A Development AnD environment fortnightly 120 ` rice p ou y ssue 19&20, No. 130-131 i and Vol. 19, raphy G . 1-15 & 16-30, 2019,. 1-15 apr Geo

ageing INdIa ▀ Ageing And intergenerAtionAl trAnsfer ▀ elder Abuse ▀ living ArrAngements of the elderly ▀ nAtionAl Policy for older PeoPle ▀ Ageing And Poverty in urbAn indiA PARI Strengthening Democracy NEW DELHI, INDIA LONDON, The U. K. Joint International Course (New Delhi + London) on “Public Policy Management in Parliamentary Democracy” For officers of Ministries/Departments/Autonomous Organisations/Institutions and PSUs under Government of India, State Assemblies and States Governments PARI CAlendAR 22nd – 31st July, 2019; 19th – 28th August, 2019; 9th – 18th September, 2019; 14th – 23rd October, 2019; 11th – 20th November, 2019; 9th – 18th December, 2019; 13th – 22nd January, 2020; 10th – 19th February, 2020; 16th – 25th March, 2020

Officers from 80 Central Ministries/Autonomous Bodies/PSUs and State Assemblies have received training so far Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region, Department of Space, National Aluminium Company (NALCO), National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC), Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited(BHEL), Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Central Coalfields Limited (CCL), South Eastern Coalfields Limited (SECL), Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBEC), Mahanadi Coalfields Limited (MCL), Western Coalfields Limited (WCL), Deptt. of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), Indian Bank, RITES Limited, Telecommunications Consultants India Limited (TCIL), ONGC, UM-DAE Centre for Excellence in Basic Sciences, CSIR - Central Electrochemical Research Institute , Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM), India Meteorological Department (IMD), Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi Regional Institute of Mental Health, Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST), National Biodiversity Authority (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change), All India Institute of Medical Sciences, AIIMS (New Delhi), Jawaharlal Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education & Research (JIPMER), Ircon International Limited, Central Mine Planning & Design Institute Limited (CMPDI), National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), Institute for Plasma Research, Office of the Controller General of Defence Accounts, National Institute of Tuberculosis and Respiratory Diseases, National Council for Promotion of Sindhi Language (NCPSL), Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, NPC, IIFT, NSDC, IOCL, Ministry of Communication (Department of Posts), National Institute of Rural Development and Panchayati Raj, Meghalaya Legislative Assembly Secretariat, Punjab Vidhan Sabha Secretariat, Central Institute of Himalayan Culture Studies (CIHCS), Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute (CNCI), Sikkim Legislative Assembly Secretariat, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi; National Council of Science Museums, Kolkata, West Bengal; Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, Gujarat; Central Council For Research in Unani Medicine, New Delhi, Bharat Petroleum, Mumbai, Maharashtra; Children’s Film Society India, Mumbai, Maharashtra; Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited, Mumbai, Maharashtra; National Institute for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (ni-msme), Hyderabad, Telangana; National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bangalore, Karnataka; Mizoram Legislative Assembly Secretariat, Aizwal, Mizoram; Ministry of Personnel P.G. and Pensions, Department of Pension & Pensioners Welfare, New Delhi; All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Jodhpur, Rajasthan; Ministry of Personnel P.G. and Pensions, Department of Personnel & Training, New Delhi ; National Technical Research Organisation (NTRO), New Delhi; Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, N.D.; Ministry of Shipping, New Delhi; Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion, New Delhi PARLIAMENTARY & ADMINISTRATIVE RESEARCH INSTITUTE LIGHTS, Research Foundation An Educational Not-for-Profit organisation 604, Bhikaji Cama Bhawan, Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi -110066 Tel: +91-11-40159058, 46014233, Please contact: Amit Kumar, Mobile: 7678491255 Website: www.pariparliament.org | E-mail : [email protected], [email protected] G’nY SINCE 2001 a dEvElopmENt aNd GEoGraphYaNdYou.Com GeoGraphy and you ENvIroNmENt fortNIGhtlY VOL. 19  ISSUE 19 & 20 No. 130 & 131  APRIL 1-15 & 16-30, 2019

Ageing indiA Ageing indiA 4 The Ageing of Populations in Asia 54 Welfare Schemes for Senior Citizens Lekha Subaiya & TS Syamala Ratish Kumar Jha W ith the youth unable to adequately provide for the rapidly T he central and state governments in India have enacted ageing Asian population, measures assuring the elderly of various welfare schemes for the elderly across different social basic financial and healthcare provisions should be enacted. and economic backgrounds.

10 I s South Asia Prepared for Ageing Challenges? 60 Elder Abuse in India: Emerging Evidences Ravi Durga Prasad & Srinivas Goli T V Sekher I ndia confronts problems associated with an ageing population I t is imperative to check the pervasiveness of elder abuse and from myriad and yet-to-be addressed perspectives. disrespect in India with appropriate steps.

16 Pension Schemes across the World 68 National Policy for Older Persons in India Staff Reporter Mala Kapur Shankardass Pension schemes in Japan, the United States, Norway, Denmark I ndia’s national policy for older persons—in effect since and Germany are essentially social insurance programmes. 1999—faces a number of challenges.

20 Ageing and Intergenerational Transfer in India: indiA OuTdOORS A Household Perspective 74 A Trek to Rupin Pass K S James S Srinivasan R esource constraints and shifting priorities impact monetary T ravelogue of a septuagenarian narrating his adventurous transfers to the aged. Hence, welfare schemes must ensure their trekking experience. economic security. innOvATiOn RePORT 26 Living Arrangements among the Elderly 80 Food Waste Management S Irudaya Rajan & S Sunitha Maitri Thakur, Kristina Widell, Guro Møen Tveit C hanging fertility rates, life expectancy and lifestyles have & Rasa Slizyte adversely affected the living arrangements of the elderly in A team of researchers manage food wastage through India. sustainable innovation carried out as part of the Indo-Norwegian exchange programme. 32 Ageing and Poverty in Urban India Vandana Desai U rgent steps need to be taken for the elderly to tackle issues arising from illiteracy, poverty, age and gender bias, informal employment and poor social security. In ConversatIon wIth Mathew CherIan The Chief Executive Officer, HelpAge India. 42 Employment Scenario among the Elderly in India Swati Sachdev 38 Envisioning a Kinder World S cheduled tribes and castes as well as other backward classes engaged in the primary sector constitute a large section of the working elderly population.

FiRST RePORT 49 Working out of Choice in BRieF Shireen Saxena & Sulagna Chattopadhyay 2 Letters; 3 Editor’s Note; 19 World Age Profile; B iographical sketches of four octogenarians were prepared to 37 Term Power; 67 Term Power Rating; understand factors influencing post-retirement work choices. 84 Books & Websites.

Expert Panel B Meenakumari Ajit Tyagi Rasik Ravindra Saraswati Raju Former Chairperson, Air Vice Marshal (Retd) Geologist and Former Professor, CSRD, National Biodiversity Former DG, IMD, Secretary General, Jawaharlal Nehru Authority, Chennai. New Delhi. 36 IGC, New Delhi. University, New Delhi.

Prithvish Nag B Sengupta Sachidanand Sinha D Mukhopadhyay Former Vice Chancellor, Former Member Secretary, Professor, CSRD, Chief Executive MG Kashi Vidyapeeth, Central Pollution Control Jawaharlal Nehru ACRA, Varanasi. Board, New Delhi. University, New Delhi. Noida, U. P. march, 16-31, 2019. vol 19. Issue 18 no. 129: G’nY is a must for those interested in staying abreast of developments and research in the field of science and social sciences in India. The monsoon special issue titled, ‘rain Predictions’, discusses aspects of the Indian monsoon and GeoGraphy and you phenomena relating to climate change, el nino/ La nina and drought. edItor The articles always refer to data from authentic sources. The Indian SuLagNa CHaTTOPaDHyay Meteorological Department was cited in many articles in the last issue. guest edItor The well-written content and neatly drawn diagrams help with easy SaraSwati raju understanding.—nIkhIL GuPTa via customer feedback. senIor advIsors ajit tyagi For more details log on to our website www.geographyandyou.com raSik ravindra SaraSwati raju I have recently finished reading one of the I vividly recall the issue on Indian space legal advIsor issue titled, ‘Landforms in India’—vol. 19, issue research Organisation (IsrO) which gave KRISHNENDu DaTTa 17. I was fascinated by the sheer range of insights into the research and innovation being edItorIal team topics in the magazine which studied India’s conducted by scientists at the organisation. I RaTISH KuMaR JHa rivers, islands, valleys, coastal areas and have not come across such detailed and well- SHIREEN SaXENa RaJOLI gHOSH glaciers in the geomorphological context. The examined articles on any other media platform. magazine has, without a shadow of doubt, I will continue to subscribe to G’nY as I look technIcal team ZaHID HuSSaIN helped increase my knowledge base. I would forward to reading more such articles. aMIT KuMaR like to thank the G’nY team for publishing such —vInIsha via customer feedback. NILESH KuMaR a well-researched issue furnished with reliable research by lIghts data.—ParuL via customer feedback. g’ny has proved to be extremely resourceful cover photo for my competitive exam preparation. This aN ELDERLy INHaBITaNT OF I am applyIng for competitive examinations is because G’nY does not offer surface-level LaKSHaDWEEP, INDIa By PRaSaD and rely heavily on G’nY for my preparations. information but delves deep and gets to the This magazine brings a variety of pressing heart of the matter. The content is presented correspondence/edItorIal offIce scientific and social concerns to the fore and in a concise and reader-friendly language 501, BHIKaJI CaMa BHaWaN, RK thus makes me feel better equipped to engage which makes it easier and faster to understand PuRaM, NEW DELHI - 110066 in discussions with other people. I have also a topic. I particularly enjoyed reading the PHONE: +91-11-46014233; been impressed by the article references as geomorphology issue—vol. 19, issue 17. It had +91-11-26186350 FOR NEW SuBSCRIPTIONS, it always cites eminent works from relevant several ‘in brief’ articles as well as important RENEWaLS, ENquIRIES fields. Moreover, as the magazine is nominally discussions on river narmada and Cacher PLEaSE CONTaCT CIRCuLaTION MaNagER priced, I am able to access quality content valley.—vIneeT sInGh via customer feedback. 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2 april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Guest Editor The elderly should be treated as valuable members of the society Through changes precipitated by increased longevity and enhanced attention to health, the growth of India’s elderly population–individuals over the age of 60 years—is becoming noteworthy. This pattern is expected to continue for a long time and by 2025, their share would account for 11 per cent of India’s total population. This might not seem much but in absolute terms this number would be quite large. However, this poses a challenge for the economy, especially in view of the shifting socio-economic circumstances including breakdown of the joint family system, migration of men in search of jobs, receding community support, etc. Moreover, the system suffers on account of unequal access to its healthcare services. Although superior Saraswati Raju quality facilities do exist in our country, only a few among the elderly can avail Former Professor, its benefits. Additionally, inadequate family caregiving is creating its own set CSRD, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi of problems. Despite various governmental schemes being in place, they are unable to tackle most problems associated with the elderly due to faulty implementation. On the bright side, their increased lifespan presents scope for utilising them as valuable resources which would also influence economic productivity. The articles in the current issue of Geography and You on Ageing India focus predominantly on the socio-cultural and economic challenges faced by the older population and proffer hope only occasionally. Authors conclude that the perception of the public and policy makers towards the elderly needs to alter. It is imperative to ensure their overall wellbeing both within and outside the family while simultaneously treating them as valuable members of the society. Editor’s note Financial independence is imperative for a rewarding old age It is difficult to imagine that India would soon have a third of its population above 60 years of age. What this means for the economy is hard to project as there has been no significant exercise involving the ageing population which would determine the trajectory. However, this issue does highlight certain key areas of concern that needs urgent flagging. First, a need for home-based palliative services for the old-old and a dedicated geriatrics department in every healthcare unit—from the primary to the district and state level—is deeply felt. Second, there is a need for the infrastructure and transport services to accommodate the requirements of both the elderly and the differently-abled. At present there are no provisions of ramps, escalators and Sulagna Chattopadhyay dedicated public transport systems—being critically absent in most cities and Founder-Editor, towns. Third, a meaningful pension scheme needs to be put in place where, Geography and You, New Delhi aside from funds, services are also provided for the elderly. For instance, the paltry pension for elderly below the poverty line—amounting to about INR 400-500 for each—can, perhaps, be invested towards creating a corpus at a taluk or district level. This can help employ paramedics and grassroot workers who can offer quality care to the elderly. Fourth, an attitudinal shift of the government with greater sensitivity towards the elderly is warranted. This will facilitate change amongst the general populace too. The need to be kinder and gentler is important to instill confidence among the elderly to venture out with ease. Finally, such initiatives will help the elderly to become productive assets for the country at large, working beside the youth with dignity to usher in a new paradigm of growth. Happy Reading.

GeoGraphy and you . april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 3 Ageing indiA

With fewer working age members in the family to care for the elderly, there is an increasing compulsion amongst the older population to work. An elderly man enjoying the winter sun at his doorstep in Udaipur, Rajasthan.

4 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 By Lekha Subaiya & TS Syamala The ageing OF populations in a S i a With the Asian population ageing at a rapid rate and the youth no longer being able to substantively provide for the older segment, measures assuring the elderly of basic financial and healthcare provisions need to be put in place.

he demographic transition of a Nations data, the tipping point for India will occur country resulting from decreasing after three decades. At this time, the proportion of birth rate and death rate causes the increasing elderly population will exceed the population ageing. During such a share of those below 15 years of age—which has situation, the proportion of the older been consistently declining since 2015 (Fig 1). grows faster than that of the younger population. The decreasing death rate under this ManyT countries in east Asia such as Japan and phenomenon is owing to gradual increase in China have already experienced this demographic longevity brought on by improved healthcare. phenomenon. With regards to south Asian Moreover, the average number of children countries, this change is expected to occur in the that a woman will give birth to in her lifetime next few decades. In 2019, the percentage share of has declined from 5 to 2.5 since 1950. This is the population, 60 years and above is 10 per cent in also the first time that most people will live India (United Nations, 2019). As per the projected into their 60s, or even beyond that. World population estimates from the 2015 United demographic indicators show that a child born sAd RA AP ekh

Ul The authors are Assistant Professors at Population Research Centre, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bengaluru. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Subaiya L., T.S. Syamala, 2019. The ageing of

Photo: An Photo: populations in Asia, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 4-9

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 5 Feminisation of the older population poses a unique challenge to Asian societies where women’s access to resources and opportunities is limited.

today can be expected to live till the age of 72 live till the age of 68.1 and a female child for years which is almost 25 years more than a child 70.5 years (Table 1). Enhanced longevity can be born in the year 1950 would have lived (Table attributed to a number of factors including, better 1). Such a demographic transition presents living standards, more active lifestyles, greater various opportunities as well as challenges for literacy, increased access to quality healthcare policymakers for developing economies such and improved nutritional levels. The trend is as India. The implications of an accelerating also often associated with improvements in food ageing population and the policy responses to production and technology in each economy. this emerging demographic phenomenon are the Despite this global pattern, there exist large critical issues that our country needs to cope with. variations pertaining to life expectancies at birth across countries. It can be seen that Japan has implications of ageing populations one of the highest life expectancies in the world. living longer: As previously discussed, ageing Additionally, women in each country have a is a consequence of longer life expectancy as has greater longevity than men. In fact, Japanese been witnessed in several Asian countries. Life women can be expected to live an average of six expectancy at birth refers to the average number of years more than men. years a newborn is expected to live as per current Women and ageing: Globally, there are more mortality patterns. For the period 2015-2020, number of women than men in the older age a male child born in India can be expected to groups due to higher male mortality. Women

Fig. 1: Percentage of the population in the young and old age groups from 2015 to 2075

45

40

35

30

25 China 0-14 China 60+ 20 India 0-14 India 60+ 15 Japan 0-14 Japan 60+ 10

5

0 2015 2025 2050 2075

While China and Japan have already transitioned demographically, India will reach its tipping point in 2050. Source: United Nations, 2015

6 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Table 1: Demographic indicators from 1950 to 2050 World More developed Less developed Asia China India Japan regions regions Total fertility (live births per women) 1950-55 5.0 2.1 6.1 5.8 6.1 5.9 3.0 2015-20 2.5 1.6 2.6 2.2 1.7 2.2 1.3 Life expectancy at birth (years) 1950-55 Males 45.5 62.2 40.8 41.5 42.5 37.7 61.0 Females 48.5 67.3 42.7 43.2 45.3 36.2 64.6 Total 47.0 64.8 41.7 42.3 43.8 37.0 62.8 Life expectancy at birth (years) 2015-20 Males 69.9 76.2 68.6 71.2 74.5 68.1 81.3 Females 74.7 82.3 72.9 75.5 79.0 70.5 87.5 Total 72.3 79.2 70.7 73.3 76.6 69.3 84.4 Percentage of total population 1950 0-14 years 34.3 27.4 37.5 36.4 34.0 37.5 35.4 2020 25.4 16.4 27.2 23.5 17.7 26.2 12.4 2050 21.1 15.0 22.0 17.8 14.1 18.5 11.6 1950 60 + years 8.0 11.5 6.3 6.6 7.4 5.4 7.7 2020 13.5 25.7 11.1 13.1 17.4 10.1 34.3 2050 21.4 33.4 19.5 24.4 34.6 19.5 43.9 Rising life expectancy and decreasing fertility rates across countries are increasing the percentage share of the elderly population. Source: United Nations, 2019

Table 2: Profile of older population in Asia

Sex Ratio (60+) Literacy rate (60+) Proportion Widowed

2016 Year Per cent Year Age Men Women Japan 1299 ...... 2010 75+ 17.6 60.1 China 1087 2010 73.9 2010 65+ 21.1 46.7 Afghanistan 1242 2011 20.3 ...... Bangladesh 1031 2016 40.0 2011 75+ 8.8 69.0 Bhutan 917 2012 14.9 2007 60+ 20.4 43.3 India 1111 2011 41.6 2011 75+ 27.6 66.2 Maldives 1124 2014 92.8 2014 65+ 16.2 51.0 Nepal 1163 2011 20.8 2011 75+ 20.4 44.8 Pakistan 1136 2014 25.3 2007 60+ 19.1 50.6 Sri Lanka 1351 2016 81.0 2012 75+ 14.5 47.8 A larger proportion of women are widows in comparison to men in Asia. Source: United Nations, 2015 represent 54 per cent of the global population to older men is chiefly responsible for a greater aged 60 years and above, and 62 per cent of proportion of widows as compared to widowers in those aged 80 and above (United Nations, Asia (Table 2). Moreover, not only are the women 2015). This feminisation of the older population younger than their spouses, they are also less poses a unique challenge to the society where likely to re-marry after their death as per custom. women’s access to resources and opportunities This compels older women of such societies to is limited. Moreover, the elderly women in Asia lead the remainder of their lives without the are vulnerable to feelings of neglect which is companionship and support of their spouse. often exacerbated by their economic dependence. healthy ageing: The ability of the elderly The convention of having women married off individuals to contribute either economically

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 7 Table 3: Life expectancy at birth and at the age of 60 between 2010 and 2015 as well as, healthy life expectancy in 2013 across south Asian countries Life expectancy at birth Life expectancy at age 60 Healthy life expectancy (years) (years) (years)

2010-2015 2010-2015 2013 Males Females Males Females Males Females World 68.3 72.7 18.7 21.5 60 64 More Developed Region 75.1 81.5 20.8 24.6 .. .. Less Developed Region 66.9 70.7 17.8 20.0 .. .. Asia 69.7 73.6 18.1 20.6 .. .. Japan 80.0 86.5 23.0 28.4 72 78 China 74.0 77.0 18.3 20.6 67 69 Afghanistan 58.7 61.1 14.9 16.5 50 50 Bangladesh 69.9 72.3 18.2 19.1 60 62 Bhutan 68.6 69.1 20.2 20.1 59 60 India 66.1 68.9 17.0 18.4 56 59 Maldives 75.4 77.4 19.0 20.1 67 68 Nepal 67.6 70.5 16.4 18.1 58 60 Pakistan 65.0 66.8 17.5 18.0 56 57 Sri Lanka 71.2 78.0 19.1 21.6 63 68

Globally, an average person spends eight to ten years of his/her life in poor health. Sources: United Nations, 2015; World Population Prospects, 2015 revision; World Health Organisation, 2014

or domestically depends primarily on their support inevitably declines. In other words, as the physical capacity. A more productive and superior ratio of individuals aged between 20 to 64 years quality of life awaits those whose longevity is and those aged 65 and above declines, there will supplemented with good health. Life expectancy be fewer working age individuals to support the at the age of 60 measures the average years the elderly. The old age support ratio across countries elderly can hope to live after that age. In fact, shows a decrease between 2015 and 2030, world statistics of life expectancy show that a particularly in countries such as Japan, China and man who is 60 years old today may live for almost Sri Lanka (Table 4). 19 years more and a 60 year old woman can be Diminishing levels of support adversely impact expected to live for another 22 years (Table 3). caregiving for the older population in these However, higher longevity may present numerous countries as the family has traditionally been the health challenges. major source of support during old age. With the A comparison between life expectancy at birth shrinking potential support ratio, there are fewer and healthy life expectancy at birth—which age members in the family to care for the is the number of years one is expected to live elderly. Moreover, limited access to social security well—indicates that an average person spends schemes in many Asian countries further thwarts eight to ten years of his/her life in poor health. This their chances of achieving any financial stability. fact clearly underscores the need for improved The situation is particularly grim in India where healthcare to attend to the medical needs less than 10 per cent of the older population of older people. receive work related pension as majority of them old age financial security:When the proportion work in the unorganised sector (United Nations of the elderly population grows at a pace faster Population Fund, 2012). Furthermore, a great than that of the working age group, old age many individuals continue to work in old age with

8 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Table 4: Potential support ratio in 2015 and 2030 and Simultaneously, the vulnerability of women, percentage of labour force participation of the elderly particularly widows, increases with age as most population in India during 2015 remain economically dependent. Potential support Labour force Many Asian countries—particularly the low and ratio (people aged participation of 20-64 per person people aged 65 years middle income nations—share certain social and aged 65 or above) or above historical features that determine their experience

2015 2030 2015 of, and responses to, ageing. This includes relying Males Females excessively on adult children and other family World 7.0 4.9 30.2 14.4 members for old age support. Moreover, as many More Developed of these have been predominantly agrarian 3.4 2.4 16.8 9.4 Region economies, a significant number of older people Less Developed continue to live in rural areas. Other shared 9.0 5.9 37.3 17.5 Region aspects consist of a traditional preference for sons Asia 8.0 5.1 34.8 15.6 over daughters; a larger proportion of older and Japan 2.1 1.7 29.7 14.5 widowed women; ongoing transition in household China 7.1 3.6 28.2 16.1 structure from larger, multigenerational families Afghanistan 16.9 16.4 43.5 7.5 to smaller/nuclear families; migration of youth Bangladesh 11.2 8.3 49.4 15.9 from rural to urban sectors; and weak social Bhutan 11.6 8.3 46.4 30.6 protection programmes for the elderly. India 10.0 7.0 43.2 11.4 Such social and demographic shifts render Maldives 12.5 8.0 50.6 24.9 financial security a fundamental necessity for Nepal 9.1 8.1 67.6 41.6 those at the receiving end. Additionally, it is Pakistan 11.2 9.8 40.6 9.9 crucial to ensure their mental, emotional and Sri Lanka 6.3 3.7 35.0 8.2 physical wellbeing as they continue to age. The problems can be alleviated if they are made The decreasing financial assistance available from the working-age population for the elderly, especially in Japan, to play a more inclusive role within families, China and Sri Lanka, demands greater state-led old age communities and the economy at large. support. Sources: United Nations, 2015; International Labour Office, 2014 references International Labour Organisation, 2014. World Social Protection Report 2014-15, Building Economic Recovery, Inclusive Development and Social Justice, some even working beyond the age of 80 years Geneva: Switzerland, Available at: https://bit. owing to economic compulsions. India lacks a ly/2JmE2VK. universal social security programme—which United Nations Population Fund, 2012. Report on the would include a larger number older people—as Status of Elderly in Select States of India, 2011, New the present schemes are intended only for the Delhi: India. Available at: https://bit.ly/2S49Z8c. below poverty line elderly. The efficacy of the United Nations, 2015. The World’s Women: Trends current schemes is also limited with only one and Statistics: United Nations Statistics fifth of the older population in India availing its Division,New York: USA. Available at: https:// benefits (United Nations Population Fund, 2012). bit.ly/2eSLefX United Nations, 2015. World Population Ageing Way forward 2015: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Asia is undergoing a significant population change Population Division, New York: USA. Available with each country ageing at a varying pace. The at: https://bit.ly/2NtkWS9 proportion of population aged 60 years and more United Nations, 2019. World Population Prospects in these countries is increasing mainly due to 2019: Department of Economic and Social a rapid decline in fertility rate and substantial Affairs, Population Division,New York: USA. improvements in life expectancy. Among the Online Edition. Available at: https://bit. elderly population, women lead longer lives, ly/322PA83. resulting in a greater number of elderly women WHO, 2014. Global Health Estimates, New York: in comparison to their male counterparts. USA. Available at: https://bit.ly/303Botx.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 9 Ageing indiA

With the second largest older population in the world, india needs to urgently hin Khamaru hin

alleviate the rapidly emerging problems tu in the foreseeable future. an elderly at the portico of his house in West Bengal. Photo courtesy: courtesy: Photo

10 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 By Ravi Durga Prasad & Srinivas Goli Is South ASiA PrePared For AGeinG ChAllenGeS? With ageing population no longer being a feature unique to developed nations, India confronts problems of the elderly from myriad yet-to-be addressed perspectives.

outh Asia, comprising of Afghanistan, ageing population. The problem is more urgent Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, for India as it not just consists of the second Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka largest older population in the world, but its have a higher share of working population is ageing at a rate of 3.5 per cent per population—demographic window annum—one of the fastest in the world. There is of opportunity—which slightly varies across thus a need to formulate the country’s economic, countries.S However, the demographic trend social and healthcare policies accordingly over the past few decades signals an increasing (UNPP, 2017 Revision). proportion of elderly population in south Asia. In this region, individuals aged 60 years or The past, present and future trends of more surged to 154 million in 2015—a threefold ageing in south Asia increase since 1980 which recorded 54 million Decline in the fertility and mortality rate and elderly people. Similarly, the average regional increase in the life expectancy at birth are the life expectancy at birth (LEB) has increased primary factors responsible for an expanding from 37 years in 1950-1955 to nearly 68 years in ageing population. As a result, the proportion of 2010-2015. Within the region, the proportion of older people in south Asia which was 5.8 per cent older population ranges from 14 per cent in Sri by 1950 rose to 8.5 per cent in the year 2015. This Lanka to four per cent in Afghanistan. Similarly, is projected to stretch to 18.9 per cent by 2050 and the LEB, which is 76 years in Maldives and 62 even further—32 per cent—by 2100 (Fig. 1). in Afghanistan, shows a considerable disparity However, amidst the south Asian countries, (UNPP, 2017 Revision). considerable variations in the countries’ past, In recent times, The south Asian countries, present and projected trends vis-a-vis ageing particularly, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri have been noted. A decline in fertility rate had Lanka are witnessing a rapid enlargement of the increased the share of elderly in Sri Lanka during

The authors are Junior Research Fellow and Assistant Professor respectively at Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Prasad R.D., S. Goli, 2019. Is south Asia prepared for ageing challenges?, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20):10-15

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 11 1950 to 11 per cent which contrasts with Nepal’s third of the total population in the south Asian share of 3.8 per cent elderly in the same year. countries will be women. The only exception to Similar to Sri Lanka, Pakistan’s proportion of this would be Pakistan and Afghanistan where elderly population in the same year was also elderly women in 2100 would constitute less than high—possibly owing to migration during the 30 per cent of the population (Table 1). India-Pakistan partition. By 2015, Sri Lanka experienced a further social security, living arrangements and increase of 3 per cent from 11 per cent in 1950 to dependency in older population 14 per cent in 2015 in the proportion of its older In south Asian countries, the traditional family population, while that of Afghanistan fell from structure fosters strong ties with one’s kith and 5 to 4 per cent. In the same context, India and kin. This fact is reflected in the nature of living Pakistan, with their respective elderly segments arrangements for the older population which reaching approximately 8.9 per cent and 8.5 per is presented in table 2. More than 70 per cent of cent, were ranked second and third in south Asia. individuals aged 60 years or above are estimated The projected trends indicate that by 2050, this to be living with their children and extended proportion in Maldives, Bhutan and Bangladesh family members. However, among those living can grow twice or even thrice the size observed in alone, India and Nepal are in the lead with their 2015. However, the trend is expected to be slower percentage of aged population being 5 and 3.9 in Pakistan and Afghanistan from 2015 to 2100 respectively. On the other hand, this proportion (Fig. 1). is the lowest in Afghanistan (0.2 per cent). The dependency ratio—which is calculated by Gendered view of ageing dividing the number of dependents (aged 0-14 Across the world, an average woman lives and over 65) in a population by the number of five years longer than a man and in Asia, this working age people (aged 15-64 years)—within differential longevity is of three years. This these countries also shows considerable variation. difference is evident in south Asia’s proportion In this respect, Sri Lanka ranks first (16.2 per cent), of the elderly for both genders which is expected followed by Nepal (9.3 per cent), whereas, with a to increase exponentially by 2100. Although, the mere 4.2 dependency ratio, Afghanistan male-female ratio is almost equal in Bangladesh, ranks last. Nepal and Pakistan, the projected figures for the The social security system also varies for each year 2050 and 2100 reveal that more than one- country within south Asia. Surprisingly, despite

Fig. 1: Percentage of population aged 60 years and above in south Asian countries from 1950 to 2100 Sri Lanka 45 Estimates Projections Maldives 40 Bangladesh Nepal 35 Bhutan 30 India 25 Southern Asia Afghanistan 20 Pakistan 15 Projected data

10 The proportion of older people in south Asia,

Percentage of population aged 60 years or above which was 5.8 per cent in 1950, rose to 8.5 per 5 cent by 2015. This is expected to increase to 18.9 per cent by 2050 and even further—32 per 0 cent—by 2100. Source: Data from United Nations Population Prospects, 1970 2015 2010 2100 1950 1980 1960 1990 2070 2017 Revision 2020 2030 2050 2080 2060 2090 2000 2040

12 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Although India is ageing at a rate of 3.5 per cent per year—one of the fastest in the world, the government spends a meagre USD 3 per month as pension.

Table 1: Gender-wise proportion of people aged 60 years and above in south Asian countries

1950 2015 2050 2100 Countries Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Afghanistan 5.38 4.65 3.72 4.32 8.43 9.23 25.16 29.69

Bangladesh 5.90 5.70 7.06 7.06 20.93 23.14 38.28 40.29 Bhutan 4.14 4.47 7.05 6.63 25.21 21.99 36.39 37.70

India 5.20 5.59 8.37 9.52 17.72 20.54 30.60 33.92

Maldives 5.82 3.38 5.46 6.63 29.48 26.97 39.41 39.42

Nepal 3.54 3.98 8.22 8.84 14.68 21.27 37.74 40.67 Pakistan 7.78 7.87 6.56 6.64 12.27 13.62 23.87 27.36

Sri Lanka 12.25 9.41 12.81 14.98 26.13 31.15 37.64 41.95

South Asia 5.86 5.86 8.02 8.89 17.57 20.21 30.36 33.58 As per the 2050 and 2100 projections, women will constitute more than one-third of the total population in the south Asian countries. Source: Data from United Nations Population Prospects, 2017 Revision

Table 2. Social security, living arrangements and dependency ratio for the older population among south Asian countries vis-à-vis their economic development

Gross Living Arrangements of older Monthly Eligibility Old age Domestic Population♣ amount criteria Countries dependency Product Living with of pension† for Living Living with ratio♣ per capita # children and (in USD) pension alone spouse only (in USD) others 70 years and Sri Lanka 16.19 4073.7 13 -- - above 70 years and Nepal 9.34 849.0 19 3.9 12.4 75.4 above South Asia 9.22 1842.3 - - 4.7 14.3 73.3 60 years and India 7.79 1942.1 3 5.0 15.5 71.0 above 65 (men) and Bangladesh 7.59 1516.5 6 1.9 10.3 81.9 62 (women) Bhutan 7.35 3130.2 - - -- - Pakistan 7.06 1547.9 - - 0.7 3.7 90.1 65 years and Maldives 6.35 11151.1 150 3.6 6.7 79.6 above Afghanistan 4.18 550.1 - - 0.2 2.1 94.6

In south Asia, India and Nepal have the highest share of elderly population that lives alone which is 5 and 3.9 per cent respectively. Source: Data from United Nations Population Prospects, 2017; # World Bank, 2017, ; †Pension Watch, 2018.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 13 Fig. 2: Distribution percentage of but tapers towards the apex—thereby suggesting population by sex and age group in India a gradual decline in the ageing population. during 1950, 2015, 2050 and 2100 In 2015, there is a noticeable decrease in the Percentage male Percentage female proportion of children owing to the declining 1950 2015 80+ average of children per woman, and an increasing 70-74 proportion of working age-group. Therefore, 60-64 the pyramid now appears to be narrower at the 50-54 40-44 base. Based on the 2050 projections, the structure 30-34 assumes a somewhat broad cylindrical shape 20-24 which narrows slightly at the neck. 10-14 Eventually by 2100, the proportion of population 0-4 above 80 years of age would exceed that of other 20 10 0 10 20 20 10 0 10 20 age groups—thus making the structure appear Percentage male Percentage female broadest at the top. The projections also indicate a 2050 2100 much lesser proportion of children. 75-79 This proportional increase of the oldest-old 60-64 segment acts as a major encumbrance to India’s 45-49 social and public health policy framework. Figure 3 shows the past, present and future 30-34 perspectives for the three age categories of India’s 15-19 elderly population—60 to 69, 70 to 79 and above 0-4 80 years—from 1950 to 2100. While the overall share of the youngest-old (60-69 years) has been 20 10 0 10 20 20 10 0 10 20 continually declining since 1960, the projection The population above the age of 80—of which women will evinces a sharp decline in their proportion constitute a maximum share—would increase by 20 per cent and that of children would decline significantly by 2100. after 2020. However, the proportion of the Source: Data from United Nations Population Prospects, 2017 older-old (70-79 years) has been rather steady and is predicted to increase slightly by 2020. Contrarily, the proportion of the oldest-old (80 years and above) shows a 20 per cent increase from a relatively higher gross domestic product (GDP), 1950 to 2100. The latter is a cause of concern for a India spends a meagre USD 3 per month—by way developing economy like India. of government pensions for the elderly—which is less than Bangladesh (USD 6 per month) and far perspective for future policy below Nepal (USD 19 per month). Population in south Asian countries, especially India, is rapidly ageing. The pace at which the The case ofin dia proportion of the elderly is growing in this part Possessing one of the poorest social security of the world is much faster compared to that systems in the world despite consisting of the of developed countries. Burden of diseases, second largest population of the elderly, India disabilities among the elderly and caregiving grapples with the challenges concomitant with in south Asian countries are some of the an ageing population. Improvement in life region’s foreseeable challenges. Moreover, the expectancy combined with a declining fertility demographic dividend that India is expected to rate as the country approaches the replacement gain from the increase in its working population, level—which is the point when a population will be adversely impacted by the burden of its exactly replaces itself from one generation to the ageing population(Bloom and Rosenberg, 2011). next—has significantly increased the proportion In the developed nations, the fertility rate of aged population in India (James and Goli, declined gradually and was accompanied by 2016). Figure 2 demonstrates the age-wise change rising GDP, unlike developing countries, where in the country’s sex ratio from 1950 to 2100. The the fertility transition was not smooth. This was pyramid can be seen to have a broad base in primarily because of intensive family planning 1950—indicating a greater proportion of children interventions and other adhoc population policies.

14 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Fig. 3: Percentage of older population in India for the period 1950-2100

80 Estimates Projections 70 60 From 1950 to 2100, the 50 share of youngest-old will decline; that of the 40 older-old will be steady 30 and the share of the oldest-old population will 20 increase exponentially 10 in India. 0 Source: Data from United Nations Population Prospects, 2017 1970 2015 2010 1950 1980 2100 1960 1990 2070 2020 2030 2050 2080 2060 2090 2000 2040 60 - 69 Years 70 - 79 Years 80 Years and above Youngest-old Older-old Oldest-old

Thus, the ageing population has doubled in this Understandably, the disease burden and part of the world in a shorter period as compared morbidity levels are higher among the older age to the developed countries (James and Goli, 2016). groups. As per the traditional socio-economic This additionally strains the economy with a arrangement, the aged population in south rising need to bear the social security expenditure Asian countries is primarily dependent on the of its aged population. An expansive informal younger age cohorts for financial assistance sector, poor social security, low paying work and (Bloom and Rosenberg, 2011). India and other hazardous working environments are expected south Asian countries can reap the benefits of to further cripple the economy. The rising old second demographic dividend only when they can age dependency ratio would create immense effectively manage the enlarging share of the aged. demands on the healthcare sector and social This would entail ensuring a healthy, productive security investments of south Asia’s developing and value-driven life to the elderly. countries, especially India. A failure to meet these requirements will result in problems pertaining references to the social living conditions of the elderly Bloom D. E. and L. Rosenberg, 2011. The Future population, specifically the females who are more of South Asia: Population Dynamics, Economic likely to live beyond the age of 80. Poor levels of Prospects, and Regional Coherence. PGDA labour productivity, rising unemployment and an Working Papers 6811, Program on the Global accelerating growth of elderly population affects Demography of Aging.Available at: www. not just the country’s socio-economic growth, researchgate.net/publication/254417575 but also the quality of life for the older segment James K. S. and S.Goli, 2016. Demographic changes (James and Goli, 2016). With rapid urban in India: Is the country prepared for the development luring the younger generations challenge? Journal of World Affairs, 26(1): 169-187. to the cities, most of the elderly parents are left Pension Watch, 2018. Social Pensions behind at home. This adds to the economy’s Database,HelpAge International. Available at: caregiving costs while these elderly become https://bit.ly/2ZVV1DQ vulnerable to socio-psychological issues. United Nations, 2017. World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision. Department of Economic and Way forward Social Affairs, Population Division, New York: Although the life expectancy at birth of India USA. Available at: https://bit.ly/2DIjHJT has enhanced over the years, the same cannot World Bank, 2017. World Bank Open Data: World be said for the quality of life. In fact, the disease Development Indicators, the World Bank Group, adjusted life expectancy is much lower than that Washington D.C.: USA. Available at: https://bit. of developed nations (UNPP, 2017 Revision). ly/2FKyySN.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 15 Ageing indiA

By Staff Reporter PenSion SchemeS across the world Pension schemes followed in countries such as Japan, the United States, Norway, Denmark and Germany are essentially social insurance programmes, where contribution determines the pension emoluments post retirement.

With one of the best social security systems in the world, Japan helps nurture a vibrant elderly population.

“ ocial security is the protection that category. This paper discusses only pension a society provides to individuals schemes of some of the developed countries and and households to ensure access to does not encompass the entire gamut of social healthcare and to guarantee income welfare schemes available to the elderly population security, particularly in cases of old age, in these countries. unemployment, sickness, invalidity, work injury, maternityS or loss of a breadwinner”, opines the Japan International Labour Organisation (ILO, undated). Eligibility: Consisting of the oldest population in Two main types of social security systems are the world, Japan has an expansive pension system, followed worldwide—social insurance and social known as Nenkin. Japan introduced Long Term assistance. The first is contributory in nature and Care Insurance (LCTI) in the year 2000 to cover its benefits depend on the extent of contribution citizens above the age of 65 years as per their needs. made by the individual. Social assistance, on the On the other hand, the registered residents of Japan other hand, is like basic income which is ensured aged between 20 and 59 years are covered by the mera by the government to those in need and requires National Pension System. Similar to this, India’s ro o no contribution. National Social Assistance Atal Pension Scheme covers those in the 18-40 age te Programme (NSAP) of India falls under this group. The Japan Pension System has two tiers—a

The article should be cited as G’nY staff, 2019. Pension schemes across the world, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 16-18 Photo courtesy :

16 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 basic flat rate system, known asKukumin nenkin, in the country. and employee’s pension scheme, referred to as Retirement age: The retirement age in Norway is Kosei nenkin. The first category is for people who 67 years but this does not entail that the person will are self-employed/part-time workers/workers at a not receive any pension before that time. In fact, a company with less than five employees. The second person can chose to receive pension after 62 years system is intended for people who work either but for that he must have sufficient earnings. full-time or for three quarters of what is considered Benefit:The amount of an individual’s pension full-time at the company. depends on various factors such as, number of Contribution: Since August 1, 2017, a minimum of years he/she has worked, amount earned during 10 years of contribution was mandated to qualify these years and his/her marital status. for the basic old age pension benefit. In order to apply for full basic pension, 40 years of contribution Sweden became necessary. Benefits are adjusted in Besides private pension, Sweden has two main proportion to the duration of contribution periods. types of pension system for senior citizens— The contribution amount for National Pension is earning related basic pension and guaranteed USD 151 per month (Nenkin, 2019). In cases where pension benefit. Earning related pensions can the individual is under 50 years and the income of be withdrawn from the age of 61 years, while his/her spouse is less than the standard level, he/ guarantee pension benefit can be availed from the she is exempted from contributing. Moreover, the age of 65. A minimum residency of three years in pension system allows postponing contribution the country is required to avail guaranteed pension payments to help those who are not granted benefit. On the other hand, a maximum guarantee contribution exemption. pension benefit requires 40 years of residency. Benefit Amount:Amount for full basic pension Every year, 18.5 per cent of pensionable income based on 40 years of contribution periods is USD is earmarked as retirement pension. The income 7,194 per year. The employee’s pension is paid in pension and premium pension is reserved at 16 addition to the basic pension. As the minimum age and 2.5 per cent respectively. In case a person has a of availing basic as well as employee pension has small pensionable income, he can avail guaranteed increased from 60 to 65 years, a ‘specially provided’ pension. pension for employees is in place for individuals Benefits: The full guaranteed benefit for a single between 60 to 64 years till 2025. pensioner born after 1938 is USD 10,089 or 22 per cent of gross average earnings. The guaranteed Norway minimum pension is about one third of the net Norway, which ranks first in the United Nations average wage. Pensioners receive other benefits in Development Programme’s (UNDP) Human the form of concessional fee for public transport, Development Index (HDI), has a more flexible museums etc. In Sweden, the average pension is pension system compared to other developed just above 50 per cent of wages which may decrease countries (UNDP, 2016). The country has three with increasing life expectancy level. main public pension systems—guaranteed pension from National Insurance Scheme, employer’s Germany contribution and private savings. Since 2006, a System: In Germany, there is single tier statutory mandatory occupational pension system has been public pension system which is based on pension in place in the private sector to supplement the points earned during one’s working age. public pension. An individual between 16 and 66 Eligibility: Minimum five year contribution is years who has resided in Norway for at least three required to receive pension benefits. Currently, years and has been a member of the National the old age pension is paid after 65 years of age. Insurance Scheme, is entitled to the guaranteed However, just as in most European countries, pension scheme (EU, Undated). This means that the statutory retirement age is also gradually a person can receive post retirement pension increasing in Germany. With the result, those from Norway if he has been covered by national born in 1964 or later will retire at the age of 67. insurance or has received pensionable income for The provision to seek an early retirement also at least three years. However, the full guarantee exists in Germany where a person may retire at pension is provided only after 40 years of residence 63 with an insurance contribution of at least 35

Geography and You . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 17 years. However, in such a situation, his/her pension takes retirement at the age of 70, his/her benefit benefit is reduced substantially (OECD, 2017). increases by as much as 8 per cent a year. The Contribution: To receive pension benefit, one country also has an early retirement system in must make contributions which is calculated on place that pays a reduced pension sum from 62 to the individual’s annual salary and deducted by the 64 years. Moreover, there is no cap on the person’s employer. Although there is neither a maximum earning after he reaches retirement age and he will nor a minimum amount paid to the German continue to receive complete social pension, the maximum contribution in 2018 was security benefits. 19.5 per cent of gross salary which included 9.75 per cent of employee salary. France Pension benefit: A year’s contribution at the average France possesses a basic pension system and a earning equals one point. At the time of retirement, mandatory supplementary scheme. Basic income the pension points for all years are summed up. The is supplemented by mandatory additional pension sum is then multiplied by an annual pension point schemes, calculated in points. For basic income value. Pension point value is adjusted annually in pension, the contribution amount for a year—paid relation to the gross wage growth. according to one’s income—is converted into Social security: There is a social security system in points. An individual receives pension for place for individuals whose income is insufficient supplementary scheme depending on the number to fulfil their primary needs. Such individuals of points earned by him at the time of retirement can claim additional means-tested benefit which (OECD, 2017). is calculated as the difference between the basic The statutory age for availing basic pension is 60 amount required and one’s household income. years for people born before July 1, 1951 and 62 years for people born 1955 onwards. In the context united sates of America of mandatory supplementary scheme, the typical In the United States of America, retirees age of retirement is between 65 and 67 years. receive pension from a federal social insurance Pension for basic income depends on average programme. The employee pays social security yearly salary, insurance duration and the person’s tax which is received as trust fund and from which age at the time of claiming the benefit. The pension benefits are provided to those who are retired. This amount increases in case of a dependent child and is regarded as the foundation of retirement income. spouse. The pension sum under supplementary System: The US pension is a two tier system— scheme increases by 5 per cent per dependent child. earnings related and means-tested. An individual A child is considered dependent if he/she is either receives credit for each year he works that helps 18 years old or if he/she is a student, apprentice or a him become eligible for benefits at the time of job seeker under 25 years. The pension amount also retirement. The minimum requirement for increases in case of three or more children. social security retirement is 40 credits that equal approximately 10 years of work. In 2017, USD 1300 references equalled to one credit and in a year one can receive European Union, undated. Employment, social affairs a maximum of four credits. and inclusion, Norway-retirement Pension. Means-tested benefit: In USA, the means-tested Available at: https://bit.ly/2Jq4uOg benefit—also known as the supplemental security Government of USA, undated. Social security-benefits income—grants benefits to citizen above the age of planner-retirement. Available at https://bit. 65. While those without an eligible spouse can avail ly/2hZB5cN benefit up to USD 8,796 per year, an eligible couple ILO, undated. Facts on Social security. Available at can avail benefit up to USD 13,200 per year. https://bit.ly/2JyFULp Retirement age: The retirement age for individuals Nenkin, 2019. National pension system. Japan Pension born between 1943 and 1954 is 66. For those Service. Available at: https://bit.ly/2xIRbBS born between 1955 and 1960, this increases to OECD, 2017. Pensions at a glance-country profile- 67 years, while those born after 1960 will also Germany. Available at https://bit.ly/2LN9wGj retire at 67 (Government of USA, Undated). If a UNDP, 2018. Human Development Indices and person chooses to delay his retirement, the benefits Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update. Available increase proportionately. For example, if a person at: https://bit.ly/2UcfkdM

18 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 In brIef World age profiles Fig. 1: Countries with highest and lowest ratio of senior citizens in 2018 HigHest Lowest 3 Japan 27 Benin Japan recorded the Italy 23 2 Zambia highest percentage Portugal 22 2 Uganda ratio of senior Germany 22 2 Gambia citizens, while the Finland 22 2 Bahrain UAE and Qatar Bulgaria 21 2 Burkina Faso recorded the least. Estonia 20 2 Angola Denmark 20 1 UAE Croatia 20 1 Qatar

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 8.9 6 World India Population aged 65 and above as a percentage of the total population is the senior citizen percentage. Source: World Bank

Fig. 2: Countries with highest and lowest working age population ratio in 2018

HigHest Lowest UAE 85 53 Mali Bahrain 78 53 Uganda The UAE Kuwait 76 52 Chad contained the Macao, China 76 52 Congo highest working Maldives 72 52 Somalia age population, Burundi Brunei 72 51 while Gambia 51 Mozambique Republic of Korea 72 and Nigeria had Saudi Arabia 72 51 Tanzania St. Lucia 72 50 Gambia the least. China 71 50 Nigeria 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 50403020100 90807060 65. 46 66 World India Total population between the age of 15 and 64 as a percentage of the total population is the working age population. Source: World Bank

Fig. 3: Countries with highest age dependency ratio in 2018

HigHest Lowest Niger 111 39 Saudi Arabia Mali 100 38 Republic of Korea The dependency Uganda 98 38 Brunei ratio was Chad 97 37 Moldova observed to be Congo 97 32 Oman highest in Nigeria Angola 96 32 Macao, China Somalia and lowest in 96 31 Kuwait Tanzania UAE and Qatar. 92 28 Bahrain Burundi 91 18 UAE Mozambique 91 18 Qatar 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 120100806040200 54.5 77 World India

Age dependency ratio is the ratio of dependents—people younger than 15 or older than 64 years—to the working age population—those aged between 15 and 64. Source: World Bank

GeoGraphy and you . april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 19 Ageing indiA

By K S James Ageing And intergenerAtionAl trAnsfer in indiA A HouseHold PeRsPective Resource constraints and shifting priorities are impacting monetary transfers to the elderly. Hence, their economic security needs to be ensured through improved welfare schemes.

Owing to the family’s increasing investment in the child’s future, the elderly are left with a meagre amount of transferred fund. An elderly patriarch with his son and grandchildren in Dhani Village, Haryana.

20 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 AwAre G tAksHi HA s The author is the Director and Senior Professor at International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai. rtesy: [email protected]. The article should be cited as James K.S., 2019. Ageing and intergenerational transfer in India:

PHOtO cOu A household perspective, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 20-25

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 21 iven India’s transitioning fertility the intergenerational transfer to the elderly, rate, the family composition compromising their general wellbeing. of Indian households too is undergoing rapid changes. The The support system for the elderly proportion of population below 15 An effective way to understand how the elderly years ,which was over 40 per cent according to the cope within their household vis-à-vis resource 1961G census, had decreased to less than 30 per cent constraints is to find out the extent of support by 2015 (United Nations, 2019). This proportion being offered to them from various sources. is likely to reduce further in the coming decades. In a society, the support system consists of three Conversely, population aged 60 years and above is broad categories. The first relates to self sustenance increasing in India and is predicted to reach 20 per i.e. the elderly is able to support himself/herself cent from 8.9 per cent—in 2015, by the middle of through income generated from work or through this century (United Nations, 2017). Families that assets/interest. The second source of livelihood earlier used to consist of many children, few adults pertains to public transfers to the elderly either and almost no elderly members are now composed through work-based pension or the social security of a few children and more adults as well as elderly system. Rechanneling the family resources from individuals. Such rapid changes within the family children to the elderly constitutes the third source. structure have vital implications on the wellbeing of the members. The families typically work on Work and asset income exchange mechanism across different generations It is interesting to discover that the elderly in with adult parents transferring resources to India are, to a large extent, able to live by their children and the elderly. In the past, this transfer own means through wages and salaries (James was primarily towards children as the number et al., 2016). In general, it is also observed that a of elderly in a household was limited due to low significant proportion of the elderly continues life expectancy. However, in view of the changes to work beyond the age of 60. Since most of the taking place within the family, this transfer needs workers in India belong to the informal sector, to be redirected towards the grandparents of the concept of retirement age is a little vague. the children. The survey conducted by the United Nations However, given that families have limited Population Fund (UNFPA) in 2011 shows that as resources, this transfer faces hurdles since many as 49 per cent of men within the age group parents first seek to invest in their child’s future, of 60 and 69 years are working. Within the 70 to particularly since the fertility transition—which 79 age bracket, this proportion decreases to 27 per occurs when the share of population aged 15 cent (Alam et al., 2012). The survey further reveals years or less declines. Parents wish to provide that even at the age of 80 and above, nearly 13 per their children with quality education, thus cent of men continued to work. The percentage of resulting in an increased demand of resources their female counterparts is relatively low in this for children despite there being lesser number context as the presence of women in workforce— of children per family as compared to the past even among those belonging to the working age (Caldwell 1980;2005). Owing to this greater focus group—remains low. According to the survey, 15 on children, the elderly tend to have a meagre per cent of women aged between 60 and 69 years amount at their disposal. Economising becomes were working. This share drops to 5 and 3 per cent even more difficult in light of an improved life respectively for the 70-79 and above 80 age groups. expectancy rate. Moreover, the country’s abysmal Work engagements among the older population social security system makes the elderly greatly in India need to be viewed and understood in dependent on the resources of their adult children. terms of the probable reasons. Poverty induced by Lastly, as most parents prefer spending a the lack or inadequate transfer of funds from the considerable part of their time endeavouring adults to the elderly can be considered as a possible to see to their children’s overall development, reason for working. For a clearer understanding, the time devoted to the elderly becomes the UNFPA survey inquired the participants proportionately less. about their varied motives for working. The All these factors have a direct bearing on answer was staggering. 75 per cent of individuals

22 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Studies show that 50 per cent of the elderly completely relied on transferred funds. Poverty induced by insufficient inter-generational transfer of funds is a possible reason that necessitates work.

above 60 years and 80 per cent at least 80 cited as assist the family in transferring resources to economic compulsions and not personal choice as their grandchildren. their reason. Furthermore, the survey made it evident that social security the majority of the working elderly belonged As discussed in the introduction, the pension or to a poor socio-economic background. Studies social security system forms the second source undertaken by both, the National Sample Survey of income for India’s elderly. However, the work- Office (NSSO) and the UNFPA in 2011 (Alam based pension system has shown limited scope. et al., 2011), clearly underscores the poverty With nearly 90 per cent of the workers classified induced work participation in India particularly under informal sector, the pension policy is being among women and elderly. Therefore, work availed by less than 10 per cent of the elderly participation emerges as a coping strategy for (James and Syamala, 2016). In India, most of the the elderly to compensate for limited personal social security benefits are restricted to households resources and insufficient transferred resources. below poverty line (BPL). Even then, only 25 per The asset income among elderly was found to cent of the BPL elderly—according to the UNFPA be nearly negligible as per the UNFPA study. survey—receive social security benefits, however Therefore, work engagements offer them the limited these might be. means to survive and support themselves as well Figure 1 represents the distribution of major

Fig. 1: Gender-wise percentage distribution of various national social security schemes among the elderly in 2011

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Men

Women Despite the schemes being IGNOAPS Total intended only for families below poverty line, a small share of the above poverty line elderly also avail them. Men IGNOAPS: Indira Gandhi National Women Old Age Pension Scheme Total IGNWPS: Indira Gandhi National nnapurna Scheme nnapurna

A Widow Pension Scheme

Men Not available

Women IGNWPS Total

Below poverty line Above poverty line

Source: Alam et al., 2012

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 23 Fig. 2: The gender-wise financial dependency status of elderly in 2011 (in percentage value)

23.4 12.5

About 50 per cent of the elderly 32.6 completely relied 35.5 on the transferred 21 50.4 funds. Interestingly, ` women constituted 66.4 the majority category highlighting their 31.8 vulnerability. men Source: Data from United 26.1 Nations Population Fund Women

totAl

Fully dependent Partially dependent Not dependent

social security schemes for the elderly in Therefore, the pension and social security systems India. There are three such important systems by themselves cannot ensure complete economic in India—Indira Gandhi National Old Age security to the elderly in the country. Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS), Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS) Family transfer and elderly support and Annapurna Scheme. Only the elderly from Figure 2 represents the extent to which the elderly the below poverty line households are eligible of both genders are dependent on their families for these three schemes. The IGNOPAS provides based on the UNFPA survey. The results of the monthly pension to the elderly, the amount for survey were as follows: which varies substantially across different states While, nearly a quarter of elderly could support depending upon their respective contribution. themselves, the other quarter was partially The IGNWPS is available only for widows who dependent upon their children. The remaining do not receive benefits from IGNOAPS. The third 50 per cent of the elderly completely relied on the scheme, Annapurna, ensures free rice to the transferred funds to meet their economic needs. elderly in case they haven’t sought assistance from In other words, a quarter of the elderly were the first two schemes. economically independent as they would either be The figure evinces several problematic aspects working or would be in receipt of work-pension. pertaining to the provision of social security We have already discussed how a significant system for the elderly in India. Firstly, although proportion of the population continues to work in the schemes are intended only for families below old age. Another quarter, though also working or poverty line, a small proportion of the above receiving social security benefits, is still unable to poverty line elderly can also access these schemes. completely support itself. Furthermore, significant Secondly, even within the below poverty line gender differences with respect to dependency families, only less than a quarter of the eligible were also observed. elderly derive any benefit. Lastly, the paltry sum Additionally, it must be pointed out that the of INR 500 per month provided to the elderly economic exchanges taking place within a family through these schemes is quite meagre regardless is not unidirectional. It means that the elderly also of the state level variations (Kulkarni et al., 2012). supplement their family’s income which is often

24 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 used for the day-to-day expenditure. A survey was Way forward undertaken by UNFPA to determine the various The intergenerational transfer of income is levels of economic contributions made by the rather complex within the Indian households. elderly to the family. The data was collected based Despite the fact that the family remains a strong on the elderly individuals’ assessment of their institution in administering care to the elderly monetary contribution. Hence, the figure must be members, the possibilities of economic transfer interpreted while bearing in mind that it is their are rather limited due to resource constraints. perception of the quantum of contribution made The family’s priorities make it difficult to allocate by them towards the total household expenditure. resources to ensure the economic security of More than half of the elderly reported to be the elderly. However, provisions still need to be making some contribution and almost one-third made for their wellbeing. In this regard, only an among them believed that their share could cover improved social security system can make more than 80 per cent of the household expenses. a difference. For the great many elderly who do not work, their livelihood is mainly determined by references intergenerational transfers and the country’s Alam M. et al., 2012. Report on the Status of Elderly social security system. The foregoing sections in Select States of India 2011: United Nations have discussed some significant facets of Population Fund, New Delhi. intergenerational transfer of funds within the Caldwell J. C., 1980. Mass education as a Indian households, particularly towards the elderly. determinant of the timing of fertility decline, India’s demographic changes and transformation Population and Development Review, 6 (2): pertaining to its family structure make it different 225-255. from many countries. The intergenerational Caldwell J. C., 2005. On net intergenerational wealth transfer is mainly influenced by either limited flows: An update, Population and Development family funds or when funds are reserved for Review, 31 (4): 721-740. children. The fertility transition in India was James K. S., T. S. Syamala and S. Verma, 2016. Status not necessarily attended by socio-economic of the elderly population in India: Issues and improvements within the families. Therefore, concerns in Kannabiran K. and S. Vinayan (eds.) we can see a large number of couples possessing India Social Development Report 2016: Disability relatively limited resources and adhering to the Rights Perspective, New Delhi: Oxford University small family norm. Moreover, parental aspiration Press.Available at: https://bit.ly/30bkqcZ. relating to the security of their children’s future James K. S. and T. S. Syamala, 2016. India’s support leads them to increasingly invest in their education system for the elderly: Emerging challenges and health, irrespective of their socio-economic in Gayithri K. and K. V. Raju (eds.) State, standing. Lastly, policies addressing the elderly Governance and Financing of India’s Development, individual’s economic needs such as social security New Delhi: Cambridge University Press. measures, work-based pensions etc. are relatively Kulkarni S., S. S. Raju and S. Bammiti, 2013. Social limited in the country. Security for the Elderly in India, Thematic Paper It appears that the elderly themselves play an 1, Building Knowledge Base on Population Ageing important role in enhancing the family income. in India: Increased Awareness, Access and Quality Studies indicate that Indian households with of Elderly Services: United Nations Population elderly are more economically sound, albeit Fund, New Delhi. Available at: https://bit. marginally, than the non-elderly households ly/2xrqul3. (Alam et al., 2012). This is probably owing to the United Nations, 2017. World Population Prospects: monetary contributions of the elderly to their The 2017 Revision. Department of Economic and households. Nevertheless, it must be borne in Social Affairs, Population Division, New York: mind that most of the elderly work not by choice USA. Available at: https://bit.ly/2DIjHJT. but to fulfil a financial a necessity. This situation United Nations, 2019. World Population Prospects arises due to the country’s weak social security 2019: Department of Economic and Social system and the family’s tendency to redirect a Affairs, Population Division,New York: USA. greater part of their resources to children which Online Edition. Available at: https://bit. leaves the elderly with sparse funds. ly/322PA83.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 25 Ageing indiA

With changing times, 4.4 per cent of the rural elderly now live alone while 14.7 per cent live only with their spouses. A view of the home of an elderly resident of Manal, Himachal Pradesh.

26 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 By S Irudaya Rajan & S Sunitha lIvIng ARRAngEmEntS Among tHE EldERly The conventional living arrangements of the elderly in India has undergone a substantial change with declining fertility rates, increasing life expectancy and changing lifestyles. The cause and consequences of these changes need to be assessed in order to formulate a way forward.

AsAd The authors are Professor and Research Associate respectively at Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, Kerala.

to: Pr to: [email protected]. The article should be cited as Rajan S.I., S. Sunitha, 2019. Living arrangements among the elderly,

PHo Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 26-31

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 27 s per the 2011 census, a standard Ageing Survey, 2013). Indian family has more than two The living arrangement of the elderly plays elderly individuals to look after. a key role in determining their happiness and Households consisting of more dignity. They seek to enjoy life through love than one elderly person increased and care bestowed by their families (Rajan and during the inter-census period 2001-2011. Of the Sunitha, 2018). Figure 3 indicates that most of A248.8 million households in India, 21.6 per cent the elderly live with only their spouse or with have at least one elderly person. This figure is spouse as well as adult children. Moreover, this higher in rural India—22.1 per cent, as compared percentage can be seen to be increasing over to the urban areas—20.5 per cent (Figure 1). the years. On the other hand, households with About 4 per cent of the households consist of elderly who live only with adult children—while only elderly individuals. Approximately 27.2 having a significant share during all years—are per cent families have the elderly living with declining. Most of the times, spouse themselves adult members. The remaining 68.7 per cent act as caregivers and seek help of children and households have no elderly member (Registrar other immediate relatives only in case General of India Census, 2011). of emergencies. In India, the joint family system is more Sharing the household space with their predominant in comparison with western children has always been a system of support countries where the nuclear family structure is for the elderly in India. Sadly, with changing opted for. It is often the case that elderly members times, the elderly now tend to live alone or with with funds or income are considered as an asset their spouse and this trend is on a rise. There is by their families; whereas, those with no means a greater probability of the elderly men to live to earn are viewed as a burden (Rajan et al., 2017). with their spouses, while most elderly women Co-residence of adults with their elderly parents tend to be widows, living alone or with their can benefit both parties in the form of good care children. However, in situations where children for the grandchildren who in return, may look move away in search of employment, the elderly after their parents and grandparents (Sudha are left behind at home. Among them, those et al., 2006). in need of greater physical assistance at any It is evident from figure 2 that approximately given point of time are the worst affected. Old 7 per cent women and 3 per cent men among age homes have risen from the need to address the elderly population live by themselves. As per such desperate situations as alternate living the 2011 census, of 10.3 million one-member- arrangements for the elderly. Many prefer these households, 48.3 per cent were elderly-only establishments over living alone as they help households. Among these, 72.8 per cent are alleviate loneliness while offering a sense elderly women. In about 13 per cent of cases, the of security. elderly reside with either their spouse, sibling or Kerala is unique in terms of its proportion relative. In reality, about one fifth of the elderly of elderly to the total population which is the women live with only other elderly people and highest among all states in India. Furthermore, no adult. the total fertility of 1.7 children per woman, is The state-wise analysis revealed that at 41.1 the lowest in the country (Guilmoto and Rajan, per cent, Kerala has the highest proportion of 2002; 2013). It is important to note the ways in elderly households. Out of these, about 55 per which the living arrangements pertaining to the cent of the elderly are females, the ratio being 122 state’s elderly population have been altered with females for 100 males in Kerala. However, at the the decrease in average family size. According national level this ratio was 103 elderly females to the 2013 Kerala Ageing Survey undertaken for 100 elderly males. Households in Kerala by the Centre for Development Studies, Kerala, have an average size of 1.4 elderly people, while a significant number of the total sample size of the national average for the same is 1.3 (Kerala 7768 elderly people live either with spouse or

28 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Fig. 1: Number of aged people in households in India from 2001 to 2011

2001 Number of elderly 2001 2001 None One Two Three or more None 68.4 RuralNone 68.4 Rural None 68.4 Rural One 22 One 22 One 22 Two 9.1 Two 9.1 Two 9.1 Three or more 0.4 RuRal Three or more 0.4 uRban Three or more 0.4 ToTal 0.4 0.3 0.4 9.1 6.8 8.4

None None None 22 68.8 19.4 One 73.4 21.3One 69.8 One Two 2001 Two 2001 Two 2001 2001 2001 2001 Three or more Three or more Three or more None 68.4 Rural None 68.4 RuralNone 68.4 Rural One 22 One 22 One 22 Two 9.1 Two 9.1 Two 9.1 Three or more 0.4 Three or more 0.4 Three or more 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 9.3 9.9 7.9

69.8 69.8 None 69.8 None None None 21.3 None 21.3 NoneOne 21.3 One One 22.1 Urban67.5 20.5One 8.4 Urban71.2 21.6One 8.4 Urban68.7 OneTwo 8.4 2011 Two 2011 Two 2011 Two 0.4 Two 0.4 TwoThree or0.4 more Three or more Three or more Three or more Three or more Three or more

Households, especially in rural India, consisting of more than one elderly member increased in the period 2001-2011. Source: Data from Registrar General of India Census 2001 and 2011

69.8 69.8 69.8 None 21.3 None 21.3 None 21.3 Urban One 8.4 Fig.Urban 2: Living arrangementsOne 8.4 of theUrban elderly in India duringOne 8.4 2011 Two 0.4 Two 0.4 Two 0.4 Three or more Three or more Three or more 35 Male Female 32.2 30 29.2

25

20 16 16.3 14.7 15.2 Per cent 15 13.6 13.5 10.9 10 10.6 10 8.3 6.9 5 2.7 0 Two Five Four Three Living with Living Six or More one personone Living Alone Living

Approximately 7 per cent women and 3 per cent men among the elderly population live by themselves. Source: Data from Registrar General of India Census, 2011

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 29 Fig. 3: Living arrangements among the elderly in India from 1995-1996 to 2014

60 50 40 30 Per cent 20 10 0 1995-1996 2004 2014 1995-1996 2004 2014 1995-1996 2004 2014

ALONe WiTh SPOuSe ONLy WiTh SPOuSe ANd AduLT chiLdreN

There is agreater probability for elderly men to live with their spouses, while most of the elderly women tend to be widows living either alone or with their children.

Table 1: Elderly—men and women, living with and without spouses in Kerala

age group With Without Total spouse spouse 60-64 95.0 5.0 100 65-69 94.0 6.0 100 70-74 87.7 12.3 100 The percentage of Men 75-79 85.3 14.7 100 women living without their spouse is greater 80+ 73.6 26.4 100 in comparison to Total 89.1 10.9 100 the same for men. 60-64 68.2 31.8 100 Moreover, this 65-69 48.0 52.0 100 percentage increases with their age. 70-74 31.5 68.5 100 Women Source: Kerala Ageing 75-79 26.1 73.9 100 Survey, 2013 80+ 13.1 86.9 100 Total 43.1 56.9 100

30 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Percentage of the elderly residing with only their spouse or with spouse and adult children has increased to become the most opted-for living arrangement. Meanwhile, households consisting of one elderly person and adult children are declining. Source: Data from National Sample 1995-1996 2004 2014 1995-1996 2004 2014 Survey, 1995-1996, 2004 and 2014

rural urban

WiTh AduLT chiLdreN WiTh OTher reLATiONS NOT ANd NO SPOuSe ANd NON-reLATiONS recOrded

by themselves. This means that about one fifth the district level in India: Lessons from the of Kerala’s elderly population live alone/with 2011Census. Economic and Political Weekly, 48 another elderly. (23): 59-70. Table 1 shows that more than half of the Registrar General of India Census, 2011. Census of elderly women begin living without their spouse India-2011: Government of India, New Delhi: earlier in relation to the elderly men. This clearly India. demonstrates the vulnerability associated Rajan S. I. and S. Sunitha, 2018. Empowering the with widowhood. elderly by giving dignity in Çakmur H. (ed.) Geriatrics Health, Intech Open, pp. 152-242. Way forward Rajan S. I., S. Sunitha and U. R. Arya, 2017. Elderly With the demographic cohort of baby boomers care and living arrangements in Kerala in Rajan growing old, India is ageing rapidly. The decline S. I. and G. Balagopal (eds.) Elderly Care in India: in India’s fertility rate will cause an increase in Societal and State Responses, Singapore: Springer, the proportion of older people. With surging pp. 95-116. longevity necessitating greater medical attention Sreerupa, S. I. Rajan, S. Ajay, Y. Saito and R. Malhotra, towards the elderly, the government must initiate 2018. Living longer: For better or worse? medical aid for them in all primary health Changes in life expectancy with and without centers as well as at their homes (Sreerupa et al., mobility limitation among older persons in India 2018). Central government can seek inspiration between 1995-96 and 2004. International Journal of from Kerela’s welfare fund boards developed Population Studies, 4 (2): 23-34. for the informal sectors, irrespective of the Sudha S. C. Suchindran, E. J. Mutran and S. I. Rajan, proportion of the elderly. 2006. Marital status, family ties and self-rated health among elderly men and women in South references India. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 21 Guilmoto C. Z. and S. I. Rajan, 2002. District level (3-4): 103-120. estimates of fertility from India’s 2001 Census. The Centre for Development Studies, 2013. Economic and Political Weekly, 37 (7): 665-672. Kerala Ageing Survey, State Planning Board: Guilmoto C. Z. and S. I. Rajan, 2013. Fertility at Government of Kerala.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 31 Ageing indiA

By Vandana Desai ageing anD PoVerty in Urban inDia Old age problems are often compounded by illiteracy, poverty, age bias, informal employment and gender, besides inefficient welfare schemes. Urgent steps need to be taken to address the concerns.

The author is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Desai V., 2019. Critical issues in ageing and poverty in urban India, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 32-36

32 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 ) co c oo (

Pr studies show that three out of five widowed elderly women live without pension and employment. An elderly from New Delhi travelling by train to visit her son. Photo courtesy: muxu courtesy: Photo

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 33 s per the 2011 Indian population social security system (Desai, 2014; Desai and census, there are nearly 104 million Matt hew, 2009). elderly people—aged 60 years or However, the problem begs to be understood above, that comprise of 53 million from an even broader perspective. It is well females and 51 million males. known that the cost of supporting the elderly is The size of the elderly population is growing typically borne by the family that already bears the Aexponentially and it formed 8.6 per cent of the significant education costs of children. Moreover, total population in 2011. By 2021, it is expected healthcare expenses and the paucity of space in to rise to 140 million or 10 per cent of the total urban residences—owing to overcrowding and population. The elderly population has increased surging real-estate values—have made it harder in the rural as well as urban areas to 8.8 and 8.1 per for the adult children to accommodate their cent respectively (GOI, 2016). parents in the same house. The extent to which The development initiatives and population sons and daughters can support aged parents in policies adopted in 1970s have helped curb fertility addition to their marital families has become and mortality rates which have in turn increased increasingly difficult. This burden on young the average life expectancy rate at birth. Owing to families may prove excessive in the context of high improvements in healthcare in many regions of unemployment or under-employment rate. Also, India, the life expectancy rate at birth for females if the labour force increases disproportionately is 69 and for males is 65. At the same time, it is in comparison with the existent jobs, or when imperative to understand the bearing social and family income is low and uncertain—such as in economic changes in India have on the wellbeing the urban informal sector, the burden on young of its elderly—the present as well as the future families exacerbates. generations. Moreover, the policies need to be formulated by keeping the needs of the elderly employment in mind. In India, nearly 30 per cent of the elderly population live below the poverty line. 47.1 per declining intergenerational support cent of the total elderly in rural areas and 28.5 per and drifting relations cent total elderly in urban areas work to earn their One of the most glaring problems overlooked by livelihood (GOI, 2016). Therefore, the concept of policy makers is that not all elderly individuals retirement does not particularly apply to the poor live with families and even if they do, they may among India’s ageing population. not receive the requisite care and attention from Moreover, the 2011 population census report them. Industrialisation, urbanisation, inter-state revealed that a staggering 66 per cent of the total migration of working population have gravely elderly in urban India and 34.2 per cent in the impacted the traditional support system for rural parts were illiterate. This clearly means elderly family members. In this regard, the that those among the illiterate elderly who increasing number of women entering the labour work, majority of them are casual labourers in market—which leads to an increase in dual career the economy’s informal sector or engaged in families—has also altered family dynamics. home-based employment such as, badala/jari With the result, the existence of traditional embroidery work, sewing buttons on shirts for three generational households—comprised of garment industries. They may also be employed grandparents, parents and children, is becoming as domestic servants, construction-site labourers, rare, while the proportion of elderly living or working as street vendors or even resorting to separately is increasing. It was reported by the 2011 begging in the urban area. Such struggles reflect Indian census that 30 million individuals among the prevailing vulnerability of the elderly poor the ageing population had been living alone. which results from job insecurity and income Hence, the co-residence pattern, which was once a fluctuations (Desai 2014; Desai and Tye 2009). time-honoured feature of Indian households, has, The economic contribution of older people to a large extent, disintegrated into nuclear units. through employment—either to fortify their With even fewer options than before, the older own or their family’s economic security—is not generation remains wedged between a weakening well understood. Although, officially, the old-age family support system and an absence of adequate dependency ratios stand at 15.1 per cent in rural

34 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Remaining wedged between a weakening family support and an inadequate social security system, the older generation becomes marginalised and faces greater chances of destitution.

India and 12.4 in urban areas, the reality of This may trigger feelings of weakened stature, economic participation among them cannot be worthlessness, inferiority, depression, loneliness dismissed (GOI, 2016). The fact that one fifth of the and marginalisation. Widowed women who have global population aged 65 and above is employed, traditionally lived with sons, are vulnerable to belies the popular perception that older people are abuse and exploitation from within their families. not resourceful to the economy. This share of elderly Such cases are one of the most well-concealed workforce in low-income countries is much higher. instances of women’s human rights violation. The lack of a formal social security system in India The procedure of claiming benefits from the compels men and women to work till late in their state government such as pensions becomes lives, particularly in the private and informal sector, tedious with low literacy levels as they are unaware unless prevented by illness or physical disability. of the proper mechanism. This makes the elderly Many a times, older individuals share their exposed to pension scams. The elderly poor, accommodation, pensions (if they have any) therefore, are easy victims of marginalisation, or the limited income derived from informal social oppression, ill-treatment, economic employment with the younger generation for a exploitation, homelessness and penury. As the period longer than they may have anticipated competition for housing intensifies, the social (Desai and Tye 2009). This foregrounds the and economic hardships of the older residents vicious cycle of poverty—or intergenerational increase. Pervasive poverty and unequal income poverty—prevalent in many poor households. In combined with an inadequate safety net are fact, by tending to their grandchildren, cooking responsible for marginalisation and destitution and managing household, they have helped among the older segment. Furthermore, the ease the responsibilities of the younger adults gender discrimination practised during financial considerably. Sadly, much of this contribution transfers and inheritance often denies the security goes unnoticed by society. Additionally, engaging of material assets such as land and property to in productive work—outside the household or elderly women. Widows, being disproportionately through labour contributions within home—also affected in comparison with men or married helps offset the economic burden pertaining to the women, prove to be soft targets. elderly that is transferred to the young. Increasing Most of the elderly who live by themselves are the level of economic activity is a proactive policy not employed due to diminishing earning capacity solution which increases the per capita income of in old age or frail health. To make things worse, the population. The resultant decline in economic they often face age bias while seeking employment dependency will also aid the state in scaling up the which also adds to their economic insecurity. social security protection system. A shortage of adequate opportunities in the job The social and psychological transformation market pushes them towards the informal sector that attends people while they adjust to their to work as casual labourers for as long as possible. new role within the family—such as during Depression in the older population is associated generational shifts from young to old—is quite with poor socio-economic status, unemployment, complex. Family dynamics and power-relations disrupted marital status, illiteracy and illness undergo a significant change that is many a times (Desai, 2014) . to the disadvantage of the elderly (Desai 2014; As per the emerging global trade pattern, capital Desai and Tye 2009). Coming to grips with the and technology intensive goods and services— reversal of role from being a care giver to the such as electronics, garments and IT, constitute one in need of care often becomes a source of the fastest rising segment of exports which tends inter-generational conflict within households. to reduce employment per unit of exports. On the

Geography and You . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 35 one hand, thousands of jobs have been created for discretely, making it difficult to obtain an estimate younger skilled workers in Indian metropolitan for the elderly widows subjected to mistreatment. cities—especially in call centres, IT sector, tourism These include widows who are disowned by their and garments sectors; on the other hand, large families and relatives, cast out of their houses, scale retrenchments from industries that are no are entangled in land and inheritance disputes or longer lucrative—such as textiles and printing those who commit suicide. industries, have also been seen. Consequently, the urban poor workers in their 40s and 50s Way foreword have been left unemployed with no prospects of Problems pertaining to the poor among India’s re-employment in the emerging sectors owing to ageing population have received little attention age discrimination (Desai 2014; Desai and and go largely unmentioned. The problem Tye 2009). primarily arises from an unwillingness to Creating conditions for inclusive citizenship comprehend the complex and diverse aspects and participation for the country’s ageing of ageing, especially among the poor. The population in society requires immediate action. elderly don’t merely face economic and resource Unfortunately, the subject of older people’s dignity deprivation, but also struggle with identity- and rights has received very little attention despite based discrimination. Such factors aggravate the being a matter of social justice, human rights plight of the elderly and engender deep-rooted and social protection. Policymakers need to feelings of social exclusion that cannot be devise means for generating jobs for India’s active addressed solely through conventional poverty ageing population in order to make them less reduction programmes. economically dependent on the state and Multi-dimensional poverty is more their families. pronounced among the older population. These are experienced as ill-health, social exclusion— invisibility of widowhood specifically in the context of diminishing As per the 2011 Indian census, the average life employment opportunities, abysmal social service expectancy of an individual in India is 68.8 and security provision schemes. The elderly living years while there has been a substantial increase in absolute poverty pose a grave challenge for in the proportion of individuals above the age India. It is clear that without proper social and of 80. Moreover, it was noted that more than economic infrastructure, sketchy health services 60 per cent of women became widowed after and non-supportive public institutions, the the age of 70. The situation was more acute country’s huge number of frail and dependent among the single older women who were poor, older people are at a considerable risk. It is time with three out of five widowed elderly women that India takes proactive steps in formulating living without pension and employment. The necessary institutional frameworks and policies. likelihood of living beyond 60 years is greater The objective must be to create certain safety-nets for females than males (GOI, 2016). Widows that will not just look after the present elderly may be excluded from national censuses if they population, but also proffer care and support to are homeless or constantly moving between the subsequent elderly generations. different households of relatives. The tradition which marries women to men significantly older references than them, disapproves of widow remarriage Desai V. 2014. Ageing and Poverty in Desai V and and adheres to patrilineal inheritance laws, R Potter (eds.) The Companion to Development cripples widows more than other social groups. Studies, Third Edition, London: Routledge, pp. Moreover, the increasing life expectancy of 457-461. women, though in itself an achievement, Desai and Matthew, 2009. Critically Understanding protracts the sufferings of widows owing to the Asian Perspectives on Ageing, Third World aforementioned impediments. In a society like Quarterly, 30 (5): 1007-1025. ours, many younger widows are either forced Ministry of Statistics Programme and into prostitution or married off to men who implementation, 2016. Elderly in India: are either older, frail or disabled. What is even Government of India. Available at: https://bit. more bothersome is that such incidents occur ly/2YwaXfC.

36 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Term Power Answers on PAge 67 ❯❯ Ageing Terminologies Acquainting ourselves with terminologies relevant to Indian demography, particularly the elderly population is a good way to generate awareness and elderly sensitivity. Curious to know how you will fare? Let us find out. b. An estimate of the average life of a newborn, if 1 Dementia current death rate does not change. a. Causes memory deterioration and other c. The length of time a person is expected to live. cognitive problems. b. A degenerative disorder. c. A natural process of ageing. 9 Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme a. Offers financial assistance to only widows of army 2 Palliative care veterans within the age group of 40 to 79 years. a. Is designed to alleviate physical and emotional pain b. Provides financial assistance to widows within the resulting from a serious illness. age group of 40 to 79 years that are living below b. Another word for the support group formed to cope poverty line, until their demise. with emotional stress that accompanies a disease. c. Provides financial assistance to widows from 40 to c. Can only be received by the terminally-ill. 79 years that live below poverty line, for a period of five years. 3 Parkinson’s disease a. Can only be inherited and never acquired. 10 Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana b. Has a high probability of proving fatal. a. Scheme run by the Ministry of Social Justice and c. Is a degenerative disorder. Empowerment of India. b. Scheme launched by the Ministry of Human Resource Development of India. 4 Elderly c. Scheme established by the Ministry of Personnel, a. Belongs to the age bracket of 76 to 90 years. Public Grievances and Pensions of India. b. One whose age is more than 60 but less than 75 years. c. A person over 90 years of age.

5 Gerontology a. Scientific study of the biological, psychological, economical, and sociological aspects associated with ageing. b. Branch of medicine specialising in healthcare and treatment for older population. c. Study of diseases that affect the elderly.

6 Senior Citizen (as defined in India) a. One who is at least 80 years old. b. Applies to people eligible for pension scheme. c. Individuals more than or at least 60 years of age.

7 The National Pension System a. Can be subscribed to by all citizens of India belonging to the age bracket of 18 to 60 years. b. Is only relevant to citizens of India above the age of 60. c. Can only be subscribed to by a resident of India within the age bracket of 18 to 60 years. 8 Life expectancy rate a. A measure for assessing demographic transition.

GeoGraphy and you . april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 37 In conversatIon

Envisioning a Kinder World Mathew Cherian, Chief Executive Officer, HelpAge India, speaking with Ratish Jha, discusses key challenges faced by India’s elderly population and the role of society in redressing them.

G’nY. In your view what are the three assist the rising number of the aged this would help propel the second major issues concerning the aged in India? demographic dividend. in India? I think the first step in this direction The first and foremost problem relates is to provide free health insurance to G’nY. Various governmental schemes to pension plans as India lacks clarity older people, particularly the poor such as those related to pension and and transparency in its pension who are more vulnerable. The second healthcare have focused on the elderly system. Moreover, approximately 90 move should be to implement a but they are not holistic. Do you agree? per cent of the country’s workers are social protection policy which would Such schemes, despite being in place, employed in the unorganised sector suffer from poor or incomplete execution. which includes farmers who are not For instance, while the Indira Gandhi Old eligible for pension. More often than Age Pension Scheme (IGOAPS) under not, only government employees and We need to implement a the National Social Assistant Programme army personnel are able to benefit social protection policy (NSAP) is in place—but is in want of from this scheme. While some receive expansion. At present, merely 20 per cent remittances from their children, to safeguard the elderly of older population can reap the benefit the elderly poor usually do not. The of IGOAPS. Moreover, the approximate second major area of concern is from instances of abuse monthly pension of INR 400—of which healthcare. Most elderly people suffer and discrimination. the centre offers INR 200 and the state from multiple morbidity or diseases. contributes the rest—is inadequate to While women suffer more from bone meet the requirements of most widows. related issues such as arthritis and With regards to healthcare, the central osteoporosis, men are susceptible to government has launched the National problems pertaining to the prostate. safeguard them from instances of Programme for Healthcare of the Elderly The third significant issue that afflicts abuse and discrimination. In addition (NPHCE) which mandates each of the the elderly is loneliness that mostly to the above, the rise in elderly 707 districts to provide a geriatric centre. results from abandonment and may population must urge us to reconsider However, the reality is far from optimistic. lead to depression. These, along with the country’s second demographic Major geriatric centres are only elderly abuse are the most difficult dividend. A person’s capacity to work operational in institutions such as the to address as many such cases go and add value to the economy cannot All India Institute of Medical Sciences unreported. Even the elderly who admit be solely defined by his/her age. (AIIMS) and Madras Medical College to being abused hesitate to report the Being designated as ‘retired’ need which are located in major urban areas matter to the police. not necessarily be a mark of one’s and not in smaller towns. In the rural potential and productivity. The elderly areas, they are largely absent. G’nY. What do you think needs to be may be capable of engaging in work Therefore, we continue to demand for changed in the current context to that befits their situation. Moreover, effective universal pension and universal

38 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Most of India’s geriatric centres are located in major urban areas and not in smaller towns. In rural areas, these are largely absent.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 39 healthcare systems. The policy on oppose the universal pension system requirements of this segment. senior citizens has been in place since on the grounds of non-feasibility. This Most of the buses require people 2011 and in fact, I was one of the is because the government boasts to climb a narrow and steep flight members who had drafted the policy. about India being a three trillion-dollar of stairs which proves exceedingly But the fact is that it has not gained economy. As per our calculation, cumbersome and risky for the elderly. complete approval. the scheme, at best, will cost the However problems do not end even I am of the view that the policy government merely 1.2 per cent of with low floor buses as they stop 20 should be pushed to the parliament the gross domestic product (GDP). m away from the pavement which for approval as it concerns 10 per cent Therefore, the universal pension system one needs to jump from in order to of India’s population. Additionally, the is an economically viable project. board the vehicle. This defies the very Maintenance And Welfare Of Parents purpose of low-floor buses. Lack of And Senior Citizens Act, 2007 caters G’nY. In your view, are the coordination and mismanagement is to pension and healthcare of the older infrastructural facilities in India yet another problem in this regard. segment but suffers from oriented towards the elderly? For instance, the Indian Institute of weak implementation. By and large, the infrastructure in Technology, Delhi once had ramps built near buses in an effort to make G’nY. You spoke of the universal it accessible to those with limited pension system. What do you mean mobility. However, it was soon by ‘universal’? demolished. Such redundancy and Universal in this context means that abortive projects usually result from old age pension should not be limited a lack of coordination between the to people below the poverty line (BPL) various departments. Owing to such as is the case with India. Moreover, glaring impediments, wheelchair poverty related data of our country is Sadly, digital India does bound individuals, especially the debatable and not always reliable. In elderly, cannot move about in the city. many cases, granting funds only on not cater to the elderly In smaller cities, the situation is even the basis of BPL criterion may exclude population and is, in fact, grimmer. Thus, there is an urgent elderly in dire need of resources. For need for public buildings, hospitals instance, there might be an elderly becoming a source of and public transportation to be person belonging to, say, Brahmin their social exclusion. designed keeping in mind the physical or Rajput caste whose son, though constraints of a fair share of economically sound, may not be India’s population. providing any money to them. In such a case, pension becomes a necessity. India is not elderly-friendly. At the G’nY. There is a lot of talk going on Hence, the universal pension system moment, HelpAge India is running about digital India. Will the elderly espouses the cause of the older a campaign in Kerala wherein benefit from the country’s population that requires financial we are generating awareness on increased digitalisation? assistance. The term ‘universal’, the importance of making public Unfortunately, digital India does not does not mean that the scheme buildings, including hospitals and cater to the elderly population. In fact, would encompass 100 per cent of the shopping malls, more accessible it is becoming the source of social elderly population as the taxpaying to those with hampered mobility. exclusion. We, at HelpAge India, segment cannot be included in this We have also emphasised on the are teaching such people to access system. Under article 14 and 21 of the need to minimise the waiting period internet and use smart phones so that Indian Constitution, the government at public places, create separate they may readily acquire patta—a is obligated to provide dignity of life and shorter queues and upgrade title deed to a property and other such to every Indian citizen. It would be the country’s transport system in a crucial documents. We have a digital incorrect on the part of government to way that accommodates the special India inclusion centre in Nagapattinam

40 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 where we enable digital inclusion Indian government usually does not not a liability. The challenge primarily of the elderly people by teaching recognise a woman as a farmer. Hence, lies in encouraging them to remain them to use smartphones and digital if a male farmer commits suicide, it productive after 60 years. This requires equipment. Although this field has becomes a national headline but if a channelling their skills, intelligence immense potential, it faces several woman farmer takes her own life when and immense experiences so as to problems. To name a few of them, farming proves unsustainable, the add value to the second demographic none of the smartphones are age- matter gets largely ignored. dividend as earlier discussed. friendly, either in terms of their design, Home-care, too, forms a pertinent The Indian government must give user-interface or software application. issue among the elderly. We firmly considerable thought to such concerns. If these impediments are not believe that elderly should be taken care The suggestion to enhance employment addressed, the resultant digital divide of in their homes as old-age homes in among the elderly does not entail will create many digital illiterates. India are beset with a host of problems. snatching opportunities from the Despite telemedicine having a broad Issues relating to an inadequate number country’s youth. The idea is merely to scope in India, low bandwidth speed and poor maintenance of old age help make the elderly more resourceful. in rural areas prevent patients from centres are all pervasive. Additionally, In this respect, they can engage in accessing telehealth programmes. the elderly often do not wish to live career advisory services or even work in such institutions and therefore, we as mentors at various organisations. G’nY. Given the composition of elderly must aim to provide the requisite care population where women outnumber at home itself. A geriatric cadre ought to G’nY. What do feel about social men, do females encounter be created to attend to the needs of the security for the elderly? discrimination on account of Social security is one significant area their gender? that the government must learn to Gender discrimination and biases, Gender discrimination tackle efficiently. Secondly, the state undoubtedly, exist. The situation of primary health centres in rural exacerbates when widowed women becomes worse when India is deplorable and they are in become vulnerable to exploitation women are widowed as need of well-trained nurses. While arising from property transfers. I policies and welfare programmes for would like to highlight the plight of they become vulnerable the aged do exist, they lack proper elderly widows in Vrindavan who are to exploitation arising implementation. Largely speaking, the time and again harassed for property. elderly do not receive the monetary The intervention of HelpAge India was from property transfers. and material benefits they should sought in this matter to protect these be entitled to. Hence, effectiveness widows against ill-treatment. We of the present schemes need to be continue our work in this field even elderly at their homes. Another solution ensured by seeing to their proper today. But the reality is that unless we is to train widows—in a manner similar implementation. Moreover, post- work to change the attitude towards to the way in which many women had retirement policies need to be redrawn the elderly women, particularly been trained as accredited social health carefully and rules regarding elderly widows in rural India, the situation activists (ASHAs) to educate their abuse should become more stringent. may not alleviate. respective communities in the matter Simultaneously, sensitising school Another difficulty is that most activists of health. Further, health financing children to the problems of the elderly advocating gender equality are and health insurance policies should in India should be attempted through restricted to the urban sector. There is a become more popular—as is being real life examples. Today’s young need to organise similar movements in done in China. generation needs to be coached in villages and begin work in this field. matters of elderly support. The issue Discriminatory attitude against G’nY. Are the aged becoming a may be alleviated if the youth starts to women and the elderly women is also liability in India? assume responsibility of their evidenced in informal employment. The The fact is that old age, in itself, is aged parents.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 41 Ageing indiA

By Swati Sachdev EmploymEnt ScEnario among the elderly in india Majority of the working elderly population comprise of people from scheduled tribes and castes as well as other backward classes. They are employed in India’s primary sector and suffer as a consequence of poor social security and illiteracy.

The author is an Assistant Professor and Head at the Department of Geography, Budge Budge College which is affiliated to the University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Sachdev S., 2019. Employment scenario among the elderly in India, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 42-48

42 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 While one-fourth of the urban elderly male work as legislators, senior officials and managers, majority of the urban elderly women are engaged in elementary, craft and related trade sectors. a local artisan at work in Bolpur, Birbhum district, West Bengal. Photo: PrasadPhoto:

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 43 ncreased access to social infrastructure participation of the former in India’s labour such as health and education are market. Whilst most elderly men work either as primarily responsible for abetting India’s own account workers or casual labourers (Reddy, developmental process. With the result, 2014), majority of the elderly women work within enhanced life expectancy and increased the confines of their homes as unpaid family population share of the 60 years and above age workers, or as casual labourers (Raju, 2006). Igroup now constitute India’s demography. The The share of elderly women employed as casual share of elderly comprised of 8.6 per cent of labourers was noted to be significantly higher than the total population from 2011 to 2012 (GOI, that of elderly men, implying greater vulnerability 2016). However, it may be seen that the overall of women in the labour market. Additional developmental level in the country is not analysis of the data shows that the proportion of matched by corresponding decline in inequality, regular salaried workers for both sexes was greater particularly for the elderly population. The in urban areas and the percentage share of the country lacks adequate infrastructure and urban self-employed and urban unpaid family planning pertaining to the basic requirements of workers was proportionately less in comparison to the older segment. There is thus a need to examine the rural sector (Fig. 1). the living situation of the elderly and understand It can be seen that more than three-fourth of the ways in which they sustain themselves. the elderly working in rural areas are employed Additionally, it is imperative to distinguish the in the primary sector (Table 2). Manufacturing, working section among the elderly population and construction and trade form the other significant comprehend their motive for working—whether employment avenues in rural India. While the out of choice or compulsion. urban primary sector does employ a considerable percentage of elderly, its share is less compared nature of employment to other activities such as, manufacturing According to the NSSO survey, there appears to and trade, especially among the elderly men. be a marked difference in workforce participation The share of elderly women in urban India in rates (WFPR) across different social sectors and primary, manufacturing, trade and domestic genders of the elderly population (Table 1). The service sectors is significantly higher than their WFPR of the elderly—both men and women—in male counterparts who are mostly engaged in rural India is more than twice of that in the trade activities. Moreover, most of these elderly urban area. This suggests that the elderly in the women employed in urban manufacturing rural regions continue to work in the primary or sector are home-based workers. On the other agricultural sector despite being old. Some studies hand, the urban male elderly workforce shows a attribute this to inadequate savings and social greater presence in sectors such as construction, security measures for workers in the agricultural transportation and storage, professional, scientific sector (Reddy, 2014). and other services. This professional disparity The survey further revealed the share of elderly between elderly men and women highlights women workers to be significantly lower than that the preponderance of elderly women workers of their male counterparts, thus indicating limited in low paying sectors such as home based

Table1: Employment situation of the elderly (60 years and above) in India from 2011 to 2012 The elderly WFPR Workforce participation rates (WFPR) among senior Share of elderly workers amongst in rural India is citizens all workers more than twice of Men Women Total Men Women Total that in the urban Rural 64.9 21.3 43.2 9.6 7.2 8.9 area. Share of elderly women Urban 36.5 7.7 21.7 5.0 4.5 4.9 workers is much Total 56.3 17.0 36.5 8.1 6.7 7.7 lower than that of the elderly men. Source: Computed from unit level data of NSSO 68th round-schedule 10 employment-unemployment in India, 2011-2012 and published by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

44 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Fig. 1: Distribution of elderly workers as per employment status from 2011 to 2012

RURAl URbAn 100 14.0 24.1 90 The proportion of 80 24.7 regular salaried 17.9 1.8 35.3 workers for both 70 3.7 4.7 3.3 20.1 sexes is higher in 2.5 60 6.3 urban areas. The majority of the rural 50 15.1 36.9 elderly women 40 1.6 work as unpaid 30 family workers or as 2.0 58.6 39.1 casual labourers. 20 65.0 10 23.7 0 Male Female Male Female

Own account worker Employer Unpaid family worker Regular salaried Casual labour Source: Computed from unit level data of NSSO 68th round-schedule 10 employment-unemployment in India, 2011-2012 and published by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

Table 2: Concentration of elderly workers of more than 65 years from 2011 to 2012

Rural Urban Industrial categories Men Women Total Men Women Total Primary 77.9 77.6 77.8 17.6 23.0 18.6 Manufacturing 5.3 7.0 5.7 18.4 25.9 19.8 More than three-fourth of the Construction 5.8 7.3 6.2 7.9 2.1 6.9 elderly working Trade 5.4 3.5 5.0 27.9 17.4 26.0 in rural areas are employed in the Transport, Storage 1.0 0.1 0.7 4.4 0.2 3.6 primary sector Accommodation 0.8 0.8 0.8 4.0 2.7 3.8 while those in Professional, Scientific 0.1 0.0 0.1 3.2 0.4 2.7 urban area are employed in Administration 0.2 0.0 0.2 2.1 1.8 2.0 manufacturing Education 0.5 1.0 0.6 1.4 4.0 1.8 and trade. There is also professional Health, Social 0.2 0.0 0.2 2.0 1.6 1.9 disparity between Other Services 2.0 1.8 2.0 5.7 7.3 6.0 the elderly men and women. Domestic Service 0.1 0.6 0.2 0.9 11.2 2.8 Miscellaneous 0.7 0.4 0.6 4.5 2.4 4.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Computed from unit level data of NSSO 68th round-schedule 10 employment-unemployment in India, 2011- 2012 and published by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 45 Table 3: Occupational classification and WFPR of senior citizens (persons aged 65+ years) in India from 2011 to 2012 Rural Urban

Male Female Total Male Female Total legislators, Senior Officials 3.8 2.3 3.4 25.1 12.0 22.7 Most rural elderly And Managers workers are Professionals 1.4 0.4 1.2 10.4 6.5 9.6 employed in skilled Service Workers And Shop & agricultural and 3.7 3.5 3.7 14.2 16.7 14.7 Market Sales Workers fishery work, as well Skilled Agricultural And as in elementary 59.7 51.6 57.7 12.9 12.3 12.8 Fishery Workers occupations. The share of urban Craft And Related Trades 6.0 8.1 6.5 12.5 18.3 13.6 elderly men in high Workers valued occupations Elementary Occupations 23.9 33.0 26.2 15.8 30.0 18.4 is much greater than Miscellaneous 1.5 1.0 1.4 9.1 4.3 8.2 that of women. Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Computed from unit level data of NSSO 68th round-schedule 10 employment-unemployment in India, 2011-2012 and published by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

Table 4: Percentage share of each social group and workforce participation rates among senior citizens in each social group among the elderly by sector and sex in India from 2011 to 2012

Workforce participation rates among senior A high percentage Share of each social group among citizens in each social group among elderly of elderly workers elderly workers workers in rural and urban Rural Urban Rural Urban areas belong to other backward Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female classes (OBC). ST 9.2 14.1 1.9 3.8 68.6 35.0 38.3 12.9 The WFPR among SC 18.6 19.5 10.0 17.3 62.7 23.1 34.0 11.8 the female elderly ObC 46.5 47.7 42.8 53.9 67.3 21.8 41.8 11.4 was much lower than their male Others 25.6 18.7 45.3 25.0 61.2 15.0 33.0 3.9 counterparts across Source: Computed from unit level data of NSSO 68th round-schedule 10 employment-unemployment in India, the social groups. 2011-2012 and published by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

Fig. 2: Educational levels of elderly workers in India from 2011 to 2012

3.8 Urban Rural 2.9 5.3 2.5 2.1 1.5 2.0 6.3 0.2 2.6 17.0 3.6 Men 9.3 4.9 5.7 36.0

11.8 17.0 92.4 Women 80.8

67.3 11.5 13.7

Illiterate and bP Secondary HS Most of the elderly workers Primary Middle DGraduate in rural India are illiterate or have below primary Note: education. In urban India, Illiterate and BP = Illiterate and below primary educated one-fifth of men are either HS = Higher secondary educated DGraduate= Diploma, graduate and above educated graduates or have received All values are in percentages. higher education.

Source: Computed from unit level data of NSSO 68th round-schedule 10 employment-unemployment in India, 2011-2012 and published by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

46 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Fig. 3: Percentage of illiterate and below primary educated elderly workers in each social group in India from 2011 to 2012

Share of different social groups among illiterate and below primary elderly workers 10.8 20.2 Among the illiterate and 16.8 13.5 21.9 below primary Men educated elderly 20.5 workers, majority Women 49.2 belonged to the OB C category. 47.1

ST SC ObC Other

Source: Computed from unit level data of NSSO 68th round-schedule 10 employment-unemployment in India, 2011-2012 and published by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. manufacturing, domestic service and primary the urban areas. However, this difference between activities which conform to the traditional gender urban and rural is less glaring in the context of role patterns. SC women who constitute a significant share of An analysis of occupational classification elderly workers—17 per cent even in the urban of rural elderly workers evinces their large sector. The WFPR among the female elderly was concentration in areas of skilled agricultural and significantly lower than their male counterparts fishery work as well as in elementary occupations across the social groups. However, the percentage (Table 3). The engagement of elderly workers of elderly ST women belonging to rural sector across different occupations is more diverse in was still higher compared with the percentage of urban areas for both men and women. However, women in other social groups in both urban and discrepancy in the proportion of elderly men and rural parts. Additionally, the WFPRs of elderly women employed as legislators, senior officials OBC and SC women in the rural region are also and managers, as well as professionals is greater moderately higher compared to women’s WFPR in the urban sector. The percentage of urban men in general—21.9 per cent (NSSO, 2017). This in such high valued jobs, even at an advanced age, clearly indicates the vulnerability of ST, SC and is visibly greater. Hence, while one-fourth of the OBC individuals from rural India as they continue elderly male population work as legislators, senior to work in old age. officials and managers, majority of the urban An enquiry into the economic status of elderly elderly women are occupied in elementary and workers reveals that WFPR is higher among the craft and related trade sectors—30 and 18 per poorer sections of the urban population, while in cent respectively. rural areas they are high across all income classes. Thus, the presence of elderly women workers, This is owing to the fact that the agricultural sector just as all women workers, is relatively restricted generally does not have an age-bar preventing with lesser diversity witnessed across various elderly people to work. employment sectors. With the result, they remain The level of education attained by the elderly predominant in elementary and low paying workforce might explain the prevalence of higher occupations, particularly in urban areas. WFPR among the OBC, SC and ST sections of this population in the rural as well as urban Characteristics of the elderly sector. It is evident that most of the elderly men working population and women workers in rural India are illiterate or A considerable percentage of elderly workers have below primary education (Dhar, 2015) but among both genders in rural and urban areas in urban India, almost one-fifth of men are either belong to other backward classes (OBC) (Table graduates or have received higher education (Fig. 4). The proportion of scheduled caste (SC) and 2). Lower literacy levels of the rural population schedule tribe (ST) workers in the rural area was and the nature of work they are engaged in are relatively higher than the urban sector. This may responsible for a higher percentage of male elderly be attributed to the lesser predominance of STs in workforce in this section. This fact underscores

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 47 the vulnerabilities that accompany illiteracy and greater vulnerability among the older population poverty (GOI, 2016). As a contrast, the urban of these social groups. Also, the country’s older counterparts of rural older workforce may be workforce constitutes a considerable share of working out of choice rather than lower income groups as well as the illiterate from compulsion. and below primary educated population— It was further observed that among the illiterate particularly from rural India. and below primary educated elderly workers— men as well as women—majority belonged to the Way forward OBC category (Fig. 3). The overwhelming share of In view of the rising life expectancy rate and STs, SCs and OBCs among the illiterate and below population percentage of the elderly, there is an primary educated elderly workforce highlights urgent need to cater to their basic necessities. their vulnerability. This confirms the fact that the Dependence on agriculture for sustenance, high elderly employment, to a large extent, proceeds illiteracy in addition to meagre income and savings from compulsions rather than choices, especially in the earlier phases of their lives make survival in rural India. an intrinsic challenge. The problem is further compounded through the absence of a formalised Collating the analysis social security scheme for the agricultural sector From the preceding analysis we can conclude and the older population. Thus, it is not just a that the elderly WFPR is higher in rural India, requirement for general social security provisions specifically among men—a situation similar to that warrant government’s immediate attention, the general labour force. While most of these but a need to identify the vulnerable elderly elderly men in the rural sector are employed as sections in rural areas and women in general. own account workers, the elderly women, in After all, taking appropriate measures for their this sector, perform unpaid family work within care and sustenance is a matter of fundamental the confines of their homes due to patriarchal human right. rigidities. However, unlike the general workforce, the elderly workforce among both men and references women are mostly engaged in the primary Dhar A., 2015. Work Force Participation Among sector, especially in the rural regions—where it Elderly in India Struggling For Economic Security: typically forms a part of the unorganised sector. Institute of Human Development, New Delhi. Furthermore, the occupational profile in the Available at: https://bit.ly/2xmxJdZ context of salaried work and manufacturing and Ministry of Statistics andProgramme Implementation, trade sectors appears skewed towards elderly 2016. Elderly in India: Government of India. males. Additionally, the present professional Available at: https://bit.ly/2YwaXfC diversity among the elderly segment of the two NSS0, 2017. Employment and Unemployment sexes appears to be in favour of male workers, 2011-2012 - 68th round: Government of India. many of whom are employed as legislators and Avaialble at: https://bit.ly/2J4ixZJ managers. While men possess the lion’s share in Raju S., 2006. From global to local: Gendered such superior positions, percentage of women is discourses, skills and embedded urban more concentrated in elementary occupations. labourmarket in India in Raju S., M.S. Kumar This clearly implies that gender inequality and S. Corbridge (eds.) Colonial and Post exists at the occupational front, even among Colonial Geographies of India, New Delhi: Sage the elderly working population. The foregoing Publications, pp. 99-119. analysis also suggests that where elderly rural Reddy B., 2014. Labour Force Participation of Elderly workers—men and women—and urban elderly in India. Available at: https://bit.ly/302UCzA women work under economic compulsions, a Reddy, B. 2014.Labour Force Participation of significant portion of elderly urban males work Elderly in India. Paper presented at Population as per their choice. Thus, the urban men among Association of America 2014 Annual Meeting the elderly population seem to be better situated. Program. Session 118:Older Populations in Further, the greater share of the marginalised International and Cross-Cultural Perspective on and vulnerable sections of the society—STs, 2nd May 2014. Boston MA. https://paa2014. SCs and OBCs in the elderly workforce shows princeton.edu/papers/141609.

48 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 FIRST REPORT

By Shireen Saxena & Sulagna Chattopadhyay WORKING OUT OF

CHOICEWith an aim to understand the factors that influence employment decisions among the urban elderly male population, the G’nY team interviewed four octogenarians hailing from varied backgrounds.

The article should be cited as Saxena S.and S. Chattopadhyay, 2019. Working out of choice, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 49-53

GeoGraphy and you . april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 49 eople seldom speak of the emotions multiple institutions. All four consider work to and aspirations of the country’s be a great stimulant and feel that work is one elderly. The older generation now of the primary means by which seniors can lives longer—nearly 32 years more keep themselves active as it singularly protects than the life expectancy recorded mental faculties from declining. Their decision 64 years ago (United Nations, 2019). Research to work should be evaluated in the light of the Ppoints towards the educated urban elderly fact that all four respondents are recipients being better off in comparison to the poor and of government pension. However, all except illiterate elderly. In fact, 17 per cent of the male Chatterjee found the pension insufficient in elderly workforce in urban India comprise meeting requirements, possibly because state of people with at least a diploma or graduate pensions are variable as compared to those degree. On the other hand, the illiterate and from the central exchequer. Therefore, while below primary educated represent 26 per cent of work was important, it was not a compulsion. the urban male elderly workforce (NSSO, 2017). The rest stated categorically that their motive Education tends to offset few of the challenges to work stemmed solely from a desire to do faced by the aged by making work less of a something productive. compulsion and more a matter of preference. Moreover, the educated male The study section continues to work well beyond the On the healthcare front, each respondent category of young-old (60 to 69) to that of the agreed that the government’s medical attention older-old (80 years and above). In an attempt towards the country’s elderly was poor. to understand the factors that influenced their Although leading a healthy lifestyle, Tyagi decisions, especially those relating to post- laments that no measure of precaution can retirement work, G’nY prepared biographical safeguard one entirely from the deteriorating sketches of four octogenarians from diverse health that accompanies old age. He cultural settings through a selected sampling enumerated multiple health complications method. that his peers suffer from and talked about his The four sketches have a remarkable common heart problems. However, he has not purchased thread that reiterates the commitment of the any health insurance scheme. Disappointed older generation to be productive and active. with the fact that health insurance does not All four respondents continued to work post cover OPD charges, Chatterjee, too, has not retirement and their professional expertise, opted for it. Saksena asserts that healthcare, academic background and personal interest especially for the elderly, is yet another sector in work helped leverage their situation. While that is greatly in want of an overhaul. Although Tyagi stopped working two years ago, the rest he has been a lifelong beneficiary of the central continued to be involved in their respective government health scheme (CGHS) which helps fields. Saksena still works with the Commission him access medical facilities at a negligible for Scientific and Technical Terminology cost, he believes that the cost of present-day (CSTT ) and participates in numerous quality diagnostic procedures, super specialised technical terminology workshops, while medical consultations and medicines are Chatterjee, possessing a degree from the Indian exorbitant. Additionally, he feels that CGHS Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, works in empanelled private hospitals must increase in

50 april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Satish Chandra Saksena, Kirpa Shankar Tyagi, Amarendra Sahay, Tushtibrata Chatterjee, Former Deputy Director, Former Chief Engineer Former Chief Electrical Former Chief Engineer, CSTT, Ministry of Human Manager, Vayudoot Engineer, Indian West Bengal State Resource Development Airlines Railways Electricity Board Age: 81 years Age: 84 years Age: 88 years Age: 80 years

After my wife passed away With all my sons well settled Since the year 1983, my wife I have been living with my in 1984, my son and his elsewhere in the world, I and I have had the entire wife in Saltlake, Kolkata ever family lived with me before have been living with my house to ourselves. Both my since my daughters moved relocating for work in 1995. wife in Vasant Kunj, New daughters are well settled away to settle into their new My daughters got married Delhi for many years now. in their respective homes. families. I am comfortable just few years before. Since I have no problem with One lives in the USA and with this arrangement as we then, I have lived alone in this arrangement and the the other in India itself— have a dedicated workforce Janakpuri, New Delhi. I have thought of shifting to old Gurgaon, to be precise. I at home. Although I retired in engaged the services of a age residential compounds retired in 1990 but as I was 1997 at the age of 58 years, domestic helper to look after has never crossed my mind. not ready to bid adieu to my this had little bearing on my the household. Although I Between my wife and me, work-life, I continued to work willingness and aptitude to took retirement in 1995 after we manage to take care as an engineering consultant work. I, therefore, continue 36 years of service in the of each other pretty well. I at Rail India Technical and to work on important Commission for Scientific used to work as an aircraft Economic Service (RITES), assignments in many and Technical Terminology maintenance engineer Indian Railways. However, institutions. At present, I am (CSTT), I still to work here. and retired as the chief it has now been two years the chairman of the Institute Whenever work permits, engineer manager. However, since I left the organisation. of Technical Arbitrators and I take frequent breaks to I did not allow retirement I still retain an avid interest vice-chairman of Student visit Shimla—where I own to determine my capability in my field but felt it was Association of Presidency a cottage—at least twice and I, therefore, continued about time I took a break to University, Kolkata, among in a year. I plan, prepare to work for another 20 years. focus on other things in life. other things. I enjoy and undertake these trips At present, I am enjoying, After all, I would become a working as it gives me a all by myself but owing what I like to term as, my nonagenarian in two years’ sense of selfworth. I use to increasing physical post-post-retirement days! I time! Therefore, I now the computer for all my constraints, I now spend consider myself to be quite spend time reading books, communication needs and more time writing. As India health conscious. A healthy magazines and socialising have learnt to talk with my modernises, changes in lifestyle has helped minimise with friends and relatives grandchildren over Skype the social and traditional my hospital trips. Old age over various social media and WhatsApp. In my spheres have become in itself is not a problem— platforms such as Facebook, spare time, I like watching evident. If senior citizens many issues can be resolved Twitter, WhatsApp and informative programmes proceed practically with the if we are given the right emails. Quite often, my such as news and right attitude, they opportunities to prove our friends and I pay each documentaries on television will be in charge of their resourcefulness that would other a visit or even go out to stay abreast of latest own happiness. uphold our dignity. for meals. developments in India.

GeoGraphy and you . april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 51 number so that a larger number of people may The third respondent, Sahai, felt that barring access good facilities with ease. He suggests air travel and personal car, the other modes that medical services need to be decentralised do not cater to the specific needs of the older so that it may come within accessible distance people. ‘The Indian railway system, although of elderly people with limited mobility, notable in its popularity, is not yet oriented especially those needing frequent visits. He towards the elderly’, he observes. He feels told us how, prior to his routine physiotherapy that the infrastructure in India is in want of appointments, he would need painkillers just improvement to render it safer and convenient to make it to the clinic. Saksena called for for the aged, women, children and disabled governmental action for home based medical passengers. Similar encumbrances were also services, especially in emergencies. According experienced by Chatterjee who felt that the to Sahay, healthcare provisions must be offered infrastructure in general is not designed from free of cost by government for people who live the point of view of those with restricted alone. ‘This issue must be addressed on an mobility. Most urban areas within India still urgent basis particularly in countries where the possess inadequate number of ramp walks, older population is expected to increase—such escalators, travellators and elevators, he adds. as in India’, he added. Chatterjee feels that in It is often cited that the elderly are alienated Kolkata, just as in most cities in India, doctors due to an increasing digital divide as it and paramedics do not attend to the elderly on impedes their day to day functioning. With a priority basis, which they should, considering the urban elderly elite being under the scanner the myriad health issues that the older for this study, it was pertinent to understand population experiences. whether they encountered any such hurdle. India’s transport provisions are poorly ‘A more recent and less tangible difficulty that laid out for both the elderly as well as for the I now face is the accelerated digitalisation of differently abled. Saksena ventures out of his India’, Saksena observed. Although, with the home often and feels that road discipline is purchase of a smartphone, he has become greatly wanting in Indian cities. ‘Crossing the conversant with a few essential mobile phone main road is difficult as vehicles seldom halt for applications as well as internet browsing, people, let alone the elderly’, he feels. Boarding he still feels excluded from the benefits and alighting at metro stations, Saksena says, is of advanced digitalisation. ‘Nowadays, a a nightmare with all the pushing and shoving. power-point presentation is usually desired He remarked that while the metro service has during conferences and lectures. As I have no outdone itself, civic sense among the passengers experience with the software, I find myself is largely absent. He also suggests expanding in the minority’, he laments. Many elderly the network of feeder bus facility to many persons, too, have trouble coping with new more localities within the vicinity of the metro features and operating new devices, he feels. stations. While walking may be a good option Sahay believes that with proper training and for shorter distances, Saksena feels that it is not guidance, the older population can become free from multiple pitfalls. With his mobility more familiar with technology, especially becoming increasingly restricted, he describes smartphones and view it less as an adversary. the deplorable condition of roads that make the However, he advises caution for the newly aged vulnerable to accidents. Saksena narrates digitally christened elderly while using phone a traumatic incident where he narrowly escaped banking services for online transactions. being fatally injured while trying to get around Chatterjee, too, finds technology to be an unfenced excavation site. Tyagi, on the other of great assistance and says he faces little hand, travels in his own vehicle and is wary of trouble operating it. However, since every availing public transport. He believes it is safer transaction—whether it is property tax or for the senior citizens to commute in private other governmental forms—has to be filled vehicles. However, he does believe that Delhi’s online nowadays, he calls in a young assistant transport system has improved and hopes to from time to time to help him out. It was ride the age-friendly metro one of these days. unanimously agreed that a greater need for

52 april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Quality education plays a pivotal role in sustaining a zeal to work throughout the lifetime of an urban elderly which in turn increases their financial security.

elderly-friendly mobiles and digital education of diminishing stature or he/she may choose has become essential. They, too, wish to partake to remain relevant through interactions with the benefits of digital India. friends, acquaintances and former colleagues’. With India now ageing, investments in old age friendly homes, properties and day care centres Way forward have increased. While none of the respondents The sketches of the highly qualified, male, access any such facility, some feel that these may urban elderly reveal two primary trends. serve as good alternatives for the elderly who First, quality education plays a pivotal role are unable to take care of themselves. Saksena in sustaining a zeal to work throughout feels that the option should be availed only as a the respondents lifetime and secondly, last resort as one must aim for self-sufficiency financial security from pension allows them for as long as possible. Sahay feels that if his to experiment professionally even after health turns for the worse, old age home may retirement. This further facilitates an active become a necessity. However, he would only lifestyle, helping the elderly to stay healthy. consider shifting if these establishments are The economic independence, thus fostered, equipped with good facilities, are professionally neutralises their vulnerability within family managed and remain within his means. and society. Respect, both for self and that given Chatterjee is desirous of shifting to an old age by others, remains intact even in old age. accommodation but finds the good ones This understanding can benefit the nation fairly expensive. in several ways. Firstly, with the rising ageing India has no welfare scheme that caters to population, India needs to ensure that the youth the elite elderly—even if they live alone or of today are imparted quality education so that are debilitated in any way. Majority of the meaningful work opportunities may remain schemes, though minimal and inadequate, open to them. This will help today’s youth to age cater to the poor. Tyagi felt that this lack of productively. Secondly, perception towards the sensitivity on the part of Indian government elderly segment needs to change so that India makes a large number of elderly economically can usher in a second demographic dividend. dependent on their families and vulnerable to They have the potential to be resourceful and abuse and disrespect. Tyagi adds that financial can contribute to the economy. We need to stop, independence can, to a large extent, deter what Saksena articulates as, being viewed as unfortunate incidents. He also flags security fossils of yesteryears—incapable of taking active aspects and cites several incidents that have decisions. ‘After all, we are the think tanks of compromised on personal security of the India’s future’, asserts Chatterjee. elderly. He admits that he is perhaps among the lucky few who continue to receive affection and reference respect from his family and the extended peer NSSO, 2017. Employment and Unemployment group. Sahay, on the other hand, believes that 2011-2012 - 68th round: Government of India. the elderly suffer more from emotional neglect Avaialble at: https://bit.ly/2J4ixZJ and the government ought to formulate policies United Nations, 2019. World Population Prospects to bolster the quality of lives among the elderly. 2019: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, However, he adds, ‘the elderly can either accept Population Division, New York: USA. Online a passive situation and suffer as a consequence Edition. Available at: https://bit.ly/322PA83.

GeoGraphy and you . april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 53 Ageing indiA

The article should be cited as Jha R.K, 2019. Welfare Schemes for Senior Citizens, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 54-59

54 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 An elderly man awaits customers in his garage in Bikaner, rajasthan.

By Ratish Kumar Jha Welfare SchemeS foR SenioR CitizenS To enable a smoother transition to old age, the central and state governments in India have enacted various pension schemes and programmes for the elderly across different AsAd Pr A social and economic backgrounds. Photo: AnulekhPhoto:

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 55 geing is accompanied with a those above 75 years are offered INR 1,500 every multitude of health and financial month by the Kerala government. difficulties. In addition to such personal, medical and economic indira Gandhi national Widow pension hardships, the elderly are typically scheme (iGnWps): This scheme comes under branded as the country’s dependent population the national social assistance programme. As per Aas they are perceived as a burden for the family this, widows aged 40-59 years who live below the and society. This often engenders feelings of poverty line are entitled to a monthly pension of inadequacy, inferiority and low self esteem among INR 300. Since this project only covers widows them. Therefore, aside from insufficient financial within a small age bracket, certain states have security, the older population often suffers from launched independent pension schemes that unfulfilled emotional needs vis-a-vis their families offer a relatively greater amount. For instance, and close relations. In view of this fact, central the Lakshmi Bai Pension Yojana, launched by the and state governments in India have implemented Bihar government, includes all widows who are numerous pension schemes and programmes above 18 years of age and whose annual family with the objective of providing at least a decent income is less than INR 60,000. Similarly, Delhi standard of living to those worst affected by government’s Vidhwa Pension Yojana is designed problems pertaining to old age. Some of these to offer financial relief of INR 2,500 to widows schemes are described below. within the 18 to 60 age bracket. In Madhya Pradesh, widows between 40 to 79 years get indira Gandhi national old Age pension INR 600—which includes INR 300 as the state’s scheme (iGnoAps): This scheme, which forms a share—on a monthly basis. In Kerala, widows part of the national social assistance programme, or those women whose husbands have been was launched on August 15, 1995. The scheme untraceable for more than seven years receive a was transferred to the state plans from the year sum of INR 1,200 per month under IGNWPS 2002 to 2003 and the funds are disbursed by the (Kerala, 2019). central government in the form of additional central assistance (MRD, 2014). Under IGNOAPS, Annapurna scheme: This is a centrally sponsored pension is granted to individuals who are 60 years scheme that was launched on April 1, 2000 as part or above and belong to households that are below of the national social assistance programme. The India’s poverty line. The central government objective of the scheme is to ensure food security contributes INR 200 per month to beneficiaries to the deserving senior citizens who, despite being who are up to 79 years and INR 500 to those above eligible, have not been able to avail the Indira 80 year. The state government’s contribution varies Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme. Under for each state. At present, old age beneficiaries the Annapurna Scheme, 10 kgs of food grain are receive anywhere between INR 200 to INR granted to the beneficiaries every month. 2,500 depending on the amount granted by the state. For instance, Delhi government provides pradhan Mantri shram yogi Mandhan a monthly financial assistance of INR 2,000 to scheme (pM-syM): This scheme pertaining beneficiaries between the age of 60 to 69 years to India’s organised sector was announced in and an additional amount of INR 500 per month the union interim budget held on February is given to those belonging to scheduled caste, 1, 2019. On February 15, 2019, enrolment scheduled tribe or other minority communities of individuals qualified for this scheme had (Delhi Government, Undated). Apart from this, officially commenced. The programme operates qualifying candidates aged 70 years or more via voluntary contributions—a prescribed age- are granted INR 2,500 per month by the Delhi specific contribution is made by the beneficiary government. In the case of Uttar Pradesh, the which is supplemented by a matching contribution state offers a monthly pension of merely INR by the central government. Only those aged 400 per person but it has recently been increased between 18 and 40 years whose monthly incomes to INR 500. In contrast, individuals who are are INR 15,000 or less are eligible to apply (PIB, between 60 to 70 years receive INR 1,200 and 2019 a). Under the scheme, each subscriber is

56 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment provides physical aid and assisted living devices to senior citizens below the poverty line.

assured a minimum pension of INR 3,000 per introduced. Moreover, priority attention is given month after he/she attains the age of 60 years. In to girl child, women and senior citizens. the event that the subscriber should die, the spouse of the deceased beneficiary shall be entitled to 50 Atal pension yojana (Apy): This was launched per cent of the original pension—known as as a guaranteed pension scheme under the family pension. administration of the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA) by the pradhan Mantri Kisan pension yojana: The central government in May 2015. The scheme is scheme, announced on May 31, 2019, is based on largely intended for the unorganised sector but voluntary contributions and intended for small private sector employees or individuals who are and marginal farmers across the country that are not provided pension by their employers can also within the age group of 18 and 40 years. Moreover, apply for it. One can claim a fixed pension of INR the policy entails that the Indian government shall 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 upon reaching also contribute to the pension fund in an equal the age of 60. The pension sum is to be ascertained measure. Additionally, farmers will be granted on the basis of the beneficiary’s age and his/ a fixed pension of minimum INR 3,000 after her contribution amount. The government also attaining the age of 60 years (PIB, 2019 b). In case co-contributes 50 per cent of the total amount or the subscriber dies while he/she is still enrolled for INR 1000 per annum, whichever is lower, to each pension, the spouse of the deceased beneficiary subscriber for the length of five years. Individuals shall be entitled to 50 per cent of the original sum between the age of 18 and 40 years are qualified to in the form of family pension. However, in case apply to APY through their savings bank account the primary beneficiary’s death occurs during his/ or the post office savings bank account. Under this her period of contribution, the spouse would have programme, the subscriber’s spouse can continue the option of continuing the scheme by making claiming pension after his/her death. However, periodic contributions. The objective of the after the spouse’s demise, the pension corpus—as scheme is to provide assistance to 50 million small accumulated by the primary beneficiary at the and marginal farmers. age of 60—would be returned to the subscriber’s nominee. The subscriber base of APY had crossed Ayushman Bharat pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya the 1.24 crore mark in the first week of yojana (pMJAy): The central government November 2018. launched PMJAY on September 23, 2018 with the aim of providing an annual health coverage pradhan Mantri vaya vandan yojana up to INR 5,00,000 per family for secondary and (pMvvy): The programme was sponsored by tertiary hospitalisation to approximately 100 the central government to provide old age social million poor and vulnerable families. This equals security and to protect senior citizens—aged 60 500 million beneficiaries approximately. As an years and above—from the impact of any future entitlement-based scheme, it offers disbursements decline in interest income owing to volatile based on the extent of deprivation and nature market conditions. The one time investment limit of occupation of an applicant as per the social under this scheme is INR 15 lakh—an increase and economic census data. The scheme provides from the previous INR 7.5 lakh). The scheme cashless and paperless access to services at provides assured pension based on a fixed rate of empanelled hospitals—both public and private— return—8 per cent per annum—for a period of 10 across India to the qualified applicant. In order years. Furthermore, one can opt for a monthly/ to include as many individuals as possible, no cap quarterly/half yearly or even annual pension on either the family size or patient’s age has been frequency. The scheme enables a senior citizen to

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 57 receive up to INR 10,000 as pension every month. announced the Mukhyamantri Vridhjan Pension The Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) is Yojna—a universal old age pension scheme under responsible for implementing this PMVVY. which people more than 60 years will be awarded a sum of INR 400 per month through direct benefit rashtriya vayoshri yojana: As per this scheme, transfer. For the purpose of disbursement, an the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment applicant’s economic status, caste background is responsible for providing physical aid and and gender would not pose a barrier. Under the assisted living devices to senior citizens living scheme, citizens above the age of 80 years will be below the poverty line. In order to accomplish granted a monthly pension of INR 500. However, this, the beneficiaries are identified through only those individuals who are not already in assessment camps. The supplies are meant to receipt of other pension schemes—of either the help those suffering from age related disabilities state or the central government—will be allowed or infirmities by endeavouring to make their to avail the benefits of Mukhyamantri Vridhjan lives easier on a day-to-day basis. Assisted living Pension Yojna. So far, Bihar is the first Indian state devices include, walking sticks, elbow crutches, to introduce a universal old-age pension scheme walkers or crutches, tripods or quad pods, Kumar, 2019). hearing aids, wheelchairs, artificial dentures and spectacles and these are provided free of cost to the integrated programme for senior Citizens: eligible citizens. For the elderly aged 80 years or The scheme intends to improve the quality more, the required devices are handed to them at of life of the country’s elderly population their doorstep. The scheme was launched on April by offering basic amenities such as, shelter, 1, 2017 and implemented through the Artificial food, medical care and even entertainment Limbs Manufacturing Corporation (ALIMCO) opportunities to them. Moreover, it facilitates which is a public sector undertaking. productive and active ageing by supporting capacity building programmes of states/union Mukhyamantri vridhjan pension yojna territories, government/non-governmental (Bihar): On June 14, 2019, the Bihar government organizations (NGOs)/ panchayat raj

58 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 institutions (PRIs)/local bodies and that aims to uphold the dignity of folk artistes communities. by issuing them identity cards and reviving the state’s nearly-extinct folk art and culture. old Age samman Allowance scheme (haryana): In accordance with this scheme, the enlisted Sponsored by the Haryana government, this folk artistes less than 60 years of age—who scheme grants INR 2,000 per month to domiciles participate in publicity campaign in different above the age of 60 years in Haryana. Additionally, departments—will receive INR 1000 per month only such people whose annual income from all as retainer fees. Besides this, the artistes who are sources—along with that of their spouse—does above 60 years will be granted a pension of INR not exceed INR 2,00,000 can have access to old age 1000 per month. samman allowance scheme. Tax deductions for senior Citizens: This Agriculture labour pension (Kerala): As per this scheme allows senior citizens suffering from a scheme, an agricultural labourer whose age is 60 critical condition to avail a tax exemption of up years or more with a maximum family income of to INR 60,000 under section 80DDB of Income INR 10,00,00 per annum is eligible for a monthly Tax Act 1961. The limit was increased for super pension of INR 1,100. However, in order to avail seniors (80 years and above) to INR 80,000. the benefit, he needs to be residing permanently in Aside from this, the exemption limit for medical Kerala for at least 10 years continuously. expenses incurred by a senior citizen due to severe illness was increased to INR 1,00,000 in Bhamashah swasthya Bima yojana (rajasthan): the 2018-19 union budget. Launched on December 13, 2015, this state scheme makes provision of cashless health services for references eligible families in government hospitals as well Delhi Government, Undated. Old age assistance-as as in certain private hospitals. In accordance with per notification by Delhi Government. Available this, every eligible family is provided an annual at https://bit.ly/2NJctKH health insurance cover of INR 30,000 for general Information Kerala Mission, 2019. Social security diseases and INR 3,00,000 for chronic diseases. pension criteria, Government of Kerala. Available For the purpose of this programme, a total of 1401 at https://bit.ly/2JBmZhF diseases are recognised by the state. Kumar M., 2019. Bihar first state to launch a universal old-age pension scheme, state to spend Rs 1800 sanjay Gandhi niradhar Anudan yojana crore per annum, The Times of India, June 14. (Maharashtra): Any widow within the age group Available at https://bit.ly/2XF4XjE of 40 to 65 years who lives below the poverty line Ministry of Rural Development, 2014. National is eligible to apply under this state sponsored Social Assistance Programme, Programme guidelines: scheme. The programme entitles her to INR 200 Government of India, New Delhi: India. per month. Additionally, she may also receive a Availableat https://bit.ly/2P6oidi sum of INR 400 every month (Social Justice and PIB, 2019 a. World’s largest pension scheme has began in Special Assistance Department, Undated). India today [Press release]. Available at https://bit. ly/2G2B3j9 lokprasar prakalp (West Bengal): This is a PIB, 2019 b. Landmark decision taken in the first cabinet flagship project of the West Bengal government meeting of the NDA Government offers pension coverage to crores of farmers [Press release]. Available at https://bit.ly/2xHTeq6 PTI, 2019. UP cabinet okays raising pension amount for elderly. The Hindu Business Line, June Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya 19. Available at https://bit.ly/32gOwgX Yojana offers health coverage for secondary Social Justice and Special Assistance Department, and tertiary hospitalisation to approximately Sanjay Gandhi Niradhar Anudan Yojana,� 100 million poor and vulnerable families. the Government of Maharashtra, Undated: photographs shows the oPd ward in sadar District Pune. Available at https://bit. hospital, Motihari, Bihar. ly/2S4xCgX

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 59 Ageing indiA

By T V Sekher EldEr abuSE in india EmErging EvidEncEs Owing to limited public awareness, the issue of elder abuse and disrespect—despite being pervasive, has not drawn as much attention as it ought to. Assessing the current situation to redress grievances thus becomes imperative.

The author is an Associate Professor at the Department of Population Policies and Programmes, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Sekher T.V., 2019. Elder abuse in India: Emerging evidences, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 60-66

60 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 ) co c

As the elderly in india have limited or no resources for their sustenance and also lack access to social support system, they largely depend on their children. An elderly woman in a village in Pune smiling at her grandchildren. Photo courtesy: vignesh moorthy (

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 61 lder abuse is a fundamental violation neglect of elderly have received very little attention of human rights. The available in India. However, since the last decade general evidence from developed countries engagement with the subject has been increasing. indicate that despite a social support Therefore, there is a growing need for national mechanism, a large number of level data and evidence in order to comprehend elderly are victims of abuse and neglect from the extent of elder abuse. The longitudinal ageing familyE members, care givers, neighbours and study in India (LASI) has been recently launched friends. It was also revealed that the proportion to regularly collate nationally representative data of elderly who were victims of abuse and neglect on the socio-economic and health conditions of were increasing over the decades (American the elderly as well as on incidences of ill treatment Psychological Association, 2004). In a systematic meted out to them (International Institute for review of existing studies of elder abuse and Population Sciences, undated). neglect across the world, it was noticed that the The reported prevalence of elder abuse in India prevalence of elder abuse ranges considerably varies in different studies (Sebastian and Sekher, within the population of both—the developed and 2018). The cases of elderly abuse merely confirm developing countries (Cooper et al., 2008). Along the prevalence of the social problem and do not with such worldwide variations in the extent of convey its full extent. In other words, the cases abuse among the elderly, the type of abuse being that are brought to light are few compared to the inflicted upon them also shows similar disparity. many that go unreported. Hence, the gravity of the While some studies reported neglect or verbal situation is frequently underestimated. abuse as the most commonly observed form of ill- As mentioned earlier, the most common forms treatment among elders (Comijs et al., 1998; UN, of mistreatment faced by the Indian elderly were 2002), certain evidences suggested physical abuse verbal abuse and neglect (Chokkanathan and Lee, to have a greater prevalence. In the course of these 2006; Sebastian and Sekher, 2011). A 2018 study studies, it was inferred that women in general are of 23 Indian cities revealed that nearly one-fourth at a higher risk of being abused or neglected (APA, elders admitted to being victims of abuse. This 2004). Most of the reports confirmed that among was experienced in the form of disrespect—56 per the individuals aged 80 years and above, those cent, verbal abuse—49 per cent and neglect—33 who are economically dependent on caregivers for per cent (HelpAge India, 2018). Various socio- fulfilling their basic needs are more vulnerable to economic factors play a part in determining the mistreatments (NCEA, 1998). level and nature of abuse towards the elderly. In India, women are generally considered to be Thein dian scenario more disadvantaged than men in all spheres of Abuse and neglect of elderly were not considered a life. This vulnerability intensifies upon attaining serious issue in the Indian society especially with old age. Moreover, elderly women become more the existence of joint family structures where the susceptible to violence when widowed (Kumari elderly have always been given great respect and and Sekher, 2012). The existing studies provide care by their immediate family. However, with clear evidence of vulnerability among elderly changing economic and social realities propelling women—especially widows—to abuse and neglect changes within the living arrangements and both within and outside of their households. family structure, it does not hold true any longer (Sebastian and Sekher, 2010; Sebastian and (Sebastian, 2013). Disintegration of joint families Sekher, 2018; Gupta and Sekher, 2017). Economic with fewer or no children to depend on during old dependency and living arrangement emerged as age, as well as migration of the younger generation key factors leading to elderly abuse and neglect in in pursuit of better employment opportunities, India (Sebastian and Sekher, 2018). have resulted in abandonment of the family’s According to the 2015 report by HelpAge elderly. The problem is further complicated India—which entailed a study among youth with the limited success of India’s social security from ten cities of India—73 per cent of the youth systems catering to the elderly (Arokiasamy admitted to being aware about the existence of et al., 2012). elderly abuse and neglect. They further stated So far, the problems pertaining to the abuse and that although they were cognisant about this

62 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Fig. 1: Proportion of elderly who reported abuse and neglect over select states

maharashtra 31.2 68.8 Punjab 10 90 Himachal Pradesh 9.3 90.7 West Bengal 7.4 92.6 Odisha 7.3 92.7 Kerala 3.2 96.8 Tamil nadu 1.7 98.3 Abuse and disrespect never experienced abuse/disrespect

Maharashtra shows the greatest incidences of abuse and disrespect, while Tamil Nadu shows the least. Source: Data from UNFPA, 2012

Fig. 2: Per cent of elderly who reported abuse based on type and place of abuse

Physical

Economic

disrespect

neglect

verbal

0 20 40 60 80 100 Both no Within family Outside family

Verbal abuse was the main form of mistreatment meted out to the elderly, followed by disrespect. Source: Data from UNFPA, 2012

issue, majority of them were unwilling to either of children tended to change for the worse after act or intervene. Moreover, 35 per cent of the inheriting the property of their elderly parents. participants divulged that they have witnessed This usually resulted in neglect towards the needs such incidents in their extended families or their of parents (Sebastian, 2013). Education has been own households. HelpAge India’s 2018 survey found to make a positive difference in terms of discovered that the chief abusers comprised of lowering incidences of elderly abuse (Skirbekk and close family members such as sons and daughters- James, 2014). in-law. More than 60 per cent of the elderly agreed In most of the cases, the main perpetrators of that the quality time earlier spent with their adult abuse were known to be one’s immediate family children and grandchildren has decreased with members and the primary caregivers—sons and excessive usage of phones and computers. There daughters-in-law. This, naturally, worsens the is evidence in support of the fact that the attitude victim’s helplessness, making him/her reluctant to

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 63 Fig. 3: Per cent of elderly reported abuse and disrespect by background characteristics

ChArACteristiCs Of 10 per Cent (987) Of elderly Abused Out Of A tOtAl sAmple size Of 9852

stAte Gender AGe GrOup

Tamil nadu 1.7 Kerala 3.2 Odisha 7.3 West Bengal 7.4 Himachal Pradesh 9.3 Young old 9.4 Punjab 10.0 male 9.5 Old old 10.1 maharashtra 31.2 Female 10.6 Oldest old 14.4

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

report such occurrences (Sebastian and Abuse and neglect of elderly Sekher, 2011). Nearly 10 per cent of the elderly interviewed in the 2018 UNFPA survey revealed that they living arrangements of the elderly experienced some form of abuse or disrespect. Cultural norms and the intergenerational support Among the elderly who experienced these, mechanism determine the living arrangements of approximately 35 per cent had suffered from the elderly. As they have limited or no resources multiple forms of abuses. Figure 1 provides a state- for their sustenance and also lack access to social wise profile of elderly mistreatment. support system, they largely depend on their Further investigation was carried out among children for old age assistance. the elderly being mistreated so as to find out the In 2012, the United Nations Population Fund type and place of abuse (Fig 2). The acquired (UNFPA) conducted a survey of 9852 elderly data was based on incidents of physical, verbal persons in a total of 8960 households in seven and economic abuse, as well as, experiences Indian states—Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, of neglect and disrespect. With a 89.5 per cent Kerala, Punjab, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West occurrence rate, verbal abuse surfaced as the Bengal. The objective of the survey was to collect primary form of mistreatment meted out to the data for examining the magnitude of elder abuse elderly. Instances of disrespect were the next in India and the factors influencing it. common form of ill treatment, cited by 50.6 per While nearly 79 per cent of the respondents cent of the elderly respondents. This was followed stayed with their children and families, 15 per cent by economic abuse—45.1 per cent, neglect—42.9 lived only with spouse—with or without a servant, per cent and physical abuse—36 per cent. It was and 6 per cent of them stayed alone. The gradual also noted that for the majority of them, such transition in India’s family structure—from joint incidents occurred within the family rather to nuclear households—weakened the stature than outside of it. Among the respondents who and authority of the family’s elderly. With next to had been abused or mistreated, almost 50 per no involvement in the family’s decision-making cent reported facing such instances within the process, the elderly were left feeling neglected. household merely a month prior to the survey. 87 As per the report analysis, while approximately per cent of individuals among those who reported two-thirds of the elderly admitted experiencing experiencing mistreatments a month back stated no change in their decision making power, about that they had been verbally abused. On the other 26 per cent of the respondents felt that their hand, 35 per cent of such elderly individuals significance as a decision making authority had admitted to being disrespected. Instances of been jeopardised after becoming old. However, physical abuse were 29 per cent in this context and the proportion of women that admitted to the cases of neglect and economic abuse was 31 per problem was higher than that of the elderly males. cent each. A little more than one-fifths—22 per

64 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 ChArACteristiCs Of 10 per Cent (987) Of elderly Abused Out Of A tOtAl sAmple size Of 9852

Instances of abuse was seen mAritAl stAtus livinG ArrAnGement to be greatest among women, the oldest old, and those who lived alone. Note: Percentages depicted in the currently bar graphs indicate elderly abused 9.1 married With children 9.5 as a proportion of the total sample Widowed 11.3 With spouse only 10.6 size of 9852. Other 15.0 Alone 16.6 Source: Data from UNFPA, 2012 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

cent of the elderly reported facing multiple abuses significant factor determining abuse and neglect one month prior to the survey. in the family as well as within the community. Abuse and neglect of the elderly adversely impacts the victim’s physical and mental health as perpetrators of elder abuse well as their life in general. Earlier studies suggest As earlier noted, studies have indicated that that depression was more serious among the children, particularly sons and daughters-in-law, elderly who had experienced abuse as opposed were primarily responsible for elderly abuse to those who had not (Sebastian, 2013). Among (HelpAge India, 2018). However, data from the respondents who suffered from abuse and UNFPA shows that nearly 45 per cent of the elderly disrespect one month before the survey, as many who encountered abuse and neglect reported there as 22 per cent had health issues. being multiple perpetrators—neighbours—46 per cent, sons—40.7 per cent and relatives—32 Factors for abuse and neglect per cent. One-in-ten elderly persons confessed to Looking into the factors influencing elderly facing abuse from grandchildren. A majority of abuse within as well as outside their homes, it them endured abuse and disrespect within the was observed that the degree of ill treatment household, specifically verbal abuse and neglect. increased with age. Around nine per cent of the The matter pertaining to elder abuse and elderly respondents in the young-old (60-69 neglect is steadily gaining worldwide recognition years) category declared facing abuse and as a pressing social concern and India is no longer neglect whereas, from the oldest-old (80 years an exception to this. With an ever-growing and above) group, 14 per cent admitted to this. number of youths venturing out of their local Slightly higher proportion of women—10.6 per habitations and creating nuclear families, a cent reported abuse and disrespect than their proportionately large size of the elderly is faced male counterparts—9.5 per cent. Additionally, with the prospect of living alone. Furthermore, it was discerned that married elderly couples migration of the younger generation to different reported lesser instances of abuse and neglect in cities, states and countries often triggers comparison with those who lost their physiological and psychological problems in their spouse (Fig. 3). elderly parents. The survey revealed that the elderly individuals living alone and those belonging to rural areas Way forward were more likely to be victims of abuse and The magnitude of elder abuse is still a matter of neglect. The elderly with eight or more years of speculation in India as it is difficult to quantify schooling are 50 per cent less likely to be abused that which occurs behind closed doors. It is the compared to the illiterates. Economic dependency duty of adults and children to offer love, support of the elderly towards their caregivers is a and care to the older members. A combination of

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 65 In most of the cases, the main perpetrators of abuse were known to be one’s immediate family members and were the primary caregivers—sons and daughters-in-law.

personal, familial, economical and psychological systematic review. Age and Ageing, 32 (7): 151-60. factors is responsible for the increasing incidences Gupta S. K. and T. V. Sekher, 2017. Vulnerability of ill-treatment among the elderly population. and coping mechanism of aged: A study of Rigorous remedial measures from the government elderly widows in Jharkhand in Rajan S. I. & G. and community are needed to ensure a peaceful Balagopal (eds.) Elderly Care in India: Societal and and dignified life to them. Awareness among all State Responses,Singapore: Springer, pp: 169-192. stakeholders is a fundamental step in HelpAge India, 2018. Elder Abuse in India-2018: this direction. Changing Cultural Ethos and Impact of Higher level of education and financial security Technology,New Delhi: India. Available at: at old age seem to counteract their vulnerability to https://bit.ly/2NGzDBw abuse and neglect. By focusing on the traditional International Institute for population Sciences, values of love, care and respect for the elderly (undated). Longitudinal Ageing Study in India and valuing their efforts and experiences, a more (LASI). Available at: https://bit.ly/2YHyE4Y. hopeful and considerate world can be envisaged. Accessed on: July 6, 2018. Kumari S. and T.V. Sekher, 2012. Status of elderly references widows in India, Journal of International Institute United Nations Population Fund, 2012. Report on on Ageing, 22 (2): 6-13. the Status of Elderly in Selected States of India- 2011, National Centre on Elder Abuse, 1998. What is Elder Building a knowledge base on Population Ageing in Abuse: What are the Major Types of Elder Abuse?,: India : United Nations Population Fund, New NCEA. Available at: http://www.interinc.com/ Delhi: India. NCEA/Elder_Abuse/main.html American Psychological Association, 2004. Sebastian D. and T. V. Sekher, 2010. Abuse and Elder Abuse and Neglect: In Search of neglect of elderly in Indian families: Findings of Solutions:Washington, D.C.: USA. Available at: elder abuse screening test in Kerala,Journal of the www.apa.org/ageing/elderabuse.html.Accessed Indian Academy of Geriatrics, 6(2): 54-60. on January 24, 2016. Sebastian D. and T. V. Sekher, 2011. Extent and Arokiasamy P., D. Bloom, J. Lee, T. V. Sekher and nature of elder abuse in families: A study in S. K. Mohanty, 2012. Longitudinal Ageing Study Kerala, Helpage India-Research and Development in India- Pilot Survey, International Institute for Journal, 17 (3): 20-28. Population Sciences and Harvard School of Sebastian D. and T.V. Sekher, 2018. Are elderly Public Health and Rand Corporation, Mumbai: people safe in their own households? Evidences India. from seven states of India in dass M.K. and S.I. Chokkanathan S. and A. E. Lee, 2006. Elder Rajan (eds.) Abuse and Neglect of Elderly in India, mistreatment in urban India: A community Singapore: Springer, pp. 157-174. based study. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, 17 Sebastian D., 2013. Ageing and Elder Abuse in Kerala. (2): 45-61. New Delhi: Rawat Publications. Comijs H., J. Smith, A. Pott, L. Bouter and C. Jonker, Skirbekk V. and K. S. James, 2014. Abuse against 1998. Risk indicators of elder mistreatment in elderly in India: The role of education. BMC the community. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, Public Health, 14(1): 336. 9 (4): 67-76. United Nation, 2002. Elder Abuse Widespread and Cooper C., A. Selwood and G. Livingston, 2008. Unprotected, Second World Assembly on Ageing, The prevalence of elder abuse and neglect- A Madrid: Spain.

66 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Term Power raTing

■ 1 to 4 Correct - Informed ■ 5 to 7 Correct - Knowledge bank Ageing Terminologies ■ 8 to 10 Correct - Encyclopaedia Below are the answers and explanations to help check how you fared.

1 Dementia 4 Elderly Ans. a: Dementia is a syndrome associated with Ans. b: As per the World Health Organisation (WHO), memory difficulties and other cognitive problems the term ‘elderly’ is used to classify people within 60 to often affecting people in old age. It typically inter- 75 years of age. 'Old' describes a person who is above feres with vocabulary, thinking, judgment, memory 76 but less than 90 years and ‘Very old’ denotes one and physical coordination. Alzheimer's disease is over 90 years. the most common form of dementia. 5 Gerontology 2 Palliative care Ans. a: Scientific study pertaining to the biological, Ans. a: Palliative care is intended to reduce the psychological, economical, and sociological physical and emotional pain accompanying any aspects of ageing is defined as gerontology. serious illness. However, this specialised medical Gerontology includes geriatrics, the branch of care is not solely meant for those with a terminal medicine specialising in the healthcare services diagnosis but is also extended to the patient’s of older persons. As per WHO, geriatrics is family. Most palliative care is provided in hospitals concerned with preventative, clinical, remedial, or clinics. rehabilitative measure as well as continuous health monitoring of older adults. 3 Parkinson’s disease Ans. c: Parkinson’s is a degenerative disorder that 6 Senior citizen (as defined in India) gradually erodes a person’s ability to control the Ans. c: The term 'senior citizen' refers to an individual movements of his/her body. who is at least 60 years old. An individual who belongs to the 80+ age category would be known as a 'very senior citizen'. 7 The National Pension System Ans. a: The National Pension System is a voluntary contribution pension system that is administered and regulated by the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority. It is created by an act of the Parliament of India. Initially designed only for government employees, it was extended to all citizens of India between the age of 18 and 60 in 2009. 8 Life expectancy rate Ans. c: The term 'life expectancy' refers to the number of years a person can be expected to live. 9 Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme Ans. b: The scheme offers a sum of INR 350 per month to widows belonging to the 40 to 79 age bracket who live below the poverty line. The pension is offered until their death. 10 Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana Ans. a: The Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana was formed by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. It is a central sector scheme funded through the Senior Citizen Welfare Fund. All unclaimed amount from small savings accounts, public provident fund (PPF) and employees provident fund (EPF) are transferred to this fund.

GeoGraphy and you . april 1-15 & 16-30 2019 67 Ageing indiA

By Mala Kapur Shankardass NatioNal Policy for older PerSonS in india Although India’s national policy for older persons has been in effect since 1999, it faces a number of challenges. The policy— while comprehensive—needs to further evolve to effectively safeguard the wellbeing of the country’s older segment.

The author is an Associate Professor at Maitreyi College, University of Delhi. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Shankardass M., 2019. National policy for older persons in India, Geography and You, 19 (19 & 20): 68-73

68 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Elderly women need to be conferred rights to help with poverty reduction and address deprivations of various kinds. seen here are a group of elderly women in a marriage ceremony in

Photo: PrasadPhoto: Kalpeni, Lakshadweep.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 69 ith over a 106 million was conducted, the United Nations (UN) member individuals in the 60 and countries adopted the Madrid International Plan above age-group representing of Action on Ageing (MIPAA) which directed 8.6 per cent of the country’s the countries to respond to several emergent population in 2011, India issues. These were—healthcare, long term care, has steadily become an ageing society. In the next social protection and security, older workers Wtwo decades or so, this segment of the population and labour force participation, housing, ageing- is slated to increase by 354 per cent, whereas the in-place, enabling-environments for the aged, number for those aged more than 80 will increase inter-generational relationships, preventing age by 500 per cent. In contrast, the overall Indian discrimination, alleviating old age poverty, etc. population will rise by only 40 per cent (GoI, 2011 Subsequently, many southeast Asian countries and 2016). reformulated their policies in accordance with The rapid socioeconomic changes along with the aforementioned interests of older people. demographic and epidemiological transitions— However, despite its efforts to revise the policy the changing patterns of population age in 2011, India has not been able to enforce a new distributions, mortality, fertility, life expectancy policy document which would address these and causes of death—that now characterise the aspects. Consequently, it has fallen behind in country, necessitates a policy response to the addressing the challenges of its ageing population. rapidly growing ageing population. However, Political initiatives as well as, legislative measures India has not rolled out any new policies following are hence required to implement comprehensive the National Policy for Older Persons (NPOP) policy plans that seek to enhance the quality of life which was implemented in 1999—a period when for the country’s elderly population. the elderly comprised of 6 to 7 per cent of the overall population (GOI, 1999). The national policy for older persons There are imminent challenges within the The 1999 NPOP was formulated in response present system that impede easy accessibility to to the demographic transition resulting from healthcare facilities and preclude palliative care increasing numbers and proportion of older for the elderly. Moreover, strengthening and people, majority of whom suffered from social, sustaining family as well as, community networks economic, and health deprivations. The policy are essential for supporting the elderly. Since they stresses on ensuring the wellbeing of the elderly, have just as much right to live comfortably and particularly older women and widows, by as per the country’s basic standards, it becomes insulating them against financial and health crucial to grant them adequate social security insecurities, homelessness, neglect, abuse and measures. Sadly, most of the elderly, instead, lead exploitation. The policy also draws older people a life of destitution, ill health, neglect and abuse within the folds of development to facilitate their which directly violates the fundamental human social inclusion within families and communities rights as granted by the Indian constitution through promotion of inter-generational ties (HelpAge, 2019). and age integrated societies. Additionally, it Ideologically, the NPOP was an impressive strongly urges the public to regard older people document as it was founded on the principles of as a resource by focusing on their productive independence, participation, care, self fulfilment, roles within family and community. According and dignity—the cornerstones of United Nations dignity and empowerment can help protect this Principles for Older Persons. In fact, these have segment against marginalisation and low self been included within the national programmes esteem. People are also recommended to consider of many countries across the world, particularly the elderly as active agents and not passive in southeast Asia. However, two decades later, individuals who must be empowered through NPOP seems insufficient to address the current representation in the electoral politics and allowed and future needs of older people, especially to voice their opinions and concerns regarding the since the life expectancy has now risen, as has programmes intended for them. They must also be the concomitant old age dependency, while the guaranteed provisions for accessing various basic support system for them continues to shrink. services, as well as given budgetary allocations On the day the 2002 world assembly on ageing for their welfare. Furthermore, NPOP advises

70 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Nearly half of the elderly population belongs to poor socio- economic background with a large proportion working in the unorganised sector, bereft of anysocial security.

families to look after their older members, while its success among the older segment, specifically simultaneously asking men and women to make the bed-ridden, immobile, and those requiring necessary preparations for later years. At the same assisted services for long term and end of life care. time, NGOs were encouraged to supplement the care being provided by family members. Issues relating to elderly health The 1999 NPOP document lays emphasis on For the greatest length of time, India’s elderly generating awareness among the older population population have struggled to avail comprehensive on the importance of independence and taking healthcare benefits. The problems arise primarily responsibility of one’s own wellbeing. It also calls from the country’s underdeveloped geriatric for promoting research in the field of old age care, services that have proved difficult to access owing investing in geriatric services and training people to factors such as, distance, poor transport, for the role of caregivers. illiteracy, physical or mental disability, absence of A huge majority of older people—approximately family support, financial constraints and more. 71 per cent—live in rural areas (HelpAge, 2019). Available data indicates that the feminisation Further, nearly half of the elderly population of ageing is taking place among the country’s belongs to poor socio-economic background with ageing population. It means that there is a higher a large proportion working in the unorganised proportion of older women in comparison to sector, bereft of formal social security and men in the 60-plus age group. It follows that protection. Most also have limited provisions the share of elderly widows exceeds the share of for healthcare. Further, the escalating numbers elderly widowers which was 47.8 per cent and of dementia among the elderly—who require 14.6 per cent respectively as per the 2011 census specialised care from skilled providers—are not (Rajan and Balagopal, 2017). Therefore, measures given due attention in the existent policy. The 1999 must be taken to alleviate isolation, destitution NPOP overlooks the fact that India’s primary as well as social, financial, health and emotional healthcare system still has much to be desired in insecurity among the older women. The 1999 terms of offering cost-effective elderly care for NPOP however, did not seek to address ageing short term, long term, as well as for emergency concerns from the perspective of gender. The 2011 situations. Insufficient allocation of funds, lack policy, while discussing the aspect of gender in of medical education and dearth of geriatric ageing, was never officially implemented. Aside medical centres, hospitals and geriatric nursing or from these, aged women need to be conferred paramedical personnel, pose as impediments to rights to help with absolute and relative poverty achieving universal healthcare coverage for reduction and address deprivations of various older people. kinds—nutrition, health, social care, sanitation The latest healthcare initiative to be launched and shelter. Additionally, they must have access to by the Indian government is the National Health income security and savings so that the aged may Protection Scheme (NHPS)—popularly referred sustain a livelihood and lead a life of dignity. to as Modicare. Initiated in 2018, The NHPS promises cashless cover for the secondary and Hurdles in implementing existing policies tertiary treatments of the poor and vulnerable The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment families in public or empanelled private facilities (MoSJE) is responsible for implementing without any cap on family size and patient’s age. various objectives of the 1999 NPOP by Additionally, Modicare aims to cover all chronic coordinating between ministries, institutions diseases. Under this scheme, the patient will and organisations. A review of NPOP’s mode of receive benefit coverage, including pre and post operation over the years, highlights the need for hospitalisation expenses, as well as transport better organisation and efficiency among different allowance. However, the NHPS has yet to prove ministries—Human Resource Development,

Geography and You . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 71 Women and Child Development, Finance, Ministry of Rural Development provides old age Labour, Rural Development, Law and Justice, pension to individuals from the below poverty Home Affairs, Health and Family Welfare, line segment who are more than 65 years of age. Information and Broadcasting, Surface Transport, Similarly, while the Ministry of Finance provides Panchayati Raj and Urban Development. The tax benefits to citizens above the age of 65, the success of NPOP was compromised owing to government, for all intents and purposes, regards the inability of the ministries in catering to the 60 years as the minimum age for a senior citizen. needs of the elderly in their respective capacities. Despite modifications being made with 60 and The programme suffered not only on account above age group representing the senior citizen of improper implementation but also due to category, there remains considerable ambiguity the failure of ministries to identify the precise about it in schemes. requirements of the elderly. For instance, despite For increased efficiency, a clearer accountability the urgent need for a universal pension system, the of every stakeholder ministry is required in terms government grants pensions only to individuals of definite timelines and time bound results for below the poverty line—many of whom are the welfare scheme. However, administrative unable to procure it, thus suggesting fault in its encumbrances are often cited as justifications in implementation. Many older people struggle failing to adhere to policy directives. The division to avail pension due to distribution hurdles, of power between the centre and the state leaves a corruption, and needless red-tapism. large scope for confusion about the distribution There also exists a lack of consensus with regards of responsibilities. For instance, healthcare, is a to ascertaining the minimum age of an elderly— state-controlled subject in which centre seems to whether it should be 60 or 65 years. For certain have little involvement with respect to resource programmes, financial concessions and benefits allocation and implementation. Upon review of to older people, 65 is considered. For instance, the healthcare policies, it was seen that states pleaded resource limitations for their inability to effectively implement the programmes. This is particularly true in the case of healthcare. The National Programme for Healthcare of the Elderly (NPHCE) was launched in 2010 but its achievements are dismal among districts that first implemented it. Health services and facilities for the older people are lacking in most parts of the country. To put it briefly, the policy document remains a statement of intent as action for improving the life of older people has been minimal. With life expectancy on a rise, looking after the physical and social wellbeing of the elderly, particularly the old-old (above 85 years), and modifying our system—transport, housing, public spaces even technology—to suit their needs has become exigent. The elderly must also be given special attention during natural disasters and emergencies. This is in view of the fact that in the last few years, occurrences of earthquakes and floods have been repeatedly witnessed in different part of the country (HelpAge India, 2007a, 2009). Despite this, disaster preparedness and h moorthy h

rehabilitation for older people has been negligible Es (HelpAge India, 2007 [b]). India requires y: Vign y: policies that would incorporate a developmental Es perspective while focusing on welfare mechanisms

to facilitate productive ageing, impart life skills court Photo in old age and promote third-age universities— respect imbedded in its culture towards them, institutions without an age cap where older people makes its case similar to India’s. China, of late, can pursue higher education. As these fall outside has been devising labour market policies to the scope of the present policies, newer ones must include interests of older people and has been be formulated. improving ageing policies to promote large scale The breakdown of the joint family system, investments in ageing human capital through changing societal values and increased migration good governance (Jackson et al., 2013). China is of youth necessitates strategies that would thus taking proactive measures to cope with the enhance the quality of life of not just the elderly challenges of population ageing. India can take but also the families they depend on. This must cues from the Chinese government’s decision include programmes and policy initiatives for to establish an inter-agency/inter-ministerial multigenerational bonding, universal financial committee on ageing known as, China National security, healthcare, nutrition security and tax Committee on Ageing to plan, coordinate, exemptions. The demand to increase the pension monitor and implement policies and programmes accorded to older people from the current paltry for older people across the nation. It is hoped that amount and to make it universal in scope, has in the coming days, the Indian government will existed for a long time. However, policymakers give priority to the elderly and advocate for their have not been able to make any amends. wellbeing through better management between The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents different ministries. and Senior Citizens (MWPSC) Act, 2007 was enacted to secure adequate provisions for parents references and senior citizens for their maintenance and Government of India, 2011. Census of India -2011, welfare. However, it revealed many loopholes Government of India, New Delhi: India. which MoSJE tried to overcome by framing an Available at: https://bit.ly/323TrSn. MWPSC Amendment Bill in 2018 to be placed HelpAge India, 2007. The Aftermath: evaluation before the Parliament. The Amended Bill would of the Relief and Rehabilitation Response, New guarantee better care and maintenance of parents Delhi: India. and senior citizens and adopt a rights based HelpAge India, 2007. Village Elders Care Committee: approach to ensure fundamental services to the An experiment in community-based approach to senior citizens while mandating their children elder care, New Delhi: India. and grandchildren to extend safety and security to HelpAge India, 2009. Coping with Calamity, New them. It also calls for establishing, managing and Delhi: India. regulating institutions and services catering to HelpAge India, 2019. Home care for the elderly in the older population. The Amended Bill makes it India – a call for action. New Delhi. Available at: obligatory for the government to set standards for https://bit.ly/2J5Sq4N. the care provided to senior citizens at specialised Jackson R., R. Macaranas, and T. Peter, 2013. centres and multi-service daycare centres. This is Development Policy in an Ageing World: New intended to make the older people aware about the Challenges and New Priorities for a New role the central government plays in their welfare. Demographic Era. Center for Strategic and The emphasis on quality care strengthens the Bill International Studies, Washington D.C.: USA. and engenders good practice norms. However, Available at: https://bit.ly/2xrGHqB given the present situation, it cannot be said with Ministry of Statistics Programme and certainty as to when the Amendments will implementation, 2016. Elderly in India: take effect. Government of India, New Delhi: India. Available at: https://bit.ly/2YwaXfC Way forward Ministry of Social and Empowerment, 1999. In terms of its welfare strategies, India can seek National Policy for Older Persons Year 1999: inspiration from China which is strengthening Government of India, New Delhi: India. its macroeconomic management to improve Rajan S. I. and G. Balagopal, 2017. Caring India: an the quality of life for its older population. introduction, in Rajan S. I. and G. Balagopal China’s significant elderly population as well (eds.) Elderly Care in India: Societal and State as the traditional values of filial duty and Responses: Singapore: Springer, pp. 1-36.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 73 IndIa OuTdOOrs

srinivasan at rupin river valley, himachal Pradesh. inivasan s sr Photo Courtesy: Courtesy: Photo

74 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 By S Srinivasan a TRek To Rupin paSS The attempt to move out of the comfort zone and know your mettle does not always end with one’s youth. A trek to Rupin Pass allowed a septuagenarian like me to put this theory to test.

elaxing right outside our tent on a what we had been led to imagine. clear September afternoon with a I personally like to use the metaphor of a splendid view of the Lower Waterfall classical composition to explain the many layers in the distance felt unreal. Ever of the trekking experience. This is because, since we embarked on the trek five just like a symphony, the journey consisted of days before, the weather had been nothing but varying notes which elicited corresponding inhospitable.R In fact, it was so bad that there were emotions from within. Every step and every times when we were ready to sprint back home! I little turn revealed the hitherto unexplored suppose the reaction was quite natural considering charm—from cosy cottages in the village to the the expectations we were nurturing in terms of untamed wilderness, the landscape seemed to the weather. When we registered for the trek with have it all. To have beheld the glacial meadows India Hikes few months ago, we were shown and the majestic falls is a vision printed indelibly sun-drenched photos of lush forests. Moreover, the on to my mind. The farther I went, the more absence of snow meant that we could walk with ease exhilarated I felt. The three staged waterfall over pebbles and boulders. However, once there, we culminated into the blue waters of the Rupin discovered the scenario to be very different from river had the same aesthetic impact as that of a

The author is a practicing pediatrician in New Delhi. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Srinivasan S., 2019. A Trek to Rupin Pass, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 74-79

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 75 1

2 3

1. Day 6- Panoramic view of the rupin valley and Kinner Kailash Mountain; 2. Day 2- on the bank of rupin river enroute Jiskun; 3. Day 5- Dhanteras thach campsite. symphony. We soon reached a point where the capabilities begin to decrease with advancing path led through snowfields and the vista that age and we become more prone to accidents, unfolded was worth every bit the effort. aspirations may not always experience a similar Our group consisted of 20 men and women of setback. Self-esteem, which has a significant

varying ages that included Jaideep and I—who bearing on one’s mental health, gets a boost inivasan were both septuagenarians—and our trek leader, whenever the gap between achievements and s sr Mihir Rao. Now, you may wonder what exactly it aspirations closes in. The kind of preparation is that attracts us elderly people to this hazardous that preceded this journey further motivated adventure. Although, it is true that physical me to accomplish the mission. Everything, right Courtesy: Photo

76 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 We crossed the river by a ramshackle wooden bridge and were informed that we had just entered into the state of Himachal Pradesh!

from purchasing the necessary equipments to long journey. It was drizzling for the most part undertaking prolonged physical trainings and of our trip and during the rest of the time, the advanced fitness activities, kept me focused on sky remained overcast and the air felt muggy. At the upcoming journey. In fact, I had to walk Sankri, we met members of the group heading to and jog consistently for over two months in Kedarkanth the next day. While the rain did pose order to attain the minimum standard of fitness a slight encumbrance during our journey, it helped and qualify for trekking. Aside from this, the make the environment more vibrant, with myriad presence of young people in the group provided revived waterfalls. The plan was to leave for the external impetus needed to improve my own Dhaula by bus during the early hours of the next performance. However, treadmill training is morning and begin our trek. Little did we know usually discouraged for senior citizens as it puts that Uttarakhand was to experience poor weather undue stress on knees. Regular exercise and yoga conditions the following week! alleviates symptoms of age related diseases such We left Sankri on the morning of September 23 as hypertension, type II diabetes, etc. However, by bus which led us through verdant forests before one precaution that elderly participants are arriving at Dhaula. We commenced trekking asked to observe while trekking is to limit their by walking up the slope on the left-hand bank water intake. Although, trekking is physically of the Tons River at Dhaula. The altitude at that exhausting and thus requires drinking copious point was 5100 m above the mean sea level. While amount of water, elderly individuals should trekking, we crossed fields, a large cattle ranch desist as they must be wary of overstressing their which opened out into a peach and apple farm bladder, and we also need to avoid venturing before leading us through the village of Sewa. out at night. At the same time, there are a few Enroute, we dodged cattles and farm labour in the upsides for such participants during a trek. Early narrow and slushy bylanes and reached the pagoda risers—most of whom tend to be senior citizens style temple that houses the idol of Karna—a rather than the younger ones—fare better on popular hero from Mahabharata. Braving the this journey. As a further motivation, those incessant rain, we walked past a nullah and with weakened and painful knees need not be rounded the corner to get the first glimpse of deterred as lodgings are equipped with western the resplendent Rupin river. A precarious river style commodes. Moreover, portable equipment crossing over a ramshackle wooden bridge led us can also be acquired whenever required. Another into the state of Himachal Pradesh! We climbed a important factor which is not talked about often steep slope for a considerable time till we reached is that ageing helps eliminate long held anxieties a tea stall on the road head of Gosangu. Following and phobias such as those associated with heights a short break, we walked on the metalled road for which further emboldens one’s resolve. about an hour, a torrential waterfall cut across our September 21, 2018 marked the start of our path and we were advised to take off our shoes journey—the date on which we departed from and roll up our trousers before entering its icy Delhi and arrived in Dehradun by an overnight eddies. After crossing it, we prepared to march train. On September 22, all fellow trekkers on for two to three hours before entering Bawta congregated at the meeting point located near (or lower Jiskun). The waterfall could be seen the Dehradun station. Here, we were joined by a emanating from dense jungles in the hills before few others who had spent the previous few days descending into the Rupin meandering several touring Dehradun and Mussoorie. We left for hundred metres below. Our camps were set up in Sankri soon after that; it was to be an 11 hour upper Jiskun which was almost an hour away. By

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 77 4

5 6

4. Day 5- the three tiered rupin waterfall from Dhanters thach; 5. Day 2- a house in Jiskun; 6. Day 2- srinivisan and Jaideep in Jiskun

this time, it had ceased to rain and the sun was As the houses and farms in Jiskun and Jhakha peeping out for the first time as were children straddle the jagged cliffs of the mountain, they are who emerged to enjoy the brief respite. As we also sometimes referred to as Hanging Villages. reached, the day’s exhaustion made us crash onto While touring, we geared ourselves with caps, our beds immediately. We spent the whole of next scarves, water bottles, etc. purchased from the day recovering from the previous day’s exertion. village shops. We also indulged ourselves with

This also provided an opportunity to dry our besan ki barfi from Sharmaji’s hotel which was inivasan wet shoes and clothes. Interestingly, Jiskun and close to our place of residence. s sr the adjoining village of Jhakha are inhabited by We woke up to a resplendent, clear and sunny a religious sect—Radhasoami Satsang Beaswale clear September 25. We quickly dressed for who have voluntarily given up liquor and meat. breakfast which was served in the open courtyard. Courtesy: Photo

78 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 Thischallenging task ended after an hour when we beheld the brilliant panoramic view of the Kinner Kailash mountain and other Himalayan peaks.

We ate siduki—a local samosa made from jaggery waterfall. We needed to steadily climb in the and ragi, as well as pancakes made from whole direction of the Pass, hence we crossed through wheat and eggs which we downed with black tea, the middle waterfall, fording along the safety before commencing our trek to Jakha. The route rope through chilled waters. The experience was led us along canopies of trees on the undulating terrifying to say the least. Next, we continued path. On the way, we met several students and to move uphill like mountain goats trying not a couple of teachers rushing to school, while a to slip or stumble. The landscape was barren veterinary doctor ambled along to Jiskun on a and comprised merely of rocks, pebbles and call of duty. We took a break after three hours chameleons. By this time we had scaled 13,700 feet of trekking, spotting griffon vultures gliding above the mean sea level and had reached the top gracefully overhead and an extensive range of fruit of the upper waterfall. and nut trees abounding in the forest. Lending The day we were to begin our return journey— character to the ambience was a small hut built September 29—coincided with Namita’s (a from rocks, slate and logs by shepherds which fellow trekker) birthday. We left our camp at also served as a shelter for inclement weather and 1.30 am and kept moving uphill guided solely doubled as store for fodder in fair weather. by torchlight. As dawn approached, we were By lunchtime we had reached a clearing on the close to the base of the 70 feet frozen gully. It was left side of the river embankment at Udaknaland lovely to have the rising sun lighting the path where we saw many bridges that had been before us. We arranged ourselves in a single washed away by the torrential downpour. By this file behind our guide with me, the senior most time we were at 11700 feet above the mean sea individual immediately behind him. We were level and the weather had turned chilly as the careful not to make any noise and made our way evening approached. upwards silently, taking one step at a time. This By the afternoon of September 26, we had challenging task ended an hour later at the Pass reached Dhanteras Thach. Here, on either side where we beheld the brilliant panoramic view of the expansive grassland were cliffs with caves of the Kinner Kailash mountain as well as other and waterfalls. We were washed with warm Himalayan peaks. We wished Namita a happy sunlight the entire day as we trekked arduously. birthday amongst all that brilliance. Twenty However, it turned gusty towards the evening minutes later we began our descent. Our progress which soon escalated to a hailstorm. We was often slowed down by fresh snow as well as, retreated quickly into our tents and Jaideep fell loose stones and boulders. At 2 pm we halted asleep at once. As it grew dark outside, call for to devour our packed lunches. Within the next dinner went unheeded—rolling out of our bed three to four hours we arrived at the final camp at this point was nearly impossible. It had begun which overlooked the Baspa river. Here, we were to snow by the time all the dinner paraphernalia welcomed by numerous delicacies prepared by wrapped up and the camp grew silent. About a expert cooks. couple of hours later we were woken up by four On September 30, we reached Sangla. From police persons who had rescued four trekkers here, we hailed taxis and arrived at the Kalka separated from their group and were seeking our station during the early hours of the next day and help to keep them warm for the night. Without a boarded the train bound for New Delhi. thought, we helped them settle. While the overall trek was, without a doubt, Fortunately, the sky had cleared by the following physically demanding, it was my mental strength morning which assisted our early start. The that propelled and prepared me to meet and highlight of that day was wading through the overcome new challenges.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 79 InnovatIon report

By Maitri Thakur, Kristina Widell, Guro Møen Tveit & Rasa Slizyte FOOd WaSTe ManaGeMenTGeMenT While on the one hand, the burgeoning global population is faced with food scarcity, on the other hand, the question of food wastage is as exigent as ever. As India is one of the largest global food producers, SINTEF Ocean, a leading research institute based in Norway, has partnered with top Indian institutions in an effort to address the issue of food wastage.

The authors are research scientists at SINTEF Ocean, Norway. [email protected]. The article should be cited as Thakur M., K. Widell, G.M. Tveit, R. Slizyte, 2019. Food Waste Management, Geography and You, 19(19 & 20): 80-83

80 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 ndia’s food exports now constitute a significant portion of the annual world food trade. Increased growth and profit presently characterise India’s food sector, particularly, in the food processing industry. In fact, the country’s farm output of 270 Imillion tonnes in the period 2015-2016 exceeded the required amount of 225-230 million tonnes of annual food as established by the World Economic Forum (Athar, 2018). However, with regards to its net impact, the overall picture is less encouraging as losses during production, processing and distribution go largely unchecked. Hence, managing wastage has emerged as the need of the hour. SINTEF Ocean considers India as a potential international strategic partner in bioeconomy and has ben in partnership with it since 2014. The partnership has now extended to the top institutions in this area. The success of this venture manifested as ReFood and ReValue projects. ReFood, funded by Research Council of Norway’s International Partnerships for Excellent Education, Research and Innovation (INTPART) programme, aims to foster bioeconomic relations between Norway and India through improvements in food resource utilisation in an energy efficient and climate friendly manner. ReValue is an Innovation driven initiative for the development and integration of Indian and European research (INNO-INDIGO) Era-Net (European reseach area net) project. It is coordinated by SINTEF Ocean and jointly funded by Research Council of Norway, Department of Biotechnology in India and Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology in Spain. It focuses on optimising the surimi value chain through a series of innovations. Surimi is a fish product made from pulped fish that is mixed with different types of seasonings, additives, and binders. Relevant to the challenges faced by global bioeconomy is the incidental waste generated from the unutilised parts of poultry, fish or plant that is known as rest raw material. The low processing efficiency of surimi industry makes )

co it a major contributor to the quantum of rest raw c material and washwater generated. In view of this matter, researchers from both countries worked closely with the industry to develop solutions for improved cold chain management to reduce waste

Photo courtesy: surimi ( surimi courtesy: Photo from processing and convert rest raw material and

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 81 wash water into high value-added ingredients for food and feed. Additionally, efforts to make such projects commercially viable were also made.

It was discovered by researchers from Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani and SINTEF Ocean working on the ReValue project that the surimi supply chain suffers from a lack of structure which 1 deteriorates the quality of fish. Hence, they set about developing an optimised value stream map with different levels of vertical integration which would include energy efficient refrigerators.

refrigeration technology In order to appraise the bioeconomic challenges of both countries, researchers and students actively participated in bilateral exchanges. A model for small-scale refrigeration system was developed at the Indian Institute of Technology 2 (IIT), Kharagpur by students belonging to the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. It is intended to be used along the supply chain to reduce losses associated with spoilage. A mobile container with vapour compression system, consisting of a natural refrigerant (R600a, isobutane) with solar power energy input was designed. The system is meant to 3 be used as a pre-cooling unit to introduce rural farmers to the cold chain network. The products, which are currently kept at ambient temperature, can be stored at 1oC. Moreover, the same container can be used for fruits growing in different seasons to reduce cost. An ammonia and carbon dioxide based vapour compression system was developed by another Norwegian researcher which is to be used for building a small cold storage. Although, these natural refrigerants are not completely risk-free, such constraints can

Photo-from top to bottom 1. Norwegian researchers at indian institute of technology, Kharagpur; e authors e

2. indian researchers at amity university; th 3. sorting of fish at Kaiko surimi plant, mumbai; urtesy: urtesy:

4. Processing of fish rest raw material. co 4 Photo Photo

82 April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 . GeoGrAphy And you vol 19, issue 19 & 20 A mobile container with a natural refrigerant and solar power energy input was designed to be used by rural farmers as a pre-cooling unit.

be overcome with adequate components and quality of fish intact. This work was presented training. As these are fashioned as a trailer, these at the West European Fish Technologists storage units can easily be placed at retail units Association (WEFTA) conference in 2018. and wholesale markets. Products that can be Methods for optimal utilisation of the rest raw stored at different times of the year will be a key material obtained from fish industry are being consideration in maximising the efficiency of explored by two Indian two research scholars at the system. Amity University with assistance from senior An icemaking system for fish and dairy-based researchers belonging to SINTEF Ocean. They are products was devised by a third researcher. Poor working to develop value-added products as well electricity supply, negligible investment and hot as extract and utilise protein hydrolysate from the climate conditions have rendered the cold chain rest raw material procured from the process either non-existent or incompetent in surimi industry. India. However, since India receives abundant sunlight, the possibility of using solar irradiation Way forward as heat source in a sorption (adsorption and Results drawn from the project can be absorption) icemaking system has been explored used towards commercialising innovative by the research team. Many different working technologies. Industrial participation is pairs (absorbate/adsorbent) are possible in very strong in both, ReFood and ReValue sorption system, but not all are suitable to be used projects with a well-established presence of together with solar irradiation and temperatures multiple and complementary technological, below zero degree in the evaporator. research and business expertise relating to the In addition to the above, methods for optimally proposed activities. As per the Department of utilising the fish rest raw material was also Industrial Policies and Promotion in India, the formulated by a few researchers from Norway who food processing sector in India has received visited the Council of Scientific and Industrial approximately USD 7.54 billion worth of foreign Research-Central Food Technological Research direct investments from 2000 to 2017 (India Brand Institute (CSIR-CFTRI), Mysore. Equity Foundation, 2017). The Confederation The young researchers from Norway admitted of Indian Industry (CII) estimates that the food their innovations encountered opposition from processing sector has the potential to attract as the locals as many were disinclined to view much as USD 33 billion worth of investments over refrigeration as a necessity. Additionally, there the next 10 years while generating employment were operational encumbrances stemming for 9 million person-days (India Brand Equity from a large population, poor living standards Foundation, 2017a). Prospects for further and infrastructural constraints. However, they collaboration with India remain high, should the acknowledged the experience as a valuable one right opportunities be identified. despite working in a markedly different climate and culture. references A decision support system (DSS) was developed Athar U., 2018. As millions go hungry, India eyes ways at SINTEF Ocean by a research scholar from IIT, to stop wasting $14 billion of food a year, Reuters. Kharagpur to improve the logistics planning Available at:https://reut.rs/2CRiOwV. Accessed on: pertaining to Norway’s whitefish industry. The June, 29, 2019. DSS works on agent simulation and includes India Brand Equity foundation, 2017. Indian Food transportation optimisation for the delivery of Industry. Available at: https://bit.ly/2Jd0LDV products from different sourcing stations to the India Brand Equity foundation, 2017 a. Indian food desired processor in Norway while keeping the processing. Available at: https://bit.ly/2oGjvlJ.

GeoGrAphy And you . April 1-15 & 16-30 2019 83 Website BOOKS interrogating the neoliberal The national social lifecycle: The limits of success Assistance programme By: Clack, Beverley, Paule, (nsAp) Michele www.nsap.nic.in/ NSAP is a data bank which Cover: Hardcover comprises of Indira Gandhi publisher: Palgrave Macmillan National Old Age Pension published: 2019 Scheme (IGNOAPS), Indira isBn: 978-3-030-00769-0 Gandhi National Disability price: 117 USD Pension Scheme (IGNDPS), pages: 268 Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS), National Family Benefit Scheme he book explores how the most frequently disputed (NFBS) and Annapurna Scheme. Ta neoliberal vision political theories, the reality The national dashboard provides determines the construction under neoliberal policy regimes village wise data of all states. of the lifecycle. The volume is laid out by the authors. This draws on the interface between research is not just stimulating department of economic neoliberalism in politics but also novel in its endeavour. and social Affairs, united and neoliberalism as a lived Through an extensive analysis, nations experience in societies. In Interrogating the Neoliberal www.un.org/development/ doing so, the book undertakes Lifecycle underscores the desa/ageing/ an interdisciplinary approach, limits of a neoliberal paradigm The Department of Economic evaluating the concept on the but at the same time suggests and Social Affairs under parameters of age, gender and plausible alternatives to the United Nations implements the directions of the Madrid access to education. As one of arrangement. International Plan of Action on ageing. It also aims at demography and Ageing and achieving goals concerning health issues diversity: An enhanced awareness of the By: Christos h. Active learning global situation of older people skiadas experiences and implementation of policies Charilaos skiadas By: Chandra related to them. Data on older Cover: Paperback Mehrotra, lisa population, reports by United publisher: Springer smith Wagner Nation and resolution related to International Publishing Cover: Paperback old-age is accessible through published: 2018 this website. publisher: Routledge isBn: 978-3-030-09376-1 published: 2018 helpAge india price: 117 USD isBn: 979-0415952149 www.helpageindia.org/ pages: 355 price: 50 USD In over 40 years, HelpAge India pages: 426 has succeeded in implementing Growing older: mobile healthcare programmes. The Current Family Ties & They aim to provide relief and epidemiological and Aging rehabilitation to the elderly psycho-sociological By: Ingrid Arnet in the aftermath of a disaster. research on Ageing Connidis, Moreover, they also enable them By: Anna siri, et al. Amanda E. Barnett to earn their livelihood through elder self help groups. Various Cover: Paperback Cover: Paperback policy documents, annual publisher: Nova Science publisher: SAGE Publications reports, HelpAge research published: 2018 published: 2018 report and other valuable isBn: 978-1-53613-638-8 isBn: 9781412992862 documents can be accessed price: 82 usd price: 60 USD through this website. pages: 139 pages: 488

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