinsic. It holds knowledge of events, the movement of tides and the placement of the sun.”4 He also claimed that “language gives us the ability to vision,”5 eloquently promoting the power of language and its ability to express all forms of human knowledge and experience.

2 A Scarino; A Liddicoat, Language, Culture and Learning, 2009 http://www.tllg.unisa.edu.au/lib_guide/gllt_ch2.pdf (Accessed 10/10/14) 3 ibid 4 Dr. Raymond Kelly: Interview (23/02/15) 5 ibid

Page 7

Language and culture consultant for the NSW Aboriginal Education Consultative Group, Dr. Shayne Williams, also indicates a dimensional depiction of language by stating, “It is useful to think of language as a constantly growing and changing human phenomenon.”6 Viewing language as an evolving occurrence is an effective manner of perceiving Aboriginal languages, which have been forced to adapt radically throughout history. Dr. William’s also believed, “it is very reasonable to assume most Aboriginal languages in Australia created new words as they came across new objects, species and the like.”7 Before involuntary assimilation, the addition of new words to complement the arrival of Europeans was obligatory.

Before this arrival, “around 250 distinct languages were spoken at first (significant) European contact in the late eighteenth century.”8 However today, an immense density of traditional Aboriginal languages have been tragically lost or endangered, due to the nature of European settlement. Approximately “160 languages are extinct, seventy are under threat and only twenty are likely to survive.”9 This profound language attrition will be further discussed in Chapter Five, nonetheless, how it would impact Aboriginal identity and culture for future generations alarmed me.

In terms of the nature and structure of traditional Aboriginal languages, they are undeniably distinctive, but this does not indicate primitivism. “Like every human language, Australian Indigenous languages are fully capable of expressing every human concept and emotion.”10 The grammatical structures of these languages are extremely efficient and substantially complex.

These ideas are mirrored by the philosophies explored throughout the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Aboriginal languages, although lacking numerous English terms, were perfectly suited for Aboriginal people before colonisation. “Each language develops to facilitate different needs required by its speakers, their tradition and culture, and the environment they live in.”11 For example, Aboriginal languages do not encompass widespread numerals, merely because they had no need for them.

6 Dr. Shayne T. Williams: Interview (10/03/15) 7 ibid 8 M Walsh, Languages and their status in Aboriginal Australia, 1993 http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/walshyallop_ch1.pdf (Accessed 18/10/14) 9 ibid 10 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Feature Article 3: Languages of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples – A uniquely Australian Heritage, 2012 http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article42009%E2%80%9310? opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1301.0&issue=2009%9610&num=&view= (Accessed 4/01/15) 11 ibid

Page 8

It is evident that language has the ability to hold knowledge; and the importance of written and verbal communication is immense. Therefore, language is a powerful and dynamic system for all societies and cultures. Whilst the erosion of irreplaceable Aboriginal languages is a current issue, most Aboriginal Australians continue to regard the value of language. These languages are inimitable, established and harbor myriad stories for our people.

Page 9

Chapter Two

Is language related to culture?

“Language is the expression of our culture and our land. We cannot have one without the other. We cannot describe our culture and our land if we do not have a language.”12

Culture is a multifaceted term that exemplifies numerous connotations. However within my context, it refers to the shared knowledge, attitudes and actions that give each society an idiosyncratic way of life. My portrayal of culture is well condensed in the definition; “Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes… concepts of the universe and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations.”13

Through conducting primary and secondary studies, and by reflecting upon my own personal experiences, I believe that language and culture are significantly interrelated. Language is a fundamental component of culture because without a language, cultural practices cannot be described and shared. I feel that my own connection to my cultural heritage would be magnified if I were able to speak the language my ancestor’s once depended on.

12 Queensland Indigenous Languages Advisory Committee, State Library of Queensland Indigenous Languages Strategy, 2006 http://www.slq.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/74728/SLQ_-_Indigenous_Languages_Strategy.pdf (Accessed 29/04/15) 13 L Samovar; R Porter, Culture: Everything, we as people, are, 1994 http://web.stanford.edu/~hakuta/www/archives/syllabi/E_CLAD/sfusd_cult_03/melissa/Culture%20Defined.h tm (Accessed11/12/14)

Page 10

The relation between language and culture is explored throughout Halliday’s theory of language development, which argued, “humans develop language because we are creatures who need to mean, and language, above all else, is our primary resource for meaning.”14 This theory, when viewed as a social semiotic, proposes “language, in all its cultural and social forms, is about achieving cultural and social purposes, through the kinds of meaning making resources available in the culture.”15 Here, language can be seen as a tool used to express aspirations and attitudes. It describes language as embedded in cultural acts, and hence they are virtually inseparable.

This notion is paralleled by Dr. Shayne William’s explanation, “every human culture has a language, so in many ways language can be thought of as inseparable from culture.”16 Although he undoubtedly acknowledges a strong link between the two, he also reflects, “I don’t think that language is the entire basis of the strength of our culture.”17 Despite the erosion of Aboriginal languages, the Indigenous population remains strong in their beliefs, annually participating in NAIDOC celebrations and practicing ceremonial rituals. Whilst language is an enormous aspect of culture, it is not the only element holding the potential to strengthen it.

Another sociological theory identifying a connection between language and culture is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Sapir argued that “we see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.”18 Ultimately, the theory insinuates that our language provides a framework for how we interpret our surroundings and provides us with a distinctive cognitive perspective.

14 Ant, Halliday and Language Development, 2010 https://antbarra.wordpress.com/2010/05/04/halliday-and-language-development/ (Accessed 15/10/14) 15 ibid 16 Dr. Shayne T. Williams: Interview (10/03/15) 17 ibid 18 E Sapir, The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, 1995 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/whorf.html (Accessed 18/10/14)

Page 11

People agreeing with this theory generally agree “each language embodies a worldview, with quite different languages embodying quite different views, so that speakers of different languages think about the world in quite different ways.”19 Cultures with a unique tongue tend to act and perceive matchlessly. For example, an Aboriginal person’s worldview is based on their identification with the land and its spiritual energy, which is relatively dissimilar to European worldviews. Personally, I have often felt like I experience an enhanced connection with the land more so than friends, who tend to see the beauty of nature, but overlook its spiritual energy.

Worimi Elder, Aunty Lyn Davis, reaffirms such affiliation between language and culture. She believes that, “There was always something missing from our culture – and language was that missing link.”20 This notion, proposed by a woman inherently surrounded by Aboriginal culture, displays the important role language plays in reinforcing one’s cultural heritage.

Overall, there is an intrinsic connection that links language to culture. The triangulation of methodologies exposed the indispensible role language plays in maintaining a strong continuity of social relationships and cultural practices within a society. Although there are many aspects of culture, language is a powerful one holding the ability to share knowledge and attitudes. Without a language, a culture and their practices cannot be explained and communicated, and therefore cultural unity and transmission suffers.

19 C Swoyer, The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, 2003 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/supplement2.html (Accessed 18/10/14) 20 Elder Aunty Lyn Davis: Interview (05/04/15)

Page 12

Chapter Three

What is the Gathang language?

“In 1788 there were approximately 300,000 Aborigines in Australia. Divided into over 500 tribes, each had its own distinct territory, dialect, customs and history.”21 Worimi endures as one of such tribes, occupying my local land and retaining its own history, traditions and recently, language.

The Gathang language is a traditional language of , belonging to the people known as the Birrbay (Biripi), Warrimay (Worimi) and (Guringai).22 Generally speaking, these tribes occupied the land between the Wilson River and Port Stephens; and as far west as Maitland, Paterson and Gloucester.23

One factor contributing to the contemporary intricacy of the Gathang language is the numerous versions of writing and interpreting specific words. “Some words have several forms whilst others have several definitions.”24 ‘Gadhang’, ‘Kathang’ and ‘Katthung’ are some alternative spellings to Gathang. Similarly, ‘Warrimee’, ‘Warimi’ and ‘Warrimay’ all mean Worimi.25 Diverse spellings and connotations of words could possibly be attributed to the fact that it was rarely recorded or written. Hence different tribes or peoples may have adapted to dissimilar pronunciations of a uniform word.

21 N Marr, Aboriginal History of the Great Lakes District, 1995 http://www.greatlakes.nsw.gov.au/files/0a177322-3061-4502-b9af- 9cfe00fc32b3/Aboriginal_History_of_the_Great_Lakes_District.pdf (Accessed 1/04/15) 22 Muurrbay Aboriginal Language and Culture Co-op, Gathang (Birrbay, Guringay & Warrimay), 2011 http://www.muurrbay.org.au/languages/gathang/ (Accessed 9/10/14) 23 ibid 24 A Lissarrague, A grammar and dictionary of Gathang: the language of the Birrbay, Guringay and Warrimay, Ligare Pty Ltd, , 2010, p. 1. 25 Muurrbay Aboriginal Language and Culture Co-op, Gathang (Birrbay, Guringay & Warrimay), 2011 http://www.muurrbay.org.au/languages/gathang/ (Accessed 9/10/14)

Page 13

Gathang language teacher, Amanda Davis, supports a similar notion when stating, “There’s a whole meaning behind every word. We have words that mean so many things – it just depends on how you say it.”26 Here, Davis elucidates how the sentence structure or the context in which a word is spoken can manipulate the way it is interpreted, further adding to the complexity of the Gathang language.

The grammar and vocabulary of the Gathang language has been compiled from historical sources and recordings, such as a vocal recording of Elder Uncle Eddie Lobban from 1964. Ironically, European dissent Nils Holmer played a vital role in the preservation of the Gathang language.27 Without his linguistic expertise and sensitivity revolving around the significance of Aboriginal languages, our knowledge of Gathang would be even more marginal.

However, due to there being “little available data on the complex sentence structures which occur in Aboriginal languages,”28 it has proved considerably challenging to decipher such recordings and documentation. The collection of these primary sources has enabled the Gathang community to produce word lists, however the accuracy in which we string these words together relies on, to some degree, estimation or comparing to other ancestral languages.

Continuous research is being conducted in hope to heighten our understanding of the Gathang language, and to further cultivate aspects of the language itself. “This is not the last word on Gathang grammar. As our understanding of the language is developed, the description of the language will be refined.”29

26 Amanda Davis: Interview (27/02/15) 27 A Lissarrague, A grammar and dictionary of Gathang: the language of the Birrbay, Guringay and Warrimay, Ligare Pty Ltd, Sydney, 2010 28 ibid, p. 1 29 Ibid, p. 2

Page 14

Chapter Four

The relationship between the Gathang language and Worimi cultural identity

Identity is a layered concept referring to a sense of self shaped from interactions at the micro, meso and macro levels of society; and can initiate a sense of inclusion to a group or culture. Within my context, identity is best described as “an individual’s self-perception as a discrete, separate entity with specific characteristics.”30

A sense of identity for an Aboriginal person, or their Aboriginality, becomes stronger when they are immersed in their traditional culture. “Greater attachment to, or engagement with, traditional culture is seen to create a stronger sense of self- identity, promote resilience and positive sense of community.”31 This stance appreciates the value of cultural continuity and it’s aptitude to sustain the wellbeing of Aboriginal Australians.

Therefore, it seems fitting that when one maintains their ancestral language, their sense of identity flourishes. Dr. Kelly supports this notion by stating, “The Gathang language belongs to the Worimi people, and learning it would create a sense of ownership and connection to their land and culture.”32 He also believed that, “the Worimi people would benefit from learning the Gathang language because it has the power to communicate their land in a unique way. It would create a sense of continuity from one generation to the next.”33 Kelly’s articulate response offered an insight into his personal philosophies, which interpret language perpetuation as critical to the preservation of cultural identity.

30 R Hampton; M Toombs, Culture, Identity and Indigenous Australian Peoples, 2011 http://lib.oup.com.au/he/health/samples/hampton_indigenousaushealth_sample.pdf (Accessed 14/05/15) 31 S Colquhoun, The link between Indigenous culture and wellbeing: Qualitative evidence for Australian Aboriginal peoples, 2012 https://business.curtin.edu.au/files/2012.01_LSIC_qualitative_CLMR1.pdf (Accessed 19/06/15) 32 Dr. Raymond Kelly: Interview (23/02/15) 33 ibid

Page 15

This attitude was echoed by numerous responses in a focus group consisting of Gathang speakers. Their overall manner towards language conservation was similar to Dr. Kelly’s. One participant stated, “Knowing that I can speak the same language as my ancestors is amazing. We weren’t just the Aboriginal kids at the school that didn’t know anything about our culture.”34 This further demonstrates the elaborate relationship that binds language and identity, and offers auxiliary evidence that maintaining your mother tongue will nurture your sense of personal and cultural identity.

Correspondingly, Gathang teacher, Amanda Davis, claimed “I’ve grown up knowing about my Aboriginal culture. However learning the language has reinforced who I am and how I belong. It’s not just your skin colour that makes you Aboriginal. It’s your connectedness to your country and we really try to enforce this in the course.”35 Here, Davis accentuates that by participating in the Gathang language course, you not only learn vocabulary and grammar, but also about culture and what it means to be an Aboriginal person living on Worimi land.

Throughout my research I have discovered the profound influence the Gathang language attains in strengthening the Worimi social and cultural identity. My primary methodologies, in particular, have exposed the way that speaking one’s ancestral language can connect them to their history and land; and in turn intensify their sense of belonging and sense of Aboriginality.

34 Gathang Speakers: Focus group (09/05/15) 35 Amanda Davis: Interview (27/02/15)

Page 16

Chapter Five

The loss of Aboriginal languages in the 21st century

“It is estimated that, if nothing is done, half of 6000 plus languages spoken today will disappear by the end of this century. With the disappearance of unwritten and undocumented languages, humanity would lose not only a cultural wealth but also important ancestral knowledge embedded, in particular, in indigenous languages.”36

Language loss is a process by which the fluency of a native language spoken by a given culture dissipates, mainly as a result of becoming bilingual or multilingual. The acquisition of new languages can cause barricades that impede an individual’s usage of their mother tongue. This is reflected throughout Aboriginal languages, which have undoubtedly diminished since first European contact.

Language alone is not a withstanding unit – it requires people to constantly vocalise and teach it. Practicing languages in solidarity was not always a conceivable proposition for Aboriginal people after the arrival of the first Europeans, who created policies to limit Aboriginal people from practicing their culture. “During the colonial period, Aboriginal peoples across NSW bore the brunt of the British invasion and their languages were an early casualty, with the active suppression of languages and the emergence of English as a common language amongst the different language groups.”37 Whilst there is generally no definite cause for language loss, traditional language erosion is largely accredited to the relegation of Indigenous communities by those speakers of a more dominant language.

36 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: Endangered Languages, 2013 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/endangered-languages/ (Accessed 3/01/15) 37 A Lissarrague, A grammar and dictionary of Gathang: the language of the Birrbay, Guringay and Warrimay, Ligare Pty Ltd, Sydney, 2010, p. 1.

Page 17

Although it began along the New South Wales coast, this wave of language suppression swept almost entirely across the nation, meaning today “only around a third of the languages that were spoken pre-contact still have speakers.”38 This immense diminution of traditional language speakers is at the core of language attrition, as speakers were unable to perpetuate their ancestral language for future generations.

Dr. Williams also offered a holistic perception into what engendered such tragic language attrition. “In Australia, however, where so many Aboriginal cultures were adversely impacted by colonisation, and then later by protection regimes, many of our people were unable to sustain their cultural knowledge and language in its complete foundational form.”39 When cultural continuity between generations is ruptured like this, gaps inevitably appear in cultural knowledge. As a result, the historical data of Aboriginal languages is marginal, and it would take years of persistent research to recover even a fraction of this cultural wealth.

The statement from Aunty Lyn Davis, “I still get a sadness in my heart that so many aren’t able to speak their traditional languages,”40 along with a response from an Aboriginal focus group participant, “It’s upsetting that not many Worimi people know our traditional language. It is such a huge part of our history,”41 both essentially portray the emotional penalisations of language erosion on the Aboriginal community.

Overall, the ramifications of language loss are broad, with the cultural knowledge and richness entwined in Aboriginal languages vanishing alongside every lost word. Such language abrasion simultaneously damages Aboriginal people’s connection to their ancestors, land and culture. The repercussions of not maintaining Indigenous languages would greatly impact the cultural identity and cohesion of the Aboriginal community, and specifically the Worimi tribe.

38 C Hill, Our Languages, Language Loss an Language Shift http://www.ourlanguages.net.au/languages/background-information/item/27-language-loss-and-language- shift.html (Accessed 9/10/14) 39 Dr. Shayne T. Williams: Interview, (10/03/15) 40 Elder Aunty Lyn Davis: Interview (05/04/15) 41 Aboriginal people: Focus group (09/05/15)

Page 18

Chapter Six

Loss or rejuvenation?

“It is a mistake to dismiss our languages as part of history, and long gone. They’re not. They are alive and vibrant. They are in a new phase of growth... Our languages are the voice of the land, and we are the carriers of the languages.”42

Traditional Aboriginal languages have evidently been eroding for decades. However, with such a prevailing social movement on the rise enhancing the way in which ancestral language is valued and endorsed, what is in store for our future?

As aforementioned, language is much more than a method of communication. It is a means by which humans can enrich cultural unity and identity. In a time of rapid globalisation, “Aboriginal people have a fundamental right to revitalise and maintain traditional languages as an integral part of their culture and identity.”43 There is no doubt that for many Aboriginal people, the more language and cultural knowledge they absorb, the stronger they feel in terms of cultural being, and thus their sense of self-empowerment is intensified. Therefore it is crucial to cultivate and recover our foundational languages as far as we can.

42 J Bell, Voices of the Land, 1993 http://www.ourlanguages.net.au/languages/background-information/item/25-language-revitalisation.html (Accessed 9/10/14) 43 GBD Web, NSW Government Plan for Aboriginal Affair, 2013 www.aboriginalaffairs.nsw.gov.au/wp-content/.../AA_OCHRE_final.pdf (Accessed 17/06/15)

Page 19

For traditional languages to prosper, they must be transmitted to younger generations and have the social infrastructure to do so. Aunty Lyn Davis supports this by stating, “We, as elders in our community, must take on the role of learning our languages, and then becoming the teachers in educating our younger people.”44 Davis acknowledges the power and authority she has as an elder, and how she can serviceably use this to motivate the younger generation. This is reflected by a Gathang learner who believed, “If they are to be rejuvenated, we need people to care… passionate Aboriginal people.”45 Language revival programs will be most successful if Indigenous people are involved in the construction and management of them.

Gathang language teacher, Amanda Davis, credits daily use of mother tongue as the key to its recovery. “I think country – as in the Earth, Mother Nature and Worimi land – would love to see our languages spoken again. We must be immersed in language, and it will have a flow and effect.”46 Constant language engagement is also reflected in the claim, “to achieve cultural self-renewal we must put in place mechanisms that maintain our active continuous re-voicing of mother tongue.”47 Here, maintaining a continuity of traditional language use is conveyed as vital to cultural enhancement.

Such mechanisms were discussed in the focus group of Aboriginal people. One individual questioned, “Instead of learning international languages in schools; we should be learning our traditional language. Why would you want to learn someone else’s language before your own?”48 As a past student of a compulsory Japanese class, this stance was tremendously relatable. Personally, learning Japanese was not something that intrigued me, and I was always confused as to why it was enforced when native language courses weren’t even an option. It makes sense to create interlaced Aboriginal language and culture objectives together with holistic education goals, and in turn, Aboriginal students may experience a heightened sense of belonging within these meso interactions.

44 Elder Aunty Lyn Davis: Interview (05/04/15) 45 Gathang speakers: Focus group (09/05/15) 46 Amanda Davis: Interview (27/02/15) 47 S Williams, Foundations Framework: Aboriginal Language and Culture Nests in New South Wales, NSW AECG Inc., Sydney, 2013, p. 4 48 Aboriginal people: Focus group (09/05/15)

Page 20

However, an issue currently being debated within the Aboriginal community is whether or not traditional language revival is the responsibility of Aboriginal peoples alone, or of all Australians. Dr. Williams highlights Aboriginal languages as a fundamental part of collective Australian history, as they are the Indigenous languages of the nation. Williams deems that Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Australians should strive for language rejuvenation as a mutual responsibility, “I hope that our languages will be more commonly spoken not only by us but by all Australians.”49

This view is controversial, as some Aboriginal people wish for the use of their ancestral languages to be private and sacred. This was debated within my local area, when the Gathang Language Group disapproved of the Gathang language being taught within schools. The reasons for this dismissal were discussed within the focus group of Gathang learners.50 It was mentioned that retaining the Gathang language in its purest, most accurate form was one reason for denunciation. Another was that there were not enough qualified Aboriginal language teachers, and the group didn’t think it would be appropriate for non-Aboriginal people to be teaching the language to Aboriginal people.

Idealistically, I hope for native languages to be perpetuated not only within Australia, but also internationally. Local Aboriginal languages, along with Indigenous tongues across the globe, are all holders of unique knowledge, and promote diverse cultural heritage worldwide. “As a macro vision its underpinning ideal usefully annunciates a deeply held global Indigenous aspiration to keep Indigenous mother tongues and mother cultures alive.”51 However, such ambitious language revival goals may not be very efficient, especially in cases where native languages were enormously eclipsed by coloniser languages. “From a practical standpoint… it is more constructive to direct our language and culture aspirations toward discrete micro visions.”52 Thus, I desire to refine and promote the vocalisation of the Gathang language within the Worimi area.

49 Dr. Shayne T. Williams: Interview, (10/03/15) 50 Gathang speakers: Focus group (09/05/15) 51 S Williams, Foundations Framework: Aboriginal Language and Culture Nests in New South Wales, NSW AECG Inc., Sydney, 2013, p. 6 52 ibid

Page 21

Although it is one thing for us to recover our ancestral languages, revitalisation isn’t enough unless language is integrated into our daily lives and cultural transmission is encouraged. Where full speech fluency is not accomplished, as with the Gathang language, innovative ideas are needed to ensure the words we do know are used. Distinct phrases may appear throughout daily conversations, or alternatively, we can seek to have traditional language appear in local signage. Regardless, we must be immersed in cultural language if retrieval is to be efficacious, and in our case, the old saying ‘use it or lose it’ holds true.

Page 22

Conclusion

Throughout this fulfilling journey, I have discovered the true value embedded within traditional Aboriginal languages, and the power they have to enrich cultural immersion and enhance one’s sense of identity. Consequently, my understanding of my own cultural heritage and Aboriginality has flourished. In my endeavour to explore how the Gathang language affects Worimi culture and identity, I have established stronger acquaintances within my micro and meso world, allowing me to investigate my own ancestral history and to raise awareness of language revival in my Worimi community.

The cumulation of both primary and secondary research was astoundingly useful to answer my central focus question, and it is evident that the Gathang language can strengthen Worimi culture and identity. Whilst secondary research provided me with statistics, continuity and change within the macro world, and the overarching big picture; primary methodologies were vital to pinpoint the specificity of my PIP.

My primary data contained focus groups and interviews, as qualitative details seemed to be the most suitable for such a sensitive, subjective issue. By collecting information from complete strangers, I was pushed outside my comfort zone and my communicative skills were put to the test. I was surprised with the level of confidence I displayed when conducting these methodologies, as both were frightening concepts for me. I believe it was my own passion and aspiration revolving around language awareness that enabled me to overcome feelings of nervousness, and subsequently I was exposed to a diverse array of perceptions.

My time management and organisational skills were also refined as I progressed through my PIP. Arranging two separate focus groups really verified my ability to coordinate and systematise. Controlling the discussion so it did not exceed my available time slot, as well as travelling to cities in order to interview the linguistic experts, tested my time management.

Page 23

Surprisingly, even personal reflection altered the way I regarded the value of language. I reflected upon my own memories, values, and beliefs in relation to the loss of our cultural language; which is something I rarely achieved until the development of my PIP.

Through addressing a cross-cultural component by speaking to Gathang-speaking individuals of the Worimi tribe, I was exposed to fresh discernments from unique people, and thus my social and cultural literacy thrived. Listening to stories from an elder, and talking to a Gathang language teacher, has inspired me to participate in the Gathang language course after the completion of my HSC. Not only do I hope to reinforce my own cultural and social identity, but it will also allow me to share such knowledge with others, and in turn strengthen cultural cohesion and identity throughout the Aboriginal community as a whole.

This rewarding experience has ameliorated my communicative, organisational and analytical skills; whilst exposing what is truly lost when a traditional language dies. Hence, it has encouraged me to strive for language revival and cultural continuity within my local area. This continuous, irreplaceable learning experience has offered opportunities to strengthen cultural connections within my micro world.

Page 24

Resource List

Primary Research

Focus groups

Focus group one – Aboriginal people aged 13-44 (09/05/15)

This focus group offered a wide variety of perceptions between genders, and a stimulating intergenerational discussion. I was pleasantly surprised to see that the majority of participants identified the value of traditional language, both the older and younger generations. Even though they were not speakers of the Gathang language, or any other Aboriginal language, they acknowledged how tragic complete language loss would be, and how it would impact Aboriginal identity and culture. Some younger participants also raised an interesting point, questioning why Aboriginal language courses are not even an optional class at their school, however Japanese or French are compulsory subjects. However, due to the broad range of age, and the presence of two Aboriginal Education Workers, the younger participants seemed at times reluctant to express their thoughts, or were sometimes influenced by what the older participants believed. Another limitation could be the small sample size, indicating that the group is not an effective portrayal of the larger Aboriginal population. Despite this, I managed to word my questions in hope to eliminate as much bias as possible, allowing for open interpretations and consequently resulting in a diverse array of responses.

Page 25

Focus group two – Gathang language course participants (09/05/15)

This methodology proved to be very beneficial to the development of my PIP. The discussion enabled a conversational atmosphere, and really illustrated the way in which learning your traditional language can enrich your sense of belonging and cultural identity. All of the Worimi participants agreed that learning the Gathang language made them feel connected to their ancestors, as they were speaking the tongue they once relied on. This focus group revealed that the language course not only deals with the grammar and vocabulary of the Gathang language, but it also deals with Worimi culture and what it means to be an Aboriginal person. Unfortunately, there were no disagreements or diversity among the responses, indicating that the results may have been skewed, possibly due to peer pressure or the small sample size.

Interviews

Amanda Davis – Gathang Language Teacher, North Coast TAFE (27/02/15)

Talking to a Gathang language TAFE teacher directly associated with the core of my focus question, and resulted in exceptionally relevant qualitative data. Davis’s responses demonstrated how being immersed in ancestral language can reinforce who you are and how you belong, whilst showing that the Gathang language course involves much more than the learning of word lists. She believed that throughout the course, students learn a lot about their cultural heritage and their connection to the Worimi land. However, as Amanda is a huge supporter of the revival of the Gathang language, her ideas could have possibly contained bias and the manner in which language influences culture and identity may have been slightly exaggerated.

Page 26

Lyn Davis – Worimi Elder (05/04/15)

This interview helped me to understand why language attrition has such a prodigious impact on Aboriginal wellbeing, culture and identity. Aunty Lyn Davis demonstrated the connection between language and culture, and eloquently described language as much more than a means of communication. Therefore, her responses were especially helpful for my understanding and writing of chapters one and two. Hearing from a Worimi elder’s perspective added expressive depth to my chapters from someone who was emotionally affected by the loss of her grandmother’s tongue. Unfortunately, due to Davis’s personal experiences of discrimination, her standpoint on the causes of language loss may have been vaguely prejudiced.

Dr. Raymond Kelly – Cultural Standards Coordinator, Academic Division, The Wollotuka Institute (23/02/15)

Dr. Raymond Kelly is an extremely educated, passionate and intelligent linguist when it comes to traditional Aboriginal languages. This interview was especially beneficial for my second chapter, as he provided me with a plethora of evidence that supports the link between language and culture. He revealed how much substance and knowledge is actually contained within a language, and what would be lost if complete Aboriginal language extinction occurred. Kelly also taught me a few Gathang words, getting me excited to participate in the language course. Most of all, Kelly revealed that the key to language revitalisation is passionate Indigenous people, and offered me a national, macro view of my topic. Even though this one-on- one interview is open to bias, I was exposed to a richer, more comprehensive assessment of the issue of language loss.

Page 27

Dr. Shayne T. Williams – Consultant Language and Culture, NSW, AECG Inc. (10/03/15)

This interview provided me with a diverse, open-minded and broad interpretation of the issue of language erosion. Unlike my other interviewees, Williams offered perceptions on both the significant value of traditional languages, whilst portraying that they are not the only component acting on Aboriginal sense of cultural identity and cultural continuity. After my previous interviews, these responses broadened my own perspective about the topic. These results are of high accuracy due to Williams’s broad range of knowledge, high level of education and his impartial approach to the issue of language loss.

Personal Reflection

Personal Reflection – (2014/2015)

Personal reflection was a fundamental, qualitative component of my PIP that allowed for me to reflect upon my own values, beliefs, experiences and opinions on the significance of traditional language and the importance of language revival. Obviously this method is open to bias, however it became a useful tool to triangulate and synthesise with other primary and secondary research. Overall, the addition of personal reflection enhanced my learning process over time, leading to personal maturity and a deeper understanding of my own culture and identity.

Page 28

Secondary Research Articles

Great Lakes Advocate: Gathang Language Revival, March 23 2011 http://www.ourlanguages.net.au/news/nsw/item/312-gathang-language-revival.html (Accessed 21/10/14)

Although I did not directly reference this article, it provided a specific insight into the introduction of the Gathang language TAFE course in the Worimi area. It portrays the community’s excitement towards the process of retrieving the Gathang language. Because this is a small article for the local newspaper, and the only interviewees were two Gathang language coordinators, this article is of biased nature. Despite these interviewees wishing to promote their course and highlight the importance of language revitalisation; the article was helpful and offered a local perspective about the issue of language attrition.

Books

Patricia Davis-Hurst, Sunrise Station Revisited, M&S Offset Pty Ltd, Taree, 1996

This inspiring book provides an in-depth overview of Aboriginal history and culture within the Worimi area. The author, a local Aboriginal woman, missed out on learning her traditional language, and believes that such languages will never be fully acquired again. She talks about how this made her feel on a personal scale, whilst portrays the effects that language attrition has on Aboriginal sense of cultural identity on cohesion as a community. While this book was an incredibly intriguing read, only one small section related to ancestral languages, hindering my ability to use it as a source for my pip.

Page 29

Amanda Lissarrague, A grammar and dictionary of Gathang: The language of the Birrbay, Guringay and Warrimay, Ligare Pty Ltd, Sydney, 2010

This was an essential, extensively referenced source used throughout my project. The book is one of the few, detailed texts about the Gathang language that exists, and thus I predominantly relied on its information for Chapter Three. It provides an overview of the status of the Gathang language, how it is being recovered and who is working on its revival; whilst offering a dictionary of Gathang terms and sentence structures. This source is official and documents the most accurate information we have on the Gathang language at this point in time, and therefore it is of high validity.

Jim Wafer & Amanda Lissarrague, A handbook of Aboriginal languages of New South Walled and the Australian Capital Territory, Ligare Pty Ltd, Sydney, 2008

This handbook offered a holistic view of the status of Aboriginal languages in NSW and the ACT. It provided me with information about the state’s rich linguistic heritage, dialects, locations and resources available for language revitalisation. Not only this, but the book contains facts about the Gathang language and the Worimi people. This is an accurate source in which I was able to use as a general guide for Aboriginal languages, as well as a more specific framework for the Gathang language.

Dr. Shayne T. Williams, Foundations Framework: Aboriginal Language and Culture Nests in New South Wales, NSW AECG Inc., Sydney, September 2013

This contemporary framework was extremely helpful for the advancement of my work, and offered abundant information in relation to language awareness, maintenance, immersion, nests and revitalisation. Hence, it was particularly useful for my last chapter, in which I portrayed the importance of recovering our traditional languages. This book also encouraged me to seek out an interview with the author, Dr. Shayne T. Williams, a consultant of language and culture. As it relates to NSW and the ACT explicitly, and is written by an educated linguist, this source was extremely applicable, valid and reliable to suit the purpose of my PIP.

Page 30

Dr. Shayne T. Williams, Implementation Plan: Aboriginal Language and Culture Nests in New South Wales, NSW AECG Inc., Sydney, October 2013

This recent source, also written by Dr. Shayne T. Williams, is a companion document with the previous book, ‘Foundations Framework.’ Whilst the first book was exceptionally relevant and useful, the second one focused much more on locating potential secondary historical sources, corroborating research, and programming and delivering education. Whilst this is of utmost importance, these ideas have yet to be implemented within my local, Worimi area, and therefore I was restricted in what I could reference from this document.

Portable Document Format

Jack Buckskin, Let’s Talk… Australian Voices, 2012 https://www.reconciliation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Australian-voices.pdf (Accessed 16/6/15)

This online document offered a holistic outlook on the extent of traditional language loss within Australia. It provided me with my introductory statistics and opened my eyes to how profound the erosion of traditional Aboriginal languages actually is. Not only this, the author incorporated his own personal story about being an Aboriginal man of the Kauna tribe, and his progressive journey of first learning the Kauna language, to now teaching it. The accuracy of this source is reliable, due to the document being supported by Reconciliation Australia.

Page 31

Simon Colquhoun; Alfred Michael Dockery, The link between Indigenous culture and wellbeing: Qualitative evidence for Australian Aboriginal Peoples, January 2012 https://business.curtin.edu.au/files/2012.01_LSIC_qualitative_CLMR1.pdf Accessed (19/6/15)

This document presents a wide range of qualitative evidence, from both international and Australian literature, suggesting that the wellbeing of Indigenous people is enhanced when they maintain their traditional culture. The source was helpful in my formation of Chapter Four, to help prove that cultural immersion and cultural transmission leads to a heightened sense of cultural and personal identity, as well as an increased sense of belonging. Sponsored by the Centre for Labour Market Research and the School of Economics and Finance Curtin University, I believe this research project to be of high academic quality and reliability. Unfortunately, traditional Aboriginal languages were not explicitly mentioned throughout the focus study, and therefore it wasn’t always relevant to the development of my PIP.

Educational Resources: Teachers’ notes, Who are we? (Chapter One) http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/who%20are%20we%20teachers'%20notes.pdf (Accessed 12/12/14)

This document, whilst not directly referenced, was extremely helpful in heightening my understanding of culture and identity for an Aboriginal person. Although it is structured as a syllabus/educational resource for teachers, it refined my own definitions of culture and identity, and how they can develop in diverse ways. It also highlights the factors that contribute to and influence personal, cultural and national identity for an Aboriginal individual. However, it was not entirely relevant to traditional Aboriginal languages, so whilst it offered a great overview of Aboriginal culture and identity, it didn’t exactly coincide with the purpose of my PIP.

Page 32

Fall, Introduction to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (AKA linguistic relativity), 2007 http://www.colorado.edu/linguistics/courses/LAM3430/Whorflecture.pdf (Accessed 18/10/14)

This secondary source defined the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in an understandable yet sophisticated manner. However, I observed a continuous predisposed tone throughout the document, noticing that the composer tended to disagree with the theory. Despite this, it still showcased the evidence supporting the theory, eliminating some degree of bias. Most important for me, the document effectively portrayed the link between habitual thought and behaviour, to language.

Ron Hampton; Maree Toombs, Culture, Identity and Indigenous Australian Peoples, 2011 http://lib.oup.com.au/he/health/samples/hampton_indigenousaushealth_sample.pdf (Accessed 14/5/15)

This source articulates the concepts of culture, identity and social organisation. This document was immensely helpful for both Chapter Two and Chapter Four, and provided me with a relevant definition for identity in which I directly quoted in Chapter Four. It initially illustrates culture and identity at a global, macro vision; then more thoroughly depicts the role of culture and identity for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples at a national level. This gave me accurate, valid data as it was academically and recently written and provided a detailed list of proficient references.

Page 33

Narelle Marr, Aboriginal history of the Great Lakes District, 1995 http://www.greatlakes.nsw.gov.au/files/0a177322-3061-4502-b9af- 9cfe00fc32b3/Aboriginal_History_of_the_Great_Lakes_District.pdf (Accessed 1/4/15)

This proved to be a useful secondary source, as it was one of the few PDF’s that I found that related specifically to the Worimi area. It discussed Worimi history before and after European colonisation, highlighting how settlement had impacted Aboriginal people and their sense of cultural identity. Although it offered a glimpse into the radical changes forced upon the Worimi people throughout history, it rarely mentioned the Gathang language, inhibiting its relevance to my PIP topic.

Queensland Indigenous Languages Advisory Committee, State Library of Queensland Indigenous Languages Strategy, July 2007 http://www.slq.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/74728/SLQ_- _Indigenous_Languages_Strategy.pdf (Accessed 29/4/15)

This document demonstrated various strategies to support the revival, maintenance and preservation of Indigenous languages. It also described the language revival programs that were to be implemented in the future, and emphasised the importance of developing partnerships with language centres, linguists, speakers, publishers, local councils; and most importantly positive relationships with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Unfortunately, this documentation was aimed specifically towards the State Library of Queensland, and doesn’t apply to New South Wales. Therefore I was unable to reference this document for Chapter 6.

Page 34

A Scarino; A Liddicoat, Language, Culture and Learning, 2009 http://www.tllg.unisa.edu.au/lib_guide/gllt_ch2.pdf (Accessed 10/10/14)

This source was exceptionally valuable for the development of my PIP. It was one of the initial documents I looked at, and provided a framework for my first chapter. It broadened my concept of language itself, highlighting it as more than simply a code for human communication. It depicts the substantial knowledge that is contained within a language, and illustrated the fundamental relationship between language and culture. Although this is in the textual form of a teaching guide, it provided me with a plethora of general information in terms of language and culture from a reliable, valid source.

Michael Walsh, Language and their status in Aboriginal Australia, 1993 http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/walshyallop_ch1.pdf (Accessed 18/10/14)

This document was useful to help me distinguish between languages and dialects and provided me with an extensive range of statistics. It also illustrated a national perspective, and explored the impacts of European contact on traditional Aboriginal Languages. Although the information is researched and written by an expert linguistic, the study is quite out-dated, meaning it does not portray the recent push for language revitalisation. This meant the source wasn’t overly relevant to the second half of my PIP.

Page 35

Dr. Shayne T. Williams, Indigenous values informing curriculum and pedagogical praxis, February 2007 http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30023289/williams-indigenousvalues-2007.pdf (Accessed 3/7/15)

Dr. Shayne T. William’s document provides a critical examination of how language is perpetuated through education. He explores the cultural quality of Aboriginal education, and proposes that mainstream education marginalises Indigenous learners because of its focus on the Western worldview. Because this is a first person, subjective project, it is open to bias. Williams is compelling his side of an argument and is therefore, while amazingly intriguing, this document is not an entirely reliable or valid resource for my PIP.

Videos

Wiriya Sati: My language, Gathang, December 4 2012 https://open.abc.net.au/explore/32643 (Accessed 12/1/15)

This video clip offers a holistic view into the processes of regaining the Gathang language, and the significance of Elder Uncle Eddie Lobban’s recording in recovering a vast range of vocabulary. Jeremy Saunders demonstrates a strong passion for learning and teaching his language within the community, and while he is inspiring, presents a slightly bias story in order to encourage language revival within the Gathang community.

Page 36

Websites

Ant, Halliday and language development, May 4 2010 https://antbarra.wordpress.com/2010/05/04/halliday-and-language-development/ (Accessed 15/10/14)

This website offered an in depth, sophisticated explanation of Halliday’s theory, and how language is linked together with thought processes, mean-making and culture. The composer thoroughly examined how language influences culture and identity, as well as behaviour and cognitive perceptions, proving to be an extremely relevant source for my PIP. However, there was no information about the author of the website, and hence it cannot be seen as entirely reliable, accurate or valid.

Australian Bureau of statistics, Feature article 3: Languages of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples – A uniquely Australian heritage, 23 November 2012 http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Articl e42009%E2%80%9310?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1301.0&issue =2009%9610&num=&view (Accessed 4/1/15)

The information contained within this website was very helpful to describe the nature of traditional Aboriginal languages, such that I directly referenced it in Chapter One. Sourced from a reliable, accurate, Government monitored website, this page highlights the complexity and structural intricacy of ancestral languages, and that they are in know way primitive. Additionally, it portrays the vast number and diversity of native languages, diminishing the common misperception that there is only one. This provided a national and statistical overview of the issue of language attrition for Aboriginal Australians.

Page 37

Daniel Chandler, The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 1994 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/whorf.html (Accessed 18/10/14)

This source, directly referenced in Chapter Two, distinguished the difference between linguistic determinism, and linguistic relativity. This helped me to redefine my own views on the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, as I was exposed to less strict, more realistic versions of the theory. This website also offered numerous quotes from Sapir and Whorf themselves. Chandler provided a detailed reference list, in which I can see he used high-quality sources, increasing the website’ reliability. However, Chandler prepared this page in 1994, which is not exactly recent. Many new linguistic perceptions and ideas have since been proposed, lessening the accuracy and validity of the source.

Claire Hill, Language Loss and Language Shift http://www.ourlanguages.net.au/languages/background-information/item/27- language-loss-and-language-shift.html (Accessed 9/10/14)

This website is based on information sourced from the Australian National Placenames Survey, Indigenous Languages Fact Sheet. This means that I can rely on this source to provide reliable, valid facts. This page was useful to illustrate the rapid changes forced upon Aboriginal culture and language development throughout history, mainly due to European settlement and globalisation. The information was especially helpful to enhance my understanding on how and why languages are lost, and how this influences Aboriginal culture and identity, proving to be a significant source for Chapter Five.

Page 38

Claire Hill, Language revitalisation http://www.ourlanguages.net.au/languages/background-information/item/25- language-revitalisation.html (Accessed 9/10/14)

Despite the erosion of traditional Aboriginal languages in previous decades, this website suggests that our languages are neither dead nor extinct. Instead, Hill describes them as ‘dormant,’ or ‘asleep.’ Although this page offered me a new outlook on the state of Aboriginal languages in Australia, it was extremely brief and the examples shared were relevant to South Australia and the Kaurna language. Hence, I was not able to reference this website in any chapters.

Jens Korff, Aboriginal Languages, 6 February 2015 http://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/language/#axzz3dqHoHMdi (Accessed 9/10/14)

This website provided me with a brief list of statistics revolving around Aboriginal language attrition. It was useful to gain an overall perspective on the status of ancestral languages within Australia, and the information is extremely recent heightening its accuracy. However, the website is written by a somewhat unqualified person of Australian-German Dissent, with no professional linguistic or cultural credentials. Despite this, Korff seems to be immensely passionate about Aboriginal language, culture and identity; and has received many positive reviews about his information, particularly from .

Page 39

Melissa, Culture: Everything, we as people, are, 2003 http://web.stanford.edu/~hakuta/www/archives/syllabi/E_CLAD/sfusd_cult_03/meliss a/Culture%20Defined.htm (Accessed 11/12/14)

This source was helpful in my structuring of Chapter Two. It defined culture in numerous ways, illustrating the term’s various connotations, meanings and interpretations. Unfortunately, details about the author weren’t easily identifiable and I was unable to find anything about the author’s qualifications. Although this is usually worrying and unfavourable for accuracy, I decided that the information provided was still of high quality, due to it being displayed within a professional, well known, educational website.

Muurrbay Aboriginal Language and Culture Co-op, Gathang (Birrbay, Guringay & Warrimay), 2011 http://www.muurrbay.org.au/languages/gathang/ (Accessed 9/10/14)

This website was crucial for the development of my third chapter. There is an extreme lack of sources available on the Gathang language itself, as it is a small- scale language and the push for its revitalisation is fairly recent. Consequently, I had to majorly rely of the accuracy and validity of this site. However, I believe the Muurbay website to be very reliable because it is maintained by a circle of Gathang speakers and is supported by Many Rivers Aboriginal Language Centre.

Page 40

Konstantin Prodanovic, The silent genocide: Aboriginal language loss FAQ, October 16 2013 http://www.terry.ubc.ca/2013/10/16/the-silent-genocide-aboriginal-language-loss-faq/ (Accessed 2/7/15)

This detailed case study of language loss in categorised sections offered a macro, international vision of the issue of language loss. This expertly structured, contemporary website was helpful to enrich my understanding of, and approach towards Chapters five and six, however it only provided examples related to tribes in central America, Canada and British Columbia. Because of this, I was not able to rely on the information and facts presented, and hence I was unable to directly reference the website.

Chris Swoyer, The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, 2003 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/supplement2.html (Accessed 18/10/14)

This website proposed a fresh insight for my project, deterring from either agreeing or disagreeing with the hypothesis like most sources. Instead it questions the extent to which language impact our thought processes. This provided an open-minded approach to linguistic diversity, the history of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and the many versions of linguistic relativity. Therefore I believe this website to be of limited bias, and supported by a professional and academic organisation, hence heightening the accuracy and reliability of the information contained.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: Endangered Languages, 2013 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/endangered-languages/ (Accessed 3/1/15)

This website is a professional, reliable and valid source, and hence I referenced it for my initial quote in my introduction. Unfortunately this organisation only offered brief statistics, and didn’t mention the cause of language attrition, it’s effects on culture or identity, or plans for language recovery.

Page 41

Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages, About us http://www.vaclang.org.au (Accessed 22/3/15)

This high-quality, professional source exceptionally describes Aboriginal life before colonisation. It depicts that Aboriginal people spoke not only their own traditional language, but the languages of their neighbouring tribes as well. It also emphasises the importance of recovering our languages as far as we can, but unfortunately the website is aimed at Victorian tribes, and thus I was unable to refer to such information in my PIP.

GBD Web, NSW Government’s Aboriginal Affairs Plan, April 8 2013 http://www.aboriginalaffairs.nsw.gov.au/nsw-governments-aboriginal-affairs-plan/ (Accessed 17/6/15)

This Government-supported source outlined the NSW Government’s long-term plan to support Aboriginal students throughout their schooling; as well as to help them transition into the workforce. The plan, called OCHRE (Opportunity, Choice, Healing, Responsibility, Empowerment), is relevant to my focus topic because one of the plan’s objectives is to build language and culture nests. As this information is recent and professional, I relied on the website to be of high-quality, valid nature.

Nei-Ching Yeh, A framework for understanding culture and its relationship with information behaviour: Taiwanese Aborigines’ information behaviour, 2 January 2007 http://www.informationr.net/ir/12-2/paper303.html (Accessed 13/2/15)

This website provided an outstandingly detailed case study of the relationship between culture and information behaviour. The author used an extensive array of methodologies to receive results that support the link between culture, language and behaviour, heightening the website’s reliability. I found this site especially helpful to compare Yeh’s evidence to the Sapir Whorf Hypothesis. However, the study focuses specifically on the native Taiwanese people, and therefore it was culturally irrelevant to the development of my PIP.

Page 42