The ORTESOL Journal

The ORTESOL Journal Volume 27, 2009 FeaturesO R T E S O L J o u r n a l ClassroomO R T Assessment: E S O L Journal A View from ORTESOL a Secondary ESL Teacher Journal Using a Graphic Syllabus with Second Language LearnersORTESOL Journal ORTESOL Online LearningJournal Issues ORTESOL and Strategies Journal for Increasing RetentionORTESOL Journal ORTESOL ColumnsJournal ORTESOL Journal In ThisORTESOL Issue Journal ORTESOL Teaching Notes Journal ORTESOL Journal Using Area Studies as a Course Theme Don’tORTESOL Your Students JournalHave Question ORTESOL Blues, Do They? MP3 PlayersJournal Rating ORTESOL Project: An Online Journal Literacy ActivityORTESOL for an EAP Journal course ORTESOL ResearchJournal Notes ORTESOL Journal Reasonable Doses of Anxiety are Not Necessarily to beORTESOL Feared Journal ORTESOL Journal ORTESOL Journal Oregon Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages The ORTESOL Journal Volume 27, 2009

Editorial Board Editors Deborah Healey, University of Oregon and Byrne Brewerton, Oregon State University Advisory Board Barbara Dowling, Oregon State University Bill Walker, University of Oregon Michael Krauss, Lewis & Clark College Michael Witbeck, Oregon State University Steve Stoynoff, Mankato State University Tom Delaney, University of Oregon Tom Robb, Kyoto Sangyo University

ORTESOL is a nonprofit organization whose purposes are to promote scholarship, disseminate information, strengthen, at all levels, instruction and research in the teaching of English to speakers of other languages or dialects and to cooperate in appropriate ways with other groups having similar concerns. Benefits of membership includeThe ORTESOL Journal, access to the member area of the ORTESOL website and The ORTESOL Newsletter, special member rates for ORTESOL conferences, and a variety of other services and opportunities for professional development.

For subscription and advertising information and guidelines for contributors, see http://www.ortesol. org. Guidelines for contributors are also on the inside back cover of this issue. You can contact the Editors by email at [email protected]

The ORTESOL Journal Volume 27, 2009

Features Classroom Assessment: A View from a Secondary ESL Teacher...... 1 Irina Bleckhman, Reynolds High School Using a Graphic Syllabus with Second Language Learners...... 9 Keli Yerian, University of Oregon Online Learning Issues and Strategies for Increasing Retention...... 19 Leslie Opp-Beckman, University of Oregon

Columns In This Issue...... ii Teaching Notes Using Area Studies as a Course Theme ...... 24 Russell Fauss, Tokyo International University of America

Don’t Your Students Have Question Blues, Do They? ...... 25 Bruno Kamps, University of Oregon MP3 Players Rating Project: An Online Literacy Activity for an EAP Course...... 26 Migyu Kang, Iowa State University Research Notes Reasonable Doses of Anxiety are Not Necessarily to be Feared ...... 29 Tom Delaney, University of Oregon

Information for contributors...... inside back cover

Volume 27, 2009 iii

In This Issue Deborah Healey & Byrne Brewerton ORTESOL Journal Editors

This issue of ORTESOL Journal covers English language learners are perennially topics from secondary education to teaching at a confused by tag questions. They believe, prob- distance and from paper-based activities to Web ably rightly so, that English really doesn’t make 2.0. We lead off with Irina Blekhman’s look at sense with negative tag questions (such as “He’s assessment in secondary ESL classes. She focus- not here, is he?), where the response is “yes” if es an Oregon lens on issues affecting all elemen- the negative is wrong and “no” if the negative tary and secondary teachers working under the is correct. Bruno Kamps gives us an approach constraints of No Child Left Behind legislation. to helping students make sense of tag questions Her questions and suggestions about in-class as- across different verb tenses. sessments apply to teachers at all levels. Project-based learning is a powerful tool for Keli Yerian reminds us that we need to teachers, especially when it provides real-world offer more than lip service to learners who are activities and information for language learn- stronger with graphics than text. That bedrock ers. Migyu Kang describes the use of “mashup,” of university-level course documents, the course pulling together information from different description, is too often densely written. Key sources on the Web to create a report. Her stu- pieces of information get lost in paragraph after dents use Google Maps and other Web resources paragraph of text. A graphical syllabus can help to create recommendations about which mp3 every student, not just graphical leaners, focus players to purchase. on what the teacher really wants students to We end with Research Notes from Tom remember about the structure of the course. Delaney. We all know that students should feel Distance education is becoming part of comfortable in class in order to be most recep- more institutional course offerings. The track tive to learning. To that end, we often try to record for retention in most online courses, structure tasks and expectations to minimize however, is quite dismal. There are some tech- learner anxiety. However, Tom’s recent research niques that can help encourage online learners to has provided another possible view about anxi- stick with a course and to succeed. Leslie Opp- ety in the classroom: that applied appropriately, Beckman draws upon considerable experience it can be helpful in preparing students for more in designing and delivering fully online courses difficult tasks. in her article. She has important suggestions for You can see some additional material, those who would like to be successful with their including examples of graphic syllabi from Keli online courses. Yerian and more resources for Migyu Kang’s We have three teaching tips in this issue. course on the ORTESOL website at http://www. Russell Fauss describes a content-based ap- ortesol.org/. proach to English for Academic Purposes. He We encourage you to consider writing for developed and taught an Oregon-focused area ORTESOL Journal. Please see the guidelines on studies course based on Oregon’s sesquicenten- the back page and the ORTESOL website. Feel nial. This topic provided the opportunity to work free to contact the Editors with questions. on history, environment, economics, and culture. ii ORTESOL Journal Classroom Assessment: A View from a Secondary ESL Teacher Irina Bleckhman, Reynolds High School

When I began teaching ESL in Oregon’s my approach to classroom assessment. Today I secondary public schools 15 years ago, my main need to have ongoing assessment of my students formal classroom assessments were weekly that not only allows me to make conclusions quizzes and end-of-unit tests which I designed about their mastery of the narrow instructional using a combination of multiple-choice, cloze, goals of each individual lesson, but that also matching, and open-ended items. What I wanted gives me accurate, comprehensive, and current to know was how well my students knew the information about students’ overall proficiency content of their ESL curriculum, and I believed in English. Classroom performance assessments the information from quizzes and tests was suf- have become my preferred form of evalua- ficient for me to draw some conclusions about tion. This article will begin with a definition of their overall language proficiency. Besides the language proficiency. Next will be a description students themselves and some of their parents, of some institutional and technical challenges to few people were interested in these conclusions. classroom performance assessment, then exam- Today, due to the changes brought to K-12 ples from my classroom. ESOL/Bilingual education by the No Child Left Behind Act and the subsequent state-level Language Proficiency and mandates, my students’ English proficiency is of Assessment Instruments high interest to many more people. New policies The description of language competence are centered exclusively around the notion of reflected in various institutional aspects of my English proficiency. One of them is the stan- program is close to that posted on the website of dardized Oregon English Language Proficiency the Oregon Department of Education and which Assessment (ELPA). This test is given to all was adapted from Bachman (1990). (See Figure English language learners in K-12 public schools 1 below.) Figure 1 presents language compe- each year, and the results are closely monitored tence as a dynamic combination of various other at the school, district, state, and even federal competencies that interact and contribute to levels. The other policy is reflected in the goals one’s ability to communicate using language in set forth by the Oregon Department of Educa- specific social contexts. It views language profi- tion and my school district. To meet these goals, ciency as socially situated rather than something 65 percent of my ESL students must advance to that belongs entirely to an individual. the next level of English proficiency this school year, and within three years 95 percent need to The description is institutionalized in the advance at least one level annually. English Language Proficiency Standards (Or- egon Department of Education, 2009). The Stan- The heightened urgency to enhance the rate dards have the same ability-based and task-based of language acquisition brought on by recent ed- orientation that Bachman’s definition implies. ucation reforms has had a significant impact on Volume 27, 2009 1

Language Competence

Organizational Competence Pragmatic Competence

Grammatical Textual Illocutionary Sociolinguistic Competence Competence Competence Competence

Vocab Morp Syntax Phon Cohesion Rhetoric Idea Manip Heuristic Imag dialect register nature culture Figure 1. Definition of language proficiency from Backman (1990) and used by the Oregon Department of Education (2004). Having been developed with the purpose of The instructional methodology adopted by describing the language needs of students at my program reflects the institutional definition various levels and prescribing language curricu- of language proficiency as communicative and lum objectives, the Standards represent a hierar- socially situated language ability. This methodol- chical approach to the construct of proficiency ogy is known to many Oregon K-12 ESL teach- and have a strong focus on academic tasks. The ers as Focused Approach to Systematic English following is an example of one of the standards Language Development, or FASELD (Dutro, related to vocabulary knowledge: 2008). FASELD is the work of E. L. Achieve, an EL.HS.RE.08 Understand, learn, and use educational consulting company. This approach new vocabulary that is introduced and carries many features of Focus-on-Form (FonF) taught directly through informational text, instruction (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Spada, literary text, and instruction across the 1997; Williams, 2005). subject areas. Contrary to the name, the main emphasis of Advanced FonF language instruction is on meaning, but it Interprets words appropriately that some- shifts toward form at certain stages of the in- times have multiple meanings and applies structional process. FASELD, as it is used in my this knowledge consistently to literature program, is probably the most teacher-controlled and texts in content areas. version of FonF since it is planned (activities Early Advanced are designed with the goal of bringing learners’ Recognizes that words sometimes have attention to specific forms), proactive (forms are multiple meanings and applies this knowl- selected based often on a pre-established pro- edge to understanding written texts. file of the learner’s interlanguage), and targeted Intermediate (communicative tasks are highly focused around Recognizes that words sometimes have forms) (Williams, 2005). The textbook adopted multiple meanings and applies this knowl- by the curriculum of my program, Top Notch edge to understanding written texts. (Saslow & Ascher, 2000), builds instruction Early Intermediate around specific communicative competencies Recognizes that words sometimes have that span a wide range of lexico-grammatical multiple meanings. content and sociolinguistic contexts. Beginning Produces simple vocabulary (single words Institutional Challenges or short phrases) to communicate basic Establishing a single classroom process needs in social and academic settings (e.g., that serves placement, evaluative, formative, locations, greetings, classroom objects). and summative purposes has been a significant (p.91) 2 ORTESOL Journal challenge. My goal has been to integrate per- tive task with any linguistic content, not just the formance assessments of proficiency organi- specific vocabulary, grammar, and sociocultural cally into teaching and learning while having information they have received in the classroom. them also serve the evaluative purpose usually However, the connection to course content pro- reserved for classroom tests. Hughes (2003) vides information about the relationship between suggested that achievement tests can become teaching and learning in the classroom, so it has reasonable measures of proficiency if they meet to play a certain role in assessment. several conditions. First, achievement tests Assessing too much specific course con- should be based on the objectives of the course tent does not provide valid information about rather than being closely tied to the detailed a student’s ability to perform a communicative content of the course and its materials. Sec- task in all of its complexity. Assessing too little ond, course objectives have to be based on the allows quite a few students to complete the task real language needs of the students in relation by relying on pre-existing competencies. As to their proficiency level. Finally, if multiple examples in Appendix A demonstrate, the per- assessments are used at the end of each instruc- formance prompts can be flexible while limiting tional unit instead of one overall assessment vocabulary choices to the targeted vocabulary at the end of the year, their success depends in of the lesson and specifying which grammatical large part on how well the short-term objectives forms students have to use. of each instructional unit represent the overall goal of a specific proficiency level. Another significant challenge to performance assessment comes from environmental The structure of my program makes it fair- factors: class size, the limited amount of time ly easy to address the second and third require- available for assessment, and the lack of access ments. Course objectives are based on a pre-es- to technology. Writing becomes the most effi- tablished profile of students’ interlanguage. This cient form of assessment, but it limits linguistic profile is reflected in proficiency-level descrip- performance to only one domain. Additionally, tors widely accepted by the school district and writing is a complex skill comprised of linguistic heavily utilized in program planning (Oregon and many non-linguistic aspects (Kroll, 1990; Department of Education, 1994: 5-6). The short- Weigle, 2002). Some of my secondary students term goals of each instructional unit, supported struggle with the non-linguistic demands of writ- by curriculum and methodology, represent a ing too much to adequately demonstrate their systematic organization of communicative com- linguistic competencies. petencies that span a variety of social contexts. There is a wide consensus among practitioners To address this issue, for each performance in my program and experts in the field that these assessment I select 3-5 students to provide oral goals lead to the next proficiency level or full responses instead of written ones. By the end proficiency in English, thus fulfilling Hughes’ of the year, each student will have performed (2003) third requirement that achievement tests approximately 30 percent of the assessment serve as measures of proficiency. tasks orally. These oral performances are usually spaced out throughout the year, which allows The first requirement, however, presents a me to assess growth in oral proficiency in addi- real challenge in language performance assess- tion to writing proficiency. Several students who ments. It calls for achievement tests to be tied to have especially low writing skills due to inter- course objectives more than to specific content. rupted formal schooling or learning disabilities In other words, achievement tests that serve are assessed orally most of the time. Finally, a as measures of proficiency should assess how writing scoring rubric can exclude non-linguistic well students are able to perform a communica- aspects of the performance (see Appendix B). Volume 27, 2009 3 Many other challenges in integrating lan- ily inherently authentic since most of the tasks guage performance assessments into teaching have contexts that are largely simulated or imag- and learning have arisen. These include deter- ined. This raises my concern about the quality of mining the optimal place of such assessments the instruments I use. in the instructional cycle, finding a fair way to Since there are real difficulties in apply- factor them into class grades, getting students ing the psychometric perspective to classroom motivated to do their best, finding the most performance assessments due to their lack of effective record-keeping system, and figuring standardization, alternative terms such as trust- out the most meaningful and effective ways to worthiness (Huerta-Macias, 1995), credibility, analyze the data. and auditability have been offered for conceptualizing the validity and reliability of these Technical Challenges assessments. I will discuss quality issues using Designing assessment instruments and es- the traditional notions of validity and reliability, tablishing well-integrated assessment processes keeping in mind that the processes of establish- require continual examination of their quality. ing and maintaining these characteristics in The psychometric tradition has relied heavily on classroom assessments are fundamentally differ- the notions of validity and reliability to discuss ent from those in standardized testing. I will also the quality of large-scale language assessments. discuss practical measures that I take to enhance However, there is some agreement in the schol- the quality of my assessment instruments. arly community that these notions may not be Content validity applicable to classroom performance assessment (Leung, 2005). Classroom assessments have My students’ performances on these class- certain inherent qualities (e.g., their variability, room assessments need to be indicative of their context-centeredness, and innate authenticity) level of proficiency as defined by the construct that make them methodologically different from described earlier. In other words, I want these large-scale language tests and unlikely subjects assessments to have high content validity. One of analyses conducted from the traditional psy- way to establish the content validity of these chometric point of view. Classroom assessment assessments is to design representative tasks or also represents an entirely different epistemologi- tasks that are very likely to lead to performances cal approach to language testing (Huerta-Macias, in which my students demonstrate their true 1995; Gipps, 1994). Additionally, it is argued that language abilities (Hughes, 2003). But how do classroom assessments do not need to be held I know if my tasks are representative? Chief to the same standard of quality as standardized among the practical measures to take to address measures since the higher authenticity and con- this validity concern is to consult with col- textuality in classroom assessments already make leagues who are experts in the field and familiar them more credible, and decisions that are made with the institutional aspects of the construct of based on the results are generally low-stakes. proficiency. I believe that classroom assessments are I can also seek evidence about how my indeed epistemologically and methodologically students interpret the content of the assessment different from large-scale standardized measures tasks by giving each of my instruments a trial and should be conceptualized differently. How- run. If I find evidence that my students interpret ever, due to the institutional factors described the content of the assessment in ways that were earlier, the decisions we in Oregon make based not intended, I can check assessment items and on classroom assessments are not exactly low- scoring rubrics for clarity and the level of re- stakes. These assessments are also not necessar- strictiveness. During the trial run, I can also look

4 ORTESOL Journal for evidence of my instrument’s ability to clearly performance assessments in simulated contexts discriminate between stronger and weaker lan- with language samples obtained in comparable guage learners. For this reason, I might admin- but authentic contexts and making conclusions ister my assessments to a few native speakers of about generalizability, I compare my students’ the same age group. If I find evidence that my performance to the abilities they demonstrate assessments fail to clearly discriminate between communicating with me or with each other out- more proficient language learners, especially side of class. While this is a much more holistic native speakers, and less proficient ones, I can approach to validating assessments, it responds safely assume that the task needs to be revised. to some of the same concerns as a research study Another concern related to content validity of validity would. is the generalizability of student performance. Reliability The conclusions about proficiency made from Cohen (1994) pointed out that “three differ- classroom assessments should be based on an ent types of factors contribute to the reliability accurate representation of their ability to per- of language assessments: test factors, situation form the tasks in a variety of contexts, includ- factors, and individual factors” (p.36). Many ing contexts outside of school. This is difficult of the test factors can be addressed along with since the level of performance varies with the concerns associated with validity through wide task, often significantly (Linn, Baker, & Dunbar, sampling, examining student perceptions of 1991). One obvious way to increase generaliz- content, ensuring clarity of items, specifying ability is to increase the number of performances content, and collaborating with other experts. If assessed. Another way is to make sure that the there are problems with reliability, they are vis- tasks represent “systemically critically dimen- ible through large discrepancies between indi- sions” of the construct (Linn, et al., 1991: 19). vidual performances by the same student, large By allowing performance-based assessments to discrepancies between performance on instruc- take the place of achievement tests at the end tional tasks and assessment tasks, and discrepan- of each instructional unit, I can assess close cies between groups of students identified based to 20 performances by each of my students in on factors unrelated to English proficiency. With the course of the year. Since these samples are multiple sources of information available, I often closely tied to the curriculum, which already find it unnecessary (as well as impractical) to do represents systemically critical dimensions of formal reliability studies. However, I have occa- the construct, I can be reassured that their gener- sionally used a variation of a split-half method, alizability is fairly high. asking my students to respond to two prompts Not unlike many other language teachers, that tested the same communicative competence. I take other measures without ever formaliz- I have also used a score-rescore method to en- ing them in order to ensure the validity of my sure my own intra-rater reliability. assessments. These measures are representa- Situation factors can be addressed through tive of the epistemological differences between making testing situations uniform for all per- large-scale testing and classroom assessments formances (for example, all of my assessments mentioned earlier. For example, instead of con- must be completed individually and indepen- ducting a formal study of concurrent validity, I dently in class with ample time for students compare what a student was able to do on her to prepare their responses). I work to control performance assessment with multiple pieces of individual factors by using my knowledge about other evidence I have from her other in-class or, each student to determine the time for adminis- perhaps, extra-curricular activities. Instead of tering assessments, the length of assessments, formally comparing language samples from the and my students’ motivation for a particular task. Volume 27, 2009 5 Fairness a classroom assessment will depend on a particular skill, I teach that skill. Thus the contex- Addressing validity and reliability also tual nature of classroom assessments does not helps with fairness. But there is more. Secondary preclude me from addressing concerns about ESL learners are an extremely diverse group. In fairness. On the contrary, it gives me tools that addition to the cultural diversity expected among are already embedded in teaching and learning ESL students, secondary ESL learners vary processes to understand and mitigate cultural greatly in their academic experiences. Some and experiential biases. The example in Figure 2 have had adequate schooling; others, limited or represents the type of constrained constructed re- interrupted schooling (Freeman, Freeman, & sponse that I most often use in my performance Mercuri, 2002). Some are recent arrivals, and assessments. The task in the example approxi- some were born in the United States. Some have mates a real-life situation of giving health-relat- had all of their schooling in English, while oth- ed advice. Even though grammatical competence ers have been schooled mostly in their native is singled out and assessed as a separate trait, languages. These students show similar results the overall ability to perform the task is also on standardized assessments and are put in the assessed. Appendix A offers some of the perfor- same proficiency groups for instruction, but their mance assessments for the first semester of an learning needs are quite diverse. intermediate-level course in order to show the No classroom assessment is completely scope of sampling. devoid of bias. Each of my assessments requires a certain type of background cultural knowledge Conclusion and a certain level of academic skill, two areas The institutional factors I have described in which my students vary widely. However, set concrete parameters that apply to assessment I can estimate with some accuracy when bias of proficiency in the classroom. Language pro- would compromise fairness for each student. ficiency is viewed as the socially situated abil- For example, if I know that a student is a re- ity to perform a wide variety of communicative cent arrival from a remote village in his native tasks, and this ability is comprised of multiple country and has never driven a car, it would be competencies that work in an integrated fashion. unfair to ask that student to describe the process of obtaining a driver’s license in order to assess Short-term Curriculum Objective: Students will be his ability to describe a sequence of actions. If I able to give health advice using their knowledge know that a student’s academic skills are signifi- of vocabulary for common illnesses and pharmacy cantly below grade level, it would be unfair to produts and their knowledge of modals of necessity. ask her to describe a complex social phenome- Student prompt: David sprained his wrist. Karim non in order to assess her ability to explain cause has a headache. Victoria has the flu. Give each and effect in detail. person advice. Use the names of pharmacy products and modal verbs in each response. What I can do in my assessments is to con- Advice for Daniel: trol bias through my knowledge of my students and to compensate for it through instruction. While standardized assessments aim to exclude Advice for Karim: students’ individual experiences from the test, I often aim to include them. If I know that most of Advice for Victoria: my students are familiar with a certain cultural context (knowledge I obtain through classroom interactions), I include that context in my assess- Figure 2. Performance assessment for an intermediate- ment task. If I know that their performance on level secondary ESL course 6 ORTESOL Journal As a result, the most direct and therefore the Cambridge University Press. most valid assessment of language proficiency Freeman, Y., Freeman, D., & Mercuri, S. (2002). requires an integrative assessment of linguistic Closing the achievement gap: How to reach performance (Hughes, 2003). Another require- limited-formal schooling and long-term Eng- ment is that a comprehensive assessment of lish learners. Westport, CT: Heinemann. language proficiency take place across an array Gipps, C. (1994). Beyond testing: Towards a of various constructed or simulated social situa- theory of educational measurement. London: tions. What this means for the technical aspect of Falmer Press. assessment design is that classroom assessments Huerta-Macias, A. (1995). Alternative assess- need to allow multiple observations of students’ ment: Responses to commonly asked questi- linguistic performances while they are engaged ons. TESOL Journal, 5, 8-11. in varied tasks and contexts. Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language tea- Classroom assessments have new signifi- chers (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Camridge cance in secondary ESL programs. Their pur- University Press. pose, shaped by institutional factors, is often Kroll, B. (Ed.) (1990). Second language writing: not only to measure the degree of success with Research insights for the classroom. Cam- which students have mastered narrow learning bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. objectives of each lesson, but also to measure Leung, C. (2005). Classroom teacher assessment language proficiency. Despite, and in some of second language development: Construct cases due to, methodological and epistemologi- as practice. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of cal differences between standardized tests and research in second language teaching and classroom assessments, classroom performance learning (pp. 869-888). Mahwah, N.J: Law- assessments are able to serve as quality mea- rence Erlbaum Associates. sures of proficiency if they properly reflect Linn, R., Baker E., & Dunbar, S. (1991). Com- proficiency-oriented objectives and adequately plex performance-based assessment: Expec- address concerns about validity, reliability, and tations and validation criteria. Educational fairness through the instructional process. Researcher, 20 (8), 15-21. McNamara, T.F. (2005). Introduction: The social References turn in language assessment. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second lan- Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental consider- guage teaching and learning (pp. 775-778). ations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. University Press, 1990. Oregon Department of Education. (2004). Eng- Cohen, A. (1994), Assessing language ability lish language proficiency standards. Retrieved in the classroom (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & from http://www.ode.state.or.us/teachlearn/ Heinle. standards/elp/files/competencechart.pdf. Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Eds.) (1998). Focus Oregon Department of Education. (2009). Stan- on�� form in classroom second language ac- dards by design: Seventh grade, eighth grade. quisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Retrieved from http://www.ode.state.or.us Press. Saslow, J., & Ascher, A. (2006). Top Notch: Dutro, S. (2009). Systematic English language English for today’s world. Student Book 2. development: A handbook for secondary tea- White Plains, NY: Pearson Education. chers. Santa Cruz, CA: ToucanEd. Spada, N. (1997) Form-focused instruction and Ellis, N. (2001). Memory for language. In P. second language acquisition: A review of Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second lan- classroom and laboratory research. Language guage instruction (pp.33-68). Cambridge: Teaching Abstracts, 30, 73-87. Volume 27, 2009 7 Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing writing. Cam- Irina Blekhman has taught ESOL in secondary bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. public schools for the past fifteen years. She was Williams, J. (2005). Form-focused instruction. also an adjunct faculty member at Lewis and Clark In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in Graduate School of Education and Counseling. Her second language teaching and learning (pp. interests include language assessment, education of long-term English language learners, and critical 671-691). Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum pedagogy in language teaching. Associates. Appendix A Sample performance assessment tasks for the first semester of an intermediate-level secondary ESL course Unit 1 Lesson 1 What interesting things have you done? What interesting places have you been to? What would you like to do that you haven’t done yet? Respond using present perfect in at least 4 of your sentences. Unit 2 Lesson 2 Pretend that you are a tourist on your first visit to Portland, Oregon. Before you came to Port- land, you made a list of all the things you wanted to do on your trip (list provided). Today is the fourth day of your trip. You have already done some things on your list, but there are some things you have not had time to do yet. You have put a check mark (√) next to the things you have done. Write a post card to your family describing what you have and have not done. Use present perfect and the words already and yet when you describe your activities. Unit 3 Lesson 2 Write a paragraph about any topic. Use at least 5 phrasal verbs from the list in your paragraph. Use at least 2 phrasal verbs with pronoun objects (for example, pick them up, turn it on). Phrasal verbs: turn on, put up, get away with, turn off, put off, get along with, turn down, put down, pick on, turn up, put away, pick up, put on, drop off , turn out, pick out, put up with, take on, get up, take in, take away, get off Unit 4 Lesson 1 What personal care products do you use? How often and where do you buy them? Why do you like them? Write a paragraph using as many names of personal care products as you can and the words many, much, a lot of, some, a/an, and any before nouns. Unit 4 Lesson 3 Daniel sprained his wrist. Karim has a headache. Victoria has the flu. Give each person some advice. Use the names of pharmacy products and modal verbs in each response. Appendix B Scoring Rubric 0: No mastery 1: Partial mastery 2: Mastery How effectively Does not attempt to perform Addresses only a portion of the prompt or Addresses most does the student the task, provides a response communicates in a way that can be only aspects of the prompt complete the com- that is off-topic, or fails to partially understood. in a way that can be municative task? communicate in a manner easily understood. that can be understood. Topic-related Does not use topic-related Uses some topic-related vocabulary cor- Addresses most as- vocabulary vocabulary. rectly, but the knowledge of vocabulary pects of the prompt in is insufficient (does not use the right item a manner that can be when there is a clear need to do so) or easily understood. incomplete (some vocabulary is misused). Grammar Does not use targeted gram- Some errors in targeted grammatical All targeted grammat- matical forms or uses all forms; lack of consistency. ical forms are used targeted grammatical forms correctly. incorrectly.

8 ORTESOL Journal Using a Graphic Syllabus with Second Language Learners Keli Yerian, University of Oregon

The adage “A picture speaks a thousand among different components of the course, and words” is familiar to many, and perhaps espe- thus more easily conceptualize how its content cially to language teachers who use a variety of fits within an overall schema right from the visual materials and media in their classrooms. beginning (see Appendices for examples). A Yet the insight this adage provides is rarely supplemental text syllabus can then fill in details reflected in the very first document many of us of the content. This paper touches on some of give to our students: the course syllabus. For the arguments for using graphic syllabi, reports many teachers in secondary or higher education on the results of a preliminary evaluation in two ESL courses, as in non-ESL courses, the syllabus of my own classes, and concludes with some is a required administrative document that is not possibilities and potential pitfalls graphic syllabi considered actual course material to be enhanced present for our language-focused classrooms. for student interest or comprehension. Presented dutifully to each new group of students on the Arguments for Using first day of class, these documents contain an ever-increasing amount of dense, contractual in- Graphic Syllabi formation about objectives, expectations, course Nilson reviews research across disciplines structure, and so on, often in a format and tone to support her claim that graphics are distinctly that is quite different from the rest of our more useful in course syllabi. Note that Nilson dis- attractive course materials. tinguishes between a graphic syllabus and the equally useful outcomes map, which graphically As a language instructor in higher educa- represents a course’s learning objectives rather tion, I had never questioned this routine syllabus than its topical structure. Work on dual coding format before reading Linda Nilson’s book The theory (Paivio, 1971; Vekiri, 2002; Moreno & Graphic Syllabus and the Outcomes Map: Com- Meyer, 1999), for example, posits that visual municating Your Course (2007). Nilson’s argu- material and verbal material are processed and ment, which is not targeted specifically to lan- stored in separate cognitive systems in our guage teachers but to all academic instructors, is minds. While text syllabi engage the semantic as follows: When key information about a course memory, graphic syllabi engage the episodic, or is presented through graphics, it will be more visual memory, allowing for both better reten- easily understood and retained by students. Text tion of and easier access to the material present- syllabi, she writes, are also necessary to provide ed (Nilson, 2007: 19). to students, but do not have to be their first or only introduction to the course. In a graphic Other research (e.g., Larkin & Simon, syllabus, spatial arrangements, colors, shapes, 1987) also shows that visuals are more efficient- arrows, flow diagrams, and even drawings can ly processed “in that they require less working allow students to literally see the relationships memory and fewer cognitive transformations

Volume 27, 2009 9 than text” (Nilson, 2007: 19). These advantages Here I describe and report my preliminary ef- are true for all students, but perhaps most clearly forts to answer this question. for those with visual, global, and intuitive learning styles (Kolb, 1984). As Nilson observes, Methods “These are the students least likely to gain and Course and Student Profiles retain information from a standard text syllabus” (2007: 18). The writing course in question is the high- est of three levels offered by the English lan- These observations are likely to be even guage program for matriculated undergraduate more valid for non-native speakers, who are students at the University of Oregon. Students faced with a higher cognitive load when read- in this course have, upon entering the univer- ing and listening to verbal information on the sity, TOEFL scores that generally range from first day of class in a second language. If typical the high 400s to the high 500s, with most be- course syllabi are occasionally opaque for L1 tween 500 and 540. Both sections of the course speakers of a language, as Nilson (2007) argues, that term had a roughly similar mix of national how can we expect our L2 students to easily and language backgrounds, though the second understand them? section had a significantly larger percentage of Although no research males. In Section One there on the use of graphic syllabi were 14 students: one Thai, in L2 contexts appears to ex- Would students indeed six Saudi, one Chinese, two ist, some pedagogical sourc- retain graphically presented Taiwanese, one Kuwaiti, es do encourage using graph- information more easily...? one Korean, one Filipina, ics to clarify course content and one Chilean (9 male and and goals. Graves (2000), for 5 female). In Section Two example, in her textbook Designing Language there were 19 students: one Japanese, six Saudi, Courses: A Guide for Teachers, strongly recom- four Chinese, two Taiwanese, four Korean, and mends language teachers use “mind maps” (Bu- two UAE students (14 male, 5 female). zan, 1991; Ellis, 2000), flowcharts, or drawings Materials to aid them in conceptualizing their courses. Her advice, however, is largely directed to instructors I designed two graphic documents for who are drafting or revising their courses, not to the course, following Nilson (2007): a graphic those who wish to clarify the course to students syllabus and an outcomes map. In the graphic (although an indirect benefit to students is im- syllabus (Appendix A), I decided to highlight plied). Thus, research with L2 students is needed their major assignments and when they were to confirm whether graphic syllabi indeed have scheduled because previous students had fre- advantages over their purely textual cousins. quently asked questions about this aspect of the course. This information about assignments is In the fall of 2008, I had the opportunity also found in the text syllabus, which I did not to teach two sections of a higher-level writing revise from past terms (see Appendix B for the course for matriculated non-native international text syllabus). Note that instructors do not need students at the University of Oregon. In the to focus only on assignment information in a two parallel sections I saw the chance to evalu- graphic syllabus; these were simply the elements ate whether a graphic syllabus had a different I decided to highlight that term. In the outcomes impact on the students than the traditional text- map (Appendix D and in color on the ORTESOL based syllabus. Would students indeed retain website), I focused on the range of academic graphically presented information more easily skills we would be strengthening in the course. than the same information presented textually? 10 ORTESOL Journal I then created a brief quiz that included In both cases, I tried not to embellish or questions testing a few facts common to both the paraphrase any of the documents as I might graphic syllabus and text-only syllabus. These normally have done, in order to avoid chang- facts were represented visually in the graphic ing the input they were getting from each type syllabus through the use of colored shapes repre- of document. After the quiz in both sections, I senting different assignments, numbers of shapes gave the students the text or graphic documents representing numbers of pages of each assign- not provided to them initially, so that they would ment, and labels inside of shapes providing key have access to all forms of the course informa- facts about the assignments. The same facts were tion thereafter. all communicated only in written form in the text syllabus. Results The quiz questions were: Table 1 shows the overall results, with the 1. How many drafts of each paper will you number of students who answered the questions write? correctly. Each of the questions is addressed 2. How many readings will you read before below in more detail. the first essay? Question 1: How many drafts of each paper 3. How many library sources will you need will you write? for your research paper? The number of drafts required for each Procedure essay was clear to almost all students in both In Section One of the writing course, I sections (93% and 95% respectively). In the text first introduced the two-page text syllabus that syllabus this information is in bold as “Two ma- had been traditionally used for this course. I jor essays” at the beginning of a paragraph. In read through the text syllabus word by word for the graphic syllabus the two essays are visually roughly 5 minutes as they looked at their own presented as two different “piles” of rectangles copies. I then asked them to put away the sylla- (the piles represent the respective pages in each bus before giving them the quiz on specific facts essay). from the material. Question 2: How many readings will you read In Section Two, I presented the two graphic before the first essay? documents first, explaining the separate focus of Only 64% of students answered this ques- each graphic document, and pointing out each tion correctly in Section One, while 100% element within the documents. This also took answered it correctly in Section Two. The roughly 5 minutes. I then asked them to put information relevant to Question 2 was written away the documents, and gave them the same as follows in the text syllabus in the middle of a short quiz as Section One. paragraph: “The Critical Analysis essay will be based on one of four readings I provide Table 1: Students who answered correctly you.” The same information was rep- Section One (text Section Two (graphic resented in the graphic syllabus docu- syllabus) syllabus) ment as four different circles. In each Question 1 correct 13/14 (93%) 17/19 (95%) circle was written the number of the answers reading (Reading #1, #2, etc.). Question 2 correct 9/14 (64%) 19/19 (100%) answers Question 3: How many library Question 3 correct 4/14 (29%) 11/19 (73%) sources will you need for your re- answers search paper?

Volume 27, 2009 11 Only 29% of students in Section One The quiz design itself was also somewhat answered this question correctly, while 73% hastily done, as it was only shortly before the answered it correctly in Section Two. The first day of classes that I decided to create the information relevant to Question 3 was written graphic syllabus and attempt a comparison study. as follows in the text syllabus in the middle of Finally, it could be argued that if the text sylla- a paragraph: “The Library Research Paper will bus contained only the more limited set of facts be based on a minimum of 6 reputable sources”. shown in the graphic syllabus, it would also be This same information was represented in the more easily memorable, even without the visual graphic syllabus as the written phrase “6 mini- support of shapes, arrows, colors, and so forth. mum reputable sources” inside a bold blue box Graphic syllabi, however, are not intended to re- labeled “LIBRARY RESEARCH.” place text-only syllabi, but to complement them by highlighting certain aspects of the increas- Discussion ingly complex text syllabi we see today. Reduc- Some of the tendencies in these results sup- ing the details in a supplementary document is port the claim that language teachers should con- one way of highlighting these elements; visually sider using graphic syllabi. Information that was arranging and enhancing them is another. More presented graphically to Section Two, especially research on the exact contributions of the visual when supported with numbers or text, did appear elements is needed to tease these factors apart. to be retained more readily than was the text Despite these limitations, this preliminary information in Section comparison suggests One. For example, in- cultural differences in expectations that graphic syllabi formation about length about course content or objectives may indeed be helpful of assigned papers, may be more easily communicated to L2 students in the numbers of readings, same ways that Nilson and numbers of sources using the power of imagery (2007) argues they were all displayed as help L1 students. In colored shapes in the graphic syllabus, and were fact, it is not difficult to imagine in what ways reported more accurately by the students who they could be arguably even more helpful for L2 saw these shapes. By contrast, none of the tested speakers. First, because the listening proficiency information common to both types of syllabi of L2 students may be lower than that of native was reported more accurately by Section One. speakers, the helpful redundancy of hearing an Several limitations are important to note instructor discuss the syllabus as well as reading regarding this brief comparison. First, the two is likely to be reduced for L2 students. different groups of students were naturally Possibly even more important, cultural formed, and thus not controlled for numbers of differences in expectations about course content students, balance of nationalities, gender, listen- or objectives may be more easily communicated ing or reading abilities, ages, motivation levels, using the power of imagery. In an academic learning styles, and so forth. Also, because I ver- writing class, for example, the emphasis on bally presented both types of syllabi (as would critical thinking and source documentation skills be normal in a regular class), it is possible that I may not be anticipated by some L2 students. emphasized unintentionally some information in Likewise, the weighting of homework or papers one type of syllabus over the other through use relative to exams may be unexpected, and thus of pausing, eye contact, volume, and so forth, less likely to be noticed if only communicated despite my efforts to neutrally describe their through words. Although our first reaction as content. teachers may be that it is contradictory to rely

12 ORTESOL Journal less on language in a language class, it is actu- color and some explanation with each label, that ally quite consistent with language teaching would be easier to see the graphic.” goals. For example, in foreign language class- Colleagues and even past students of the rooms where the instructor speaks the L1 of the course in question can help adjust and clarify students, teachers can more easily remain in the graphic documents. As Nilson (2007) and target language with the graphics as scaffolding, Graves (2000) further suggest, current students rather than revert to the L1 for the sake of clarity can also be asked to create graphic representa- on such important administrative information. tions of the course, even if they did not receive Of course, not all students will be equally one. These student creations may reveal discrep- engaged by visual documents. Just as we know ancies between student and instructor percep- some students may be visual learners, we know tions of the course, as well as provide new ideas others may not. As long as graphic documents and inspiration to the instructor. are offered in conjunction with more detailed A final note to consider is that as EAP text syllabi, however, the graphics will only teachers we have an obligation to help students enhance student experience, rather than narrow- understand the academic texts they will encoun- ing it. ter in higher education, texts which may include In a similar vein, not all instructors may be course syllabi. Rather than shielding them from interested in creating graphics or may not feel this reality, graphic syllabi can be used to show they are able to do so, due to limits in artistic students how to read dense or difficult text syl- ability. In the latter case, teachers can take heart. labi critically and to encourage them to look for Even a simple flowchart, created for example meaningful structure and content even when through Word’s SmartArt Graphics templates, visual help is missing. can capture some crucial course elements in graphic form (see Appendix C for an example). Conclusion Word’s draw function allows users to easily paste Although research on how effective and various shapes and lines into a document, includ- motivating graphic syllabi are for students is ing arrows and text boxes for labels. Additional still in its infancy, the preliminary investiga- sample documents are on the ORTESOL website. tion reported here does suggest that graphic An important cautionary note when creat- documents that supplement the traditional text ing these syllabi is the importance of keeping syllabus may be useful in the second language them relatively simple, a task that is challenging classroom. In addition to helping students grasp for teachers who are keenly aware of the varied key information about a course, as indicated threads of a language curriculum. As Nilson here, it may also encourage students to engage in writes, “Clutter and complexity only subvert the the course content right from the start, as well as purpose of a syllabus” (54). Although graphic serve as a helpful curriculum reflection tool for syllabi may necessarily be quite messy in the an instructor. In short, graphics can give shape initial stages of design (Graves, 2000), they to the “thousand words” that typically make up a should take on a cleaner look when presented to traditional text syllabus. students. As one student wrote when giving me feedback on a graphic I created to show the con- References tent and timeline of an MA program final project Buzan, T. (1991). Use both sides of your brain (see Appendix E and in color on the ORTESOL (3rd ed.). New York: NY: Plume. website), “there are so many colorful threads Ellis, D. (2000). Becoming a master student (9th twisting together, I have to spend some time to ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. understand it. If there is only one thread in each Graves, K. (2000). Designing language courses: Volume 27, 2009 13 A guide for teachers. Boston, MA: Heinle & Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal pro- Heinle. cesses. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experi- Winston. ence as the source of learning and develop- Vekiri, I. (2002). Putting memory research to ment. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. good use: Hints from cognitive psychology. Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987). Why a College Teaching, 47(1), 149-152. diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand Keli Yerian is an instructor in the American words. Cognitive Science, 11(1), 65-99. English Institute/Linguistics Department at Moreno, R., & Meyer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive the University of Oregon, where she teaches principles of multimedia learning: The role of undergraduate and graduate academic writing modality and contiguity. Journal of Educa- classes for international students as well as tional Psychology, 91(2), 358-368. linguistics and teaching methodology courses Nilson, L. (2007). The graphic syllabus and the in the MA Language Teaching Specialization outcomes map: Communicating your course. Program. Her current research focuses on gesture in San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. communication.

Appendix A: Graphical Syllabus

14 ORTESOL Journal Appendix B: Text Syllabus Note: The text is reduced in size for publication. Course Description Written Discourse III, AEIS 112, MW Instructor: Dr. Keli Yerian Office: Pacific 117 E-mail: [email protected] Office Hours: MW 1-2pm and by appointment Materials Textbook: The Bedford Handbook, Seventh Edition, by Diane Hacker, available in the bookstore. You should also have a standard-size American English learner’s dictionary available for use with reading and writing assignments. There will be an emphasis on the use of Blackboard for the posting of assignments, handouts, and readings. It is important that you have easy and consistent access to the Internet either on or off campus, and print materials as requested in preparation for class. Purpose and Objectives The purpose of this course is to prepare students for academic writing at the university level. The course will include the following: discussions of writing principles and academic discourse patterns; analysis and discussion of assigned readings. Research, writing and revision will be done both in class and outside of class. Requirements Assignments: 1. Reading and writing assignments from Blackboard. 2. Two major essays (all versions, first draft through final draft, must be typed): Critical Analysis Essay and Library Research Paper. The Critical Analysis essay will be based on one of four readings I provide you and that we discuss in class together. The Library Research Paper will be based on a minimum of 6 reputable sources that you find through a library search. These assignments include multiple drafts and revisions, and will be evaluated for content, organization, and development. Because the schedule of writing assignments is intense, it is very important that papers be turned in on time to keep up with the course. Do not attempt to take this class at a time when you have a very demanding academic schedule.

All essay drafts, including the first draft, should bewritten double-spaced to allow room for comments. There will be 2 essays with approximately 2-3 revisions of each as well as reading and journal-writing assignments given. No single drafts of essays will be accepted. All new drafts must be turned in both electronically and in folders with earlier drafts and relevant prewriting; it is important for the instructor to be able to evaluate your writing process, which will be 50% of your grade on both essays. Policies: Attendance and class participation are very important. More than three absences from in-class meetings may result in a lowering of your final grade, or even failure. You are responsible for making up missed work by checking Blackboard and completing assignments accordingly. Late work will be accepted only at the discretion of the instructor; a grade penalty for lateness may be imposed. Grading The final grade will be determined as follows: 10% Class participation (includes attendance and being on time) 10% Homework assignments 30% Essay #1: Critical Analysis (A completed assignment includes all drafts) 40% Essay #2: Library Research (A completed assignment includes all drafts) 10% Final Writing Assessment The University of Oregon expects academic honesty. This means you cannot copy from a book, article, the Internet, previous work, or another student. If you do, there are severe penalties. Please check with me if you are unsure about plagiarism.

Volume 27, 2009 15 Major deadlines for Spring quarter: 4/14: First draft of critical analysis due in class 4/16: Second draft of critical analysis due in class 4/25: Third (final) draft of critical analysis due noon Friday at my office 5/14: First draft of research paper due 5/21: Second draft of research paper due 6/2: Final draft of research paper due Remember that these are only the major assignments; other homework is usually daily.

The final writing assessment will take place on the last day of class. Attendance is mandatory. There is no final exam during exam week for this class.

Appendix C: Graphical Syllabus

From Tom Delaney, University of Oregon 16 ORTESOL Journal Appendix D: Outcomes Map

Volume 27, 2009 17 Appendix E: Terminal Project

18 ORTESOL Journal Online Learning Issues and Strategies for Increasing Retention

Leslie Opp-Beckman, University of Oregon

Online distance education is increasingly “blended” context – it is generally considered to used for professional development with English be part of a best practices framework (National for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) educa- Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, tors worldwide. It can create professional devel- 2008; Teachers of English to Speakers of Other opment opportunities that would not otherwise Languages, 2009) to start by conducting an exist locally, in other countries, and among in-depth needs analysis. The needs assessment populations that face geographical, sociopoliti- should take account of the perspective of the cal, temporal, or financial barriers. Identifying learners, the instructor-developers, the sponsor, and implementing methods and practices for and the program or institution. The needs as- supporting successful and effective online dis- sessment then should guide the goals, learning tance learning or “e-learning” environments can objectives, and overall development, implemen- pose significant challenges for institutions and tation, and assessment of the learning endeavor. instructor-developers alike. For the sake of a common referent, I will use the This article examines some of those chal- term “e-learning course” from this point for- lenges and offers some options for addressing ward, at the same time noting that e-learning can them proactively rather than reactively. Plan- exist in many formats. The formats include but ning ahead helps to ensure positive outcomes are not limited to self-guided tutorials, short- for all constituents: the learners, the instructor- term webinars, and offline materials distributed via media such CD, DVD, or an e-reader product developers, sponsors, and the institution itself. 2 The content of this article draws on research such as Kindle . conducted as part of my doctoral dissertation Too often there is an assumption, gener- (Opp-Beckman, 2007)1 and on the experiences ally by administrators, that a face-to-face course and learning choices that have been part of my can be mirrored or replicated with little adapta- work in the Linguistics Department/American tion in an e-learning environment, that it can be English Institute at the University of Oregon automatically delivered to even more students (UO AEI); the U.S. Department of State (DOS); than would be the case using the same teachers U.S. Agency for International Development; and and resources as a face-to-face course, or that Ministries of Education and agencies worldwide all face-to-face teachers can intuitively design over the last 15 years. and deliver an effective e-course with little additional support or training in tools and methods. Rationale for E-Learning In my experience, the opposite is in fact true. Before embarking on the development of The approach to developing e-learning courses any new learning experience – whether situated and the strategies for encouraging participants to in a face-to-face, e-learning, or a hybridized or complete them should be aligned with the nature of the means by which they are delivered.

Volume 27, 2009 19 Strategies for Learner ture, implement, and evaluate online learning opportunities in order to engage and retain con- Retention and Persistence nections with ESOL e-learners and practitioners. Even programs and courses with excellent Initially, our department was not alone in content and faculty are negatively affected by experiencing significantly higher attrition rates high attrition rates and are at risk for overall pro- in our first e-learning courses in comparison to gram failure. This phenomenon is widely report- our face-to-face courses and programs. We have ed in online distance education programs around since then developed a number of strategies to the world and is the subject of much discussion improve retention rates or “learner retention” as in research and best-practices literature (Bocchi, evidenced by lower drop-out rates. In addition, Eastman, & Swift, 2004; Buchanan, 2004; Ros- we continuously strive to improve our e-learning sett, 2002; Terrell, 2005). Retention and attrition design framework and administration practices patterns are common measures for helping gauge in order to increase persistence in learning, as student, course, and program efficacy in face-to- evidenced by the quality of projects our e-learn- face and traditional distance education, and more ers have produced, their willingness to return to recently in e-learning environments (DiRamio our e-learning courses for additional training, & Wolverton, 2006; Moody, 2004; Rovai, 2003; and the willingness of outside agencies to spon- Terrell, 2005). sor e-learning programs Research on persistence it will become increasingly through our department. in adult learners explores important to understand how One such strategy course completion and the best to structure, implement, has been the modification potential for re-enrollment. and evaluate online learning of instructional design Studies have shown that principles, tasks, and tools learners who have a strong opportunities to fit the needs of course motivation and clear goals participants in order to in- with expected outcomes when taking a course and crease their level of access to e-learning content who are able to self-direct their learning are more and professional networking. Formal and infor- persistent in their learning (Comings, Parrella, mal continuous assessment at all levels – of the & Soricone, 1999; Guglielmino, 2009). This is learner’s needs and performance, of the instruc- true for face-to-face and e-learning courses alike. tor’s needs and performance, and of the course Results from other research (Levy, 2007) have and program in which it is situated – plays a shown that student satisfaction with e-learning crucial role in monitoring and making adjust- was a key indicator in their decision as to whether ments to e-learning design, development, and or not to continue in e-learning courses. implementation. All of this may seem obvious and logical Another cluster of proactive strategies has at face value, but has potentially far-reaching been to allocate more resources to retention implications for persistence in e-learning envi- before the course begins. We have found the ronments overall. If a learner feels unsuccessful pay-off to be significant, again in terms of both and, for this reason, does not complete (persist learner retention and persistence in learning over in) his or her early e-learning course attempt(s), time. Here are a number of the strategies we the implication is that s/he will be less likely to have found to be effective: engage in future e-learning courses. As institu- • Allocate budget for additional adminis– tions of higher education move further into the trative personnel and anticipate an increased global educational arena, it will become increas- length of time in order to facilitate and ingly important to understand how best to struc- complete administrative tasks related to 20 ORTESOL Journal the registration process, tracking of student “virtual shoulder tap” individuals by email records in university and departmental or other electronic communication and databases, needs analysis surveys, pre- contact with his or her study partner, an course orientation, etc. e-learning alum from the same institution, • Allocate budget to cover instructor- or the course sponsor. In this way, we can developer time for the creation or generally find out why that person has “authoring” of new courses, recognizing that dropped out of communication. With this it is necessary to start almost from scratch type of early intervention, we have been in designing an effective e-learning course able to successfully encourage, negotiate, that makes appropriate use of technology. It and support re-entry of temporarily missing is not simply a matter of transferring content participants into the course while there is from a face-to-face version of the course. still time for them to catch up. • Increase contact with individual prospective The above examples of “weeding out” and e-learners via email prior to the start of “shoring up” strategies have become a regular the course in order to help them prepare. administrative and teaching practice prior to and This can involve making available surveys during the extended orientation period for our and self-tests. It also includes providing e-learning courses. They have helped stabilize information and resources dealing with class enrollments and lower dropout rates once e-learning readiness as an aspect of self- the course has started. However, these activities directed learning, an understanding of have not in themselves been enough to prevent intellectual property in a U.S. context, attrition in all cases. and the ability to use appropriate citation A third strategy has been to pay closer at- practices. tention to the frequency and quality of online • Provide e-learners with diagnostics to interactions between instructors and learners and determine the degree of access and level of among learners themselves. Initially, UO AEI connectivity to the Internet (in some cases online courses primarily attracted students who even a steady supply of reliable electricity!) were new to e-learning. More recently, we are along with appropriate hardware and seeing experienced e-learners and we have had software resources. Not to be forgotten is good success strategically “seeding” courses by assessing the degree of familiarity with core integrating them as peer learners, guide-on-the- e-learning skills such as the mechanics of side help resources, or as mentors. This has led to manipulating files, use of email and web the creation of many different kinds of groupings browser software, use of word processing of participants with both pleasing and, in some software and commonly used text readers cases, surprising results. We have also developed such as Adobe Acrobat Reader (PDF files), rubrics and models to make explicit the kind of basic strategies for trouble-shooting a academic interactions we expect to occur in class crashed or “frozen” computer, and the use of discussions and other forms of communication anti-virus protection software. throughout the e-learning course process. • Anticipate a somewhat higher degree of As a final but by no means exhaustive set of attrition and offset that by slightly over- suggestions, we have found it to be very ben- enrolling courses, but usually no more than eficial to systematically include in our budgets 5-10%. professional development funds in support of • In the case of no-show, slow-to-show, or outreach (e.g., attendance at regional and inter- missing-in-action participants, we actively national conferences where our e-learning participants reside), participation in virtual profes- Volume 27, 2009 21 sional development events, and the purchase of References additional hardware, software, and books at the request of our e-learning faculty. In recognition Bocchi, J., Eastman, J. K., & Swift, C. O. of their need to “teach” sometimes on days and (2004). Retaining the online learner: Profile at hours outside of the typical on-campus Mon- of students in an online MBA program and day-through-Friday 8AM-5PM schedule, we implications for teaching them. Journal of routinely check out laptops to them for extended Education for Business, 79 (4), 245-253. loan and for “anytime anywhere” instruction. Buchanan, E. A. (2004). Institutional challenges in Web-based programs: Student challenges We believe it is important to maintain not and institutional responses [Electronic Ver- only the participants’ level of satisfaction with e- sion]. Journal of Library Administration, 41, learning, but the instructors’ as well. To this end, 65-74. we encourage open sharing and collaboration on Comings, J. P., Parrella, A., & Soricone, L. all e-course content. We also carefully mentor (1999). Persistence among adult basic educa- instructors who are new to e-teaching, pairing tion students in pre-GED classes, NCSALL them with those who are more experienced. Report #12. Retrieved from www.ncsall.net/ fileadmin/resources/research/report12.pdf Future Directions DiRamio, D., & Wolverton, M. (2006). Integrat- The future is bright for e-learning in ESOL ing learning communities and distance educa- as connectivity and access to online tools and re- tion: Possibility or pipedream? [Electronic sources increase worldwide. While there are de- Version]. Innovative Higher Education, 31, cided pros and cons to both face-to-face learning 99-113. and e-learning, it is clear that e-learning can help Guglielmino, L. (2009). What is the self-directed establish and maintain connections that would learning readiness scale? Retrieved from otherwise not exist. At a local level, we are http://www.lpasdlrs.com/ working this year to further align goals, expecta- Levy, Y. (2007). Comparing dropouts and persis- tions, and policies across our e-courses. We are tence in e-learning courses [Electronic ver- also actively engaged in experimentation with sion]. Computers & Education, 48, 185-204. and piloting of new tools and e-learning models. Moody, J. (2004). Distance education. Quarterly To that end, we welcome queries and collabora- Review of Distance Education, 5, 205-210. tion with other institutions and colleagues. A list National Council for Accreditation of Teacher of sample e-learning courses offered through the Education. (2008). NCATE standards. Re- UO is in Appendix A. For further information, trieved from http://www.ncate.org/public/ you are welcome to contact the author. standards.asp Opp-Beckman, L. (2007). Characteristics of Notes successful e-partnering in an online distance 1 This research was supported in part by grant fund- education course for English as a foreign ing through the U. S. Department of State, Bureau of language (EFL) educators. Retrieved from Educational and Cultural Affairs, Office of English https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/han- Language Programs. dle/1794/6276 2 Kindle is a product available through Amazon.com Rossett, A. (2002). The ASTD e-learning hand- (http://www.amazon.com) and provides consumers book: Best practices, strategies, and case with an electronic means of accessing text-based and studies for an emerging field. Columbus, OH: other forms of materials. This reference is intended as an example only and not an endorsement of the McGraw-Hill. product itself. Rovai, A. P. (2003). In search of higher persistence rates in distance education online pro-

22 ORTESOL Journal grams. Internet & Higher Education, 6, 1-16. Websites: http://aei.uoregon.edu/de/iraq/ and Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Lan- http://aei.uoregon.edu/de/iraqelt/ guages. (2009). TESOL technology standards. Shaping the Way We Teach English Retrieved from http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/ Purpose: Video-based introductory training seccss.asp?CID=1972&DID=12027 materials for pre-service and in-service EFL Terrell, S. R. (2005). A longitudinal investigation educators worldwide, accompanied by a manual of the effect of information perception and fo- and other resources for guided observation of cus on attrition in online learning environments. the videos, plus recommended online readings. Internet & Higher Education, 8, 213-219. Instructor-developers: Sarah Klinghammer and Leslie Opp-Beckman. Leslie Opp-Beckman is the Distance Education Tools: All resources are available through the Coordinator for the University of Oregon’s American website below. A related 10-week course English Institute. She has developed programs is regularly offered online through UO’s and trained teachers online and face-to-face Blackboard system. internationally for many years, most recently through Website: http://oelp.uoregon.edu/ the E-Teacher Scholarship Program, the Royal Thai Distance Learning Foundation, and as a English E-Teacher Scholarship Program Language Specialist for the U.S. Department of State Purpose: Online 10-week courses for EFL in the Middle East and South America. Her email is educators worldwide (outside of the U.S.A.), [email protected]. sponsored by the DOS and coordinated by the University of Maryland Baltimore County and University of Oregon consortium. Appendix A: Examples of Instructor-developers: Courses developed and Successful Courses taught by Agnieszka Alboszta, Robert Elliott, Char Heitman, Deborah Healey, Deanna The following four e-learning course- Hochstein, Kay Westerfield, and others; projects were developed for English as a Foreign program coordinated by Fernando Fleurquin Language (EFL) educators. For each e-learning (UMBC), Cynthia Kieffer (UO), Leslie Opp- course, there is a brief statement of purpose; Beckman (UO), and Joan Shin (UMBC). the names of the primary developer-instructors Tools: Supporting websites with limited open in alphabetical order by last name and included content; course management systems (CMS) in order to give credit to those who worked on such as Blackboard and Nicenet; and other the team; a list of the tools used for delivery, all education-appropriate tools such as Blogger, of which with the exception of Blackboard are Google Sites, Hot Potatoes, SnapGrades, freely available; and website addresses for ad- SurveyMonkey, and Zoomrang. Websites: http://aei.uoregon.edu/eteacher/; http:// ditional information, as desired. exchanges.state.gov/englishteaching/eteacher. Oregon-Iraq Guided Online English Studies (OR- html; http://umbc.uoregon.edu/eteacher/ Iraq GOES) and Tandem Teacher Training Thai-UO Videoconference Series and Tsunami Purpose: Interrelated year-long courses to provide Zone Project high-interest learning materials for EFL Purpose: To provide EFL professional students alongside professional development development for cohorts of educators for EFL educators in Iraq and Kurdistan. throughout Thailand in year-long, sequential Instructor-developers: Robert Elliott, Char programming. Heitman, and Deborah Healey. Instructor-developers: Cynthia Kieffer and Leslie Tools: Supporting websites with open content; Opp-Beckman. course management systems (CMS) such as Tools: Digital videoconferencing and open Blackboard and Nicenet; and other education- content, as supported through the website appropriate tools such as Blogger, Google Sites, below. Hot Potatoes, SnapGrades, and SurveyMonkey. Website: http://thaiuo.uoregon.edu/

Volume 27, 2009 23 Teaching Tips Using Area Studies as a Course Theme Russell Fauss, Tokyo International University of America

Area studies are ideal as introductory Simulations such as Oregon Trail may also be content-based ESL classes. They are flexible, effective. so they can incorporate varied content areas. An area studies theme can also take advan- Students with a range of planned majors can tage of local institutions and events for class out- find something that relates to their areas of ings. I took my class to the state capitol building interest. For secondary students, such a course in Salem for the introductory unit (it would also could serve as an introduction for those not yet work for a unit on government), to Silver Falls ready to try more specialized content-based State Park for the unit on the environment, to courses. For all students, especially those new Mission Mill Museum for history, berry picking to a region, an area studies course helps them to at a local farm for economics, and to the World understand and connect with their new home. Beat Festival for society and cultures. I took advantage of Oregon’s sesquicenten- One challenge in planning the course was nial to offer an area studies class called Oregon that while it was easy to find factual materials, 150. I focused on a few content areas: history, getting appropriate sources that explored issues environment, economics, and society and cul- and encouraged students to think and give their tures of Oregon. The final unit, biographies of opinions were harder to find. I often had to adapt famous Oregonians, included more fields such as material. As an example, for the environment science, politics, and literature. unit I had students look at Oregon’s bottle and Choosing appropriate reading material is beach bills, as well as the debate between those aided by the fact that there are many area-based who wish to protect forests and logging interests. textbook series for native speakers at a range of For history and society, we examined the treat- reading levels. My students were mostly lower ment of Native Americans here. intermediate in English proficiency, so I chose The advantages of using area studies as a text for upper elementary to middle school a theme are that several content areas can be native speakers. In mixed proficiency classes, included; the content subjects drive language supplementary texts and websites are easily that students are likely to need elsewhere in available. For example, a wealth of historical their studies; and students are motivated by the material on Lewis and Clark and the Oregon application of the class themes to their majors, Trail is available. interests, and lives outside school. Class activities can also easily be created Russell Fauss teaches integrated skills and for regional and content themes. I had students content-based ESL at Tokyo International plan a business venture between their country University of America, a one-year study abroad and Oregon for economics. They did indepen- program for Japanese students affiliated with dent research and reports on famous Oregonians Willamette University in Salem. for the final project, covering a variety of fields. 24 ORTESOL Journal Don’t Your Students Have Question Blues, Do They? Bruno Kamps, University of Oregon

“Aren’t you drinking coffee?” same way each time: “Yes, I am.” Ah, the excite- “Uh... yes, I’m not. I mean, no, I am!” ment on my students’ faces when they realized “So, you’re drinking coffee, aren’t you?” that the answer was the same each time. Good- “Uh, no... I mean yes. What?” bye to having to listen to confusing details and Negative and tag questions never cease to wondering how to answer with the appropriate confuse my students, especially the ones coming affirmative or negative. Just answer honestly! from Asian countries. After all, isn’t it logi- “So, teacher,” they quickly asked, “Why cal to give an answer using grammar similar to are there so many ways to ask the question?” the question? To a Japanese student who is not I then explained that the form of the question drinking coffee, the question, “Aren’t you drink- represented the questioner’s feeling. In order to ing coffee?” might elicit the answer, “Yes, I’m explain this more clearly, I came up with the fol- not.” If the student is drinking coffee, however, lowing template (see Figure 1) showing students he or she might logically answer, “No, I am!” how this works in all tenses. In this instance, English is actually simpler First, I show that the answers remain the than our students realize. No matter how we ask same. Then, after they see this filled-in template, the question, the answer remains the same: they fill in the remaining tenses. As in the fol- “Are you drinking coffee?” “Yes, I am.” lowing example, one question and answer clue is “Aren’t you drinking coffee?” “Yes, I am.” given for each tense. “You are drinking coffee, aren’t you?” “Yes, I Simple Past am.” You don’t know: “You aren’t drinking coffee, are you?” “Yes, I Did you drink coffee? (Yes, I did./No, I didn’t.) am.” You think so (1): My job was then to convince my students ______? (______/______) that if they could concentrate on just the subject, You think so (2): ______? (______/______) verb and object of the question they would easily You don’t think so: figure out the correct answer, if all they did was ______? (______/______) answer frankly. I then pointed out that each question contained the same basic parts, as Questions Answers shown by the following bold words: “Are If you don’t know, you ask: you drinking coffee?” “Aren’t you drink- Are you drinking coffee? Yes, I am. No, I’m not. ing coffee?” “You are drinking coffee, If you think the answer is yes, you ask: aren’t you?” “You aren’t drinking coffee, You’re drinking coffee, aren’t you? Yes, I am. No, I’m not. or: are you?” Aren’t you drinking coffee? Yes, I am. No, I’m not. To illustrate my point I asked the four If you think the answer is no, you ask: questions in rapid succession to several You’re not drinking coffee, are you? Yes, I am. No, I’m not. students, who each practiced answering the Figure 1. Question template Volume 27, 2009 25 Students can be given a sheet with all Bruno Kamps is an instructor at the American relevant tenses, including modals and perfect English Institute at the University of Oregon. A fluent tenses. After some written practice, it is the speaker of English, French, Spanish and Japanese, students’ turn to ask the questions. To make sure he has degrees in Romance Languages and applied the students understand the question nuances, linguistics. He has taught English and French in Japan, Korea, and France. the teacher tells the students what they think (You don’t know, you think so, etc.) before they have them ask their classmates each question. Your students will thank you for helping them untangle a great English mystery with such ease!

MP3 Players Rating Project: An Online Literacy Activity for EAP Migyu Kang, Iowa State University

LangQuests: an MP3 Players Rating Proj- Teacher’s Page at http://sites.google.com/site/ ect is an online literacy activity aimed at young mashupprojectmkang/teacher-s-page/. This page adult EAP students. It is designed to improve also provides practical guidance and pedagogical their English and higher-order thinking skills background information. through task-based activities based on the following scenario: Project Objectives The Computer Science Department at By the end of the activity, students should a university is planning to purchase have done the following: MP3 players for podcasting projects. • Gathered information about three MP3 The department has narrowed its choice players from the Internet and from conver- to three MP3 players: iPod, Zune, and sations with peers and sales personnel. Sansa. For their final decision, the • Compared the players. faculty wants to hear from a commit- • Rated the players according to a template. tee of students about their preferences • Presented their conclusion and reasoning and reasons. The department wants the in a way that would be acceptable to an committee, which consists of members academic audience. For this presentation, of your group, to make a formal presen- they use PowerPoint or similar software. tation on the players before it makes a decision. Preparation This scenario can be modified as needed to Before the project starts, the instructor suit instructor preferences and class needs. (See should do the following: “Suggestions for Alternatives” below.) Instruc- 1. Download the project’s purpose, scenario, tors can download all the materials from the tasks, “Timeline Table,” and “Project

26 ORTESOL Journal Evaluation Rubric” from the Teacher’s Page. 2. Distribute copies of the timeline (see Ap- pendix A) to the class. 3. Explain the project’s purpose, scenario, tasks, and timeline. 4. Explain what technology needs to be used and how students can access specific software programs. 5. Divide students into groups of three or four, with a variety of native languages and abilities within each group. 6. Give students time in class to discuss the project and help students understand what is to be done. 7. Remind students of the importance of Figure 1. Google map showing locations of mp3 collaboration and oral interactions among player manufacturers group members so that everybody can be involved in the project. • The instructor can develop different scenar- ios or have students rate different products. Implementation • The rating template can be adapted to In the computer lab, the instructor will make it more understandable to lower-level distribute, from the Teacher’s Page, copies of students. “Instructions for the Lab Activities.” On the • The final outcome of the project can vary: website, LangQuests: MP3 Players Rating Proj- group report, audio report, a web page, and ect at http://sites.google.com/site/mashupproject- so on. mkang/, the instructor will help students: • The project can be extended into a semes- 1. Navigate the components of the project. ter-long endeavor. 2. Watch the videos. Students enjoy project-based learning. This 3. Submit their audio reflection(s) in print. activity is no exception. It builds their language 4. Visit the Google map (see Figure 1) and skills as well as web expertise. Since students if interested download the Google Earth often have mp3 players themselves, it incorpo- KML file. rates real-world tasks as motivation. 5. Collaborate with group members and con- Migyu Kang has been teaching English lan- tinue to communicate with each other. guage to young adult learners in the EFL con- Suggestions for Alternatives text for over ten years. While doing her Ph.D. at Iowa State University, she has also been teach- A number of alternatives are possible. The ing English language skills since Fall 2009 in following are just a few of the many options that the Intensive English and Orientation Program. teachers can experiment with. Her email is [email protected].

Volume 27, 2009 27 Appendix A: Timeline Table Week Tasks Description Milestones Resources Task 1 Getting started Submission of the project plan Open a Gmail account (for Google Docs and web design in Week 1 Google) Google.com, peers Student grouping Planning on group projects Task 2 Data Compilation Report on data compilation Google map, Google Access the rating template Week Earth KML file, Useful Gather data from the visits Links on this project 1-2 website Visit Useful Links on the website Rating rationales and individual Task 3 Compare and contrast reflection Compare and contrast the data Google Docs and Week 3 other word document Develop rationales programs, peers Write final group report & individual reflection Final products: group report, sound Task 4 Final Product product, or web design Discuss group final products Decide on the software that groups need MP3 players, Audacity, Sound recording by the group GarageBand, Google MP3 player Sites Week Download and edit sounds and 4-5 music *Web design at http://sites. google.com Task 5 Project Showcase PowerPoint slides Develop PowerPoint slides Any software program Present the group project to the for PowerPoint slides class Lead the discussion

28 ORTESOL Journal Research Notes Reasonable Doses of Anxiety are Not Necessarily to be Feared Tom Delaney, University of Oregon

Anxiety, or “the subjective feeling of of learners’ oral participation in class. Then, at tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry the end of the study, the measures of participa- associated with the arousal of the autonomic tion were correlated with the post-measures of nervous system” (Spielberger, 1983), is gener- learner characteristics to see if participation was ally regarded as something to be avoided in the related to changes in any of these variables. The language classroom. Teachers typically take participants were divided into two groups that care to limit the amount of anxiety that learners were almost identical in terms of the instruction experience. This is not unreasonable given that they received with one exception: One group research has consistently shown that high levels participated in a series of 30-minute whole-class of anxiety can negatively affect learners’ target discussions, while the other group did not. language (TL) performance and proficiency gains (MacIntyre, 1995; Dörnyei, 2005). However, not Findings all of the correlates of anxiety are negative. For First, I was not surprised to find that learn- example, the experience of moderate levels of ers who reported high levels of anxiety on the anxiety may lead to greater effort (Scovel, 1978), pre-measure participated significantly less than the achievement of higher course grades (Chas- less anxious learners. On the other hand, it was tain, 1975), or the oral production of difficult a bit surprising that there was no significant target language structures (Kleinmann, 1977). relationship between anxiety and the quality This short research summary suggests one (accuracy, complexity, or fluency) of learners’ other way in which learners experiencing anxi- participation. Watching the classroom videos, it ety can be positive: It may result in an overall appears that the anxious learners compensated reduction of anxiety over time in certain situa- for the negative cognitive effects of anxiety with tions. In other words, an effective way to reduce greater preparation and effort; they can frequent- anxiety is to experience anxiety. ly be seen writing or practicing their participation with a partner before contributing. This I came to this conclusion while analyzing could be interpreted as an example of facilitative data for a larger study of university EFL stu- anxiety (Scovel, 1978). dents in Japan (Delaney, 2009). In this study, I investigated the relationships between a number However, I did not anticipate that the group of learner characteristics (extraversion, anxiety, of learners who participated in the whole-class learner beliefs, and target language proficiency) discussions would exhibit a significant decrease and the quantity and quality of learners’ partici- in anxiety on the post-measure, while the other pation in class. The participants took pre- and group did not. The two groups were demo- post-measures of the learner characteristics, graphically very similar (all were 18-19 year old and these results were correlated with measures Japanese university students) and, aside from the Volume 27, 2009 29 whole-class discussion activities, the two groups teachers should be sensitive to their learners’ received identical instruction using the same needs, they need not always make shielding their teacher, textbook, activities, and task formats students from anxiety the primary consideration (e.g., pair and small group work). It seemed that in the design of lessons or materials. something about participating in the whole-class Once teachers are confident that students discussions led to a reduction in anxiety. are sufficiently secure with the class, the teacher, The whole-class discussion task was ini- and each other, it is fine to present them with tially chosen for this study as a means of gaug- difficult material and tasks prudently and judi- ing learners’ readiness to participate when they ciously. Indeed, language learning is inherently were not required to do so. In contrast to pair and ego threatening, so most learners cannot avoid group work activities that tend to oblige learners some level of anxiety. The teacher’s task is to to participate (it is rude not to reply when some- avoid inducing too much of it while challenging one is speaking directly to you), the whole-class learners in pedagogically effective ways. discussion task could gauge learners’ participation when they were in a position to choose References freely whether or not to participate. I never called Chastain, K. (1975). Affective and ability fac- on any students to participate during the discus- tors in second language acquisition. Language sions. Given my experience with the population Learning, 25 (1), 153-161. of learners investigated in this study, it was with Delaney, T. (2009). Individual differences, par- some trepidation that I decided to use this task. I ticipation, and language acquisition in com- wondered whether anyone would say anything. municative classes in a Japanese university. The frequently lengthy periods of silence in the Unpublished doctoral thesis. The University whole-class discussions could be quite uncom- of Auckland, New Zealand. fortable, and I was often secretly glad when Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the discussion time was finished. Therefore, I found language learner: Individual differences in it surprising when the results of this study sug- second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: gested that this task had some real benefits. Lawrence Erlbaum. While the significant reduction in anxiety Kleinmann, H. H. (1977). Avoidance behavior in among learners who participated in the whole- adult second language acquisition. Language class discussions was not anticipated, it does Learning, 27 (1), 93-107. make sense that learners who participate in more MacIntyre, P. (1995). How does anxiety affect anxiety-inducing tasks might get used to them second language learning? A reply to Sparks and therefore experience a reduction in anxiety and Ganschow. Modern Language Journal, 79 over time. Stepping forward and speaking in (1), 90-99. front of the whole class is probably one of the Scovel, T. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign more anxiety-provoking things one can do in a language learning: A review of the anxiety re- language class, and most of the learners did par- search. Language Learning, 28 (1), 129-141. ticipate at least a few times. The implications of Spielberger, C. (1983). Manual for the state-trait this are (a) that anxiety can be reduced, and (b) anxiety inventory (StaI-Form Y). Palo Alto, that one way to reduce anxiety is to be exposed CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. to it; that is, learners who are asked to partici- Tom Delaney currently teaches English for pate in anxiety-inducing tasks (within reason) academic purposes and linguistics courses at are likely to become accustomed to the anxiety, the University of Oregon. His interests include adapt to it, and overcome it to some extent. The assessment and the role of individual differences practical implication of this finding is that while in language learning and teaching.

30 ORTESOL Journal Information for ORTESOL Journal Contributors

Editorial Policy ORTESOL Journal, a professional, refereed publication, encourages the submission of previously unpublished articles on topics of significance to individuals concerned with the teaching of English as a second or foreign language, especially in elementary and secondary education, and in higher education, adult education, and bilingual education. As a publication that represents a variety of cross-disciplinary interests, both theoretical and practical, the Journal invites manuscripts on a wide range of topics. The following areas are of special interest: 1. curriculum design and development 2. instructional methods, materials, and techniques 3. testing and evaluation 4. professional preparation 5. politics and pedagogy 6. technology-enhanced learning The Journal particularly welcomes submissions that draw on relevant research with a focus on direct application in the classroom (methods, materials, techniques, and activities) at all levels of instruction. Journal articles should be written in a style which is reader-friendly and therefore accessible to classroom teachers. While maintaining a practical focus, the articles should, nevertheless, be well-founded in research and include references to the appropriate literature. General Information for Authors ORTESOL Journal invites submissions in three categories: 1. Full-length Feature Articles. Manuscripts should usually be between 2,000 and 4,500 words. 2. Research Notes. The Journal invites short descriptions of completed studies or projects in progress. Manuscripts should be no more than 500 words. 3. Teaching Notes. The Journal invites brief descriptions of successful teaching projects, practices, activities, or techniques that may be adapted and applied by other teachers in a variety of classroom settings. Manuscripts should be no more than 500 words. Notes should specify guidelines that other professionals can follow and include objectives, class and preparation time, target audience level, implementation techniques, and suggestions for alternatives. General Submission Guidelines 1. All manuscripts receive a blind review. 2. Please submit the manuscript as an electronic file (.rtf or .doc), single-spaced.Also include, in a separate file (.rtf or .doc) the author’s name, full mailing address, daytime and evening telephone numbers, email address, institutional affiliation, and short (50 words) bio-data. Images may be incorporated into the manuscript for review, but should also be available as separate files for printing. 3. Submissions must not have been previously published and should not be under consideration for publication elsewhere. 4. ORTESOL Journal requires authors to follow ethical and legal standards for work with human subjects. All research projects in which human subjects participate, whether funded or unfunded, are subject to the federal regulations governing such research. Please adhere to your institution’s human subjects review procedure, if there is one. If there is none, you must do the following: inform your participants that you are doing research in which they will participate or be written about; make sure they understand the nature of their involvement in your research; explain the procedures; guarantee the voluntary nature of the subjects’ participation; protect confidentiality; explain potential risks, if any; and obtain and keep on file a signed consent form from each participant. 5. Send electronic files via e-mail attachment to: Deborah Healey, [email protected]

Volume 27, 2009

Oregon Teachers of English to Non-Profit Org. Speakers of Other Languages U.S. Postage c/o PSU Department of Applied Linguistics PAID P.O. Box 751 Portland, OR Portland OR 97207-0751 Permit No. 2772

ADDRESS SERVICE REQUESTED