The Making of the “Junzi”:

A Modern Perspective on the Pedagogy of Junzi in the Analects

Thesis

Presented in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts and

Science in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Kai Liang, B.A.

Graduate Program in East Asian Languages and Literatures

The Ohio State University

2015

Thesis Committee:

Xiaobin Jian, Advisor

Galal Walker Copyright by

Kai Liang

2015 Abstract

This thesis investigates the pedagogy of junzi in the Luny which is also known as

Analects. The Analects has been passed down for about 2000 years, and its pedagogy sustained as a tradition in Chinese culture still needs to be further explored today.

Currently, the field of Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) mainly borrows ideas, methodologies and strategies from the field of English as a Second Language (ESL).

This thesis is looking into how the pedagogy of junzi in the Analects may inspire the

CFL. Through analyzing the pedagogy of junzi in the Analects, this paper reveals the characteristics of its pedagogy and discusses its value to today’s Chinese language pedagogy in CFL. According to the research in this paper, the Analects uses shared experience, related concepts and contexts to illustrate and construct the meaning of junzi.

Additionally, the Analects points to xue, a dynamic process which involves other mental and physical activities, as the approach to becoming a junzi. Through examining concepts and terms related to junzi and xue found in the Analects, and analyzing how they functioned in a constructive framework to define the meaning of junzi and xue, the features of the pedagogy were revealed and in turn discussed with respect to their value in CFL.

Keywords: pedagogy, Chinese language, junzi, xue, the Analects, Confucius

ii Dedication

Dedicated to my parents and family.

iii Acknowledgments

I wish to express gratitude to Professor Xiaobin Jian, my advisor, who provided me with guidance and encouragement throughout the whole process of my research. I also thank Professor Galal Walker who continually provided me with valuable suggestions and direction. Finally, I am also grateful to my classmates in course EALL 7705 who shared and exchanged opinions with me during the 2015 Spring semester.

iv Vita

Education

B.A., Chinese Language & Literature, Qingdao University College of Education, 2005

Work Experience

2013 to present The Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures of the OSU,

Research Assistant

2005-2013 Qingdao Tourism School, Chinese teacher

2012-2013 Singapore Top Leaders Edutech PTE. LTD, Lecturer

2012 Chinese Selected Poems, Associate Editor-in-Chief

2012 OSU Chinese Flagship Qingdao Center, Chinese Language Tutor

2012, 2013 Chinese Ocean University, Business Management (EMBA), Lecturer

2006-2009 Qingdao Tourism School Admissions Office, Admissions office staff

Publications

The Echo and the Call: Research On the Modernity of China, China Global Culture

Publishing House, 2012.

v A Grain of Corn, China Global Culture Publishing House, 2012.

Poems included in The Selected Poems of the Bandao Poem Forum 2011, China Yanshi

Press, 2012.

Poems included in Peninsula Poems, Shandong Pictorial Press, 2010.

Five stories published in Qingdao Literature, 2012. Vol. 12.

Over 40 articles and poems published in Chinese Selected Poems, Red Bud Education

Digest, The Guide of Writers, Qingdao Evening News, Qingdao Morning Post,

Peninsula City News, International Times( Malaysia).

Field of Study

Major Field: East Asian Languages and Literatures

vi Table of Contents

Abstract...... ii

Dedication...... iii

Acknowledgments...... iv

Vita...... v

List of Figures...... x

Introduction: The Field of Chinese Language Pedagogy...... 1

Chapter 1: The Analects and its Pedagogy...... 5

1.1 What the Analects is...... 5

1.2 What pedagogy the Analects used...... 5

Chapter 2: Junzi in the Age of Shifting Paradigms...... 7

2.1 Background: libengyuehuai 礼崩乐坏 and the call for junzi...... 8

2.2 ren 人 vs. min 民...... 10

2.3 ren 人: junzi 君子/yeren 野人/xiaoren 小人...... 18

2.3.1 junzi 君子 vs. yeren 野人...... 18

2.3.2 junzi 君子 vs. xiaoren 小人...... 20

2.4 junzi 君子 vs. qi 器...... 24

vii Chapter 3: Becoming a Junzi: Xueyizhidao 学以致道 and the Learning Process in the

Pedagogy of Junzi...... 27

3.1 The process of xue: haoxue 好学, si 思, xing 省, guan 观, cha 察, xi 习 and

xin 行...... 34

3.2 xue 学 and haoxue 好学...... 34

3.3 si 思 and xing 省...... 35

3.4 guan 观 and cha 察...... 37

3.5 xi 习 and xing 行...... 41

Chapter 4: Assessing the Progress of Becoming Junzi: Key Indicators...... 46

4.1 shierhouyan 时(PARTS)然后言...... 46

4.2 wenzhibinbin 文质彬彬...... 51

4.3 boxue 博学...... 52

Chapter 5: Discussions...... 54

5.1 The pedagogy of junzi in the Analects...... 54

5.2 Issues and challenges...... 56

5.2.1 Between min 民 and junzi 君子, between jiao 教 and xue 学...... 56

5.2.2 Between qi 器 and junzi 君子...... 57

5.2.3 From zhizhi 知之 to haozhi 好之 to lezhi 乐之...... 57

viii 5.2.3.1 An interpretation of zhizhi 知之, haozhi 好之 and lezhi 乐之...... 57

5.2.3.2 What we can do and cannot do with the “zhizhi, haozhi and lezhi”...... 59

References...... 62

ix List of Figures

Figure 1. The Evolution of the Chinese Character Xi...... 32

x Introduction

With more and more economic and culture communication between America and

China, the number of American Chinese language learners is increasing rapidly. This trend shows that a more effective and practical Chinese language pedagogy needs to be introduced in the field of Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL). Nowadays, in both

China or in America, the CFL pedagogy and learning theories are mainly borrowed from the field of English as a Second Language (ESL).

However, in America, CFL has very little research focusing on the application of early traditional Chinese perspectives, such as those found in the Analects. As a classic of Chinese traditional culture and thought, the Analects recorded Confucius’s and his disciples’ conversations and debates. The pedagogy of early Chinese has been a focus of research in China throughout its history. In America, and even the English speaking world as a whole, the CFL learning system grossly underestimates the pedagogical value of these early Chinese traditions.

In the last decade, with the application of Galal Walker’s and Mari Noda’s

Performing another Culture Approach (hereinafter referred to as PCA), America’s

Chinese language teaching and learning has had some change in its pedagogical theories

1 and practices. The PCA emphasizes “context,” which gives language a clearer meaning and has American language learners participate in the Chinese culture through using

Chinese language. This pedagogy is based on human cognitive characteristics, which is more effective than traditional Chinese language pedagogy, especially on the basis of

ESL. Because the PCA puts cultural context in a very significant position in language teaching and learning, learners need to participate in an authentic Chinese language environment through interpersonal interactions by using Chinese language. This process allows learners to understand and memorize Chinese language and the clear intentions and meanings of language in appropriate contexts, which allows them to really master the language on the level of practice, not just merely memorizing Chinese terms and expressions. In other words, PCA requires learners to “act out” by using Chinese language, but not merely gain some literal knowledge of Chinese language.

Confucius was trying to define basic concepts to achieve Ren 仁 and have his disciples become Junzi 君子 in order to change his time of li huai yue beng 礼坏乐崩

(rites collapsed and music disappeared)1：the old social order collapsed, and a new social order had not been established yet; the whole society was in chaos, and people were facing significant problems regarding morals, ethics and the social system.

In the Analects, Confucius and his disciples defined, or rather redefined, concepts

1 Tsâi Wo asked about the three years' mourning for parents, saying that one year was long enough. "If the junzi," said he, "abstains for three years from the observances of li, those observances of li will be quite lost. If for three years he abstains from yue, yue will be ruined.（17.21, Legge） 宰我問：“三年之喪，期已久矣。君子三年不爲禮，禮必壞；三年不爲樂，樂必崩。 2 that he believed in which can make the society better, such as ren 仁(appropriateness), yi

义(morality), li 礼(observing ritual propriaty), zhi 智(to realize), and xin 信(making good on one’s word)1. After obtaining these virtues, the ultimate goal of his education is cultivating Junzi who have the capability to save and change the chaotic society. For

Confucius, the approach to junzi is xue. Du Wei-ming argues that the purpose of this education is individual development. Confucius’s ultimate goal of education is eliminating the chaos of his times and restoring order through cultivating junzi. In order to achieve this, individual development is merely one of the prerequisites to change the whole society. With individual development, one is able to influence and change other people and the environment he/she lived within. In the Analects, the approach to individual development is xue. The pedagogy of cultivating junzi might be applied in

CFL, but needs to be combined with PCA.

This paper investigates the concept of junzi in the Analects, and discusses the pedagogy of becoming a junzi. On choosing English translations, I mainly use Roger T.

Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr.’s The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation,

D.C Lau and Yang Bojun’s Lunyu: Zhong Ying duizhao [The Analects, Chinese-English

Edition], James Legge’s Confucian Analects, The great learning, and The doctrine of the mean : translated, with critical and exegetical notes, prolegomena, copious indexes, and

1 The English translation of 仁 义 礼 智 信 is borrowed from Ames, Roger T. "Henry Rosemont, Jr. . The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation.“, New York: The Ballantine Publishing Group, 1998. P. 51-56.

3 dictionary of all characters, and Burton Watson’s The Analects of Confucius. However,

I also put my own understanding and translation into the English examples I cited from the Analects since I believe that existing English editions cannot fulfill my research of reinterpreting the Analects from a perspective of pedagogy.

4 Chapter 1

The Analects and its Pedagogy

1.1 What the Analects is

The Analects (Lúnyǔ論語), is also called the Analects of Confucius, is a collection of speech and thoughts attributed to the Chinese philosopher, thinker and educator,

Confucius and his disciples. Traditionally, people believed that it was written by

Confucius's followers. It was most likely compiled during the Warring States period (475

BC–221 BC), and it achieved the final form in the mid-Han period (206 BC–220

AD). As a great thinker and educator, Confucius and his thought have been influencing

Chinese people and Chinese culture, and even the east Asian, which includes Japan,

Korea and Vietnam, for thousands of years. Meanwhile, numerous works, scholars have been trying to interpret The Analects from different perspectives.

1.2 What the pedagogy the Analects used

As a thinker and educator, Confucius settled two important, ultimate goals for his disciples: ren 仁 as a virtue and junzi 君子 as an individual. And ren is one of the most important virtues of junzi, and it’s the key to shape a real junzi. The Analects

5 reveals that achieving ren and then becoming a junzi is an individual development process, and Confucius put this process into a context and frame of individual socialization. The pedagogy used by the Analects and Confucius is mainly illustrating key concepts(ren and junzi) through using other related concepts in social-cultural contexts. George Lakoff (2003) thinks that we can only use a metaphor to shed a light on one side of an entity at a time, while we lose other sides of the entity, since one metaphor cannot refer to every sides of the entity. He also points out that we use different metaphors to illustrate different sides of an entity, which is similar to the Analects' pedagogy that use different concepts to illustrate one key concept in different contexts.

Moreover, in the Analects, the meaning of a key concept such junzi is not fixed, but varies in different contexts. The meaning of junzi is a product of context but not the product of the language itself. This is what Mark Turner believes that language has no meaning and the meaning is in the context.

After illustrating the junzi in language, the Analects uses practice as a tool and standard in a socialized environment to evaluate individual development in pursing ren or junzi. This process includes different levels and aspects, and becoming a junzi is a long journey step by step. Subsequent chapters in this thesis will explore the pedagogy the Analects used to illustrate junzi and how this made an individual achieve the ultimate goal of becoming a junzi. Then this paper will examine the inspiration of the pedagogy in the Analects, and investigate how it may serve and help the development of PCA.

6 Chapter 2

Junzi in the Age of Shifting Paradigms

Before the Analects, the junzi was a social role of nobles existed. But Confucius extended the concept of junzi and gave it moral, social, ethic, political, personality, and historical meaning. Confucius’s was in a era of lihuaiyuebeng 礼 坏 乐 崩

(rites collapsed and music ruined). Junzi became the ultimate goal of Confucius’s education because Confucius believed that junzi, besides its social status, has the capability to solve the crisis in his era, and leads a state, even the whole world(tianxia 天下), back to a normal social order.

Whether or not in Confucius’s era or present, his concept of junzi, and the approach to becoming a junzi, have significant meaning in education, teaching and learning.

However, most previous research on the approach to junzi failed to pay attention to its pedagogical value. The discussions of pedagogy on junzi has long been neglected by moral, ethic, political interpretations which dominated the research on the concept and content of junzi in the Analects. For Confucius, the understanding and cultivation of junzi plays a key role in his education. Since Confucius was using his experience and thought to redefine the meaning of junzi, the pedagogy he used in the teaching process

7 needs to be examined carefully. This paper investigates the pedagogical value on junzi, which may find new pedagogical value for this old concept.

1.1 Background: li huai yue beng 礼坏乐崩 and the call for “junzi”

Confucius lived in an era that rite and music fell into ruins(libengyuehuai 礼坏乐

崩). The traditional social order which was dominated by li(礼 ritual) before Confucius could not maintain a normal social order in his era. The laws and regulations of li were violated by chaos caused by human desires on power and wealth. Monarchs and subjects kill each other, and it often happens that sons murder their fathers. For example, “In the two hundred and twenty-four years of Spring and Autumn period, 52 states perished and

36 monarchs were killed by their subjects.”1 “Chan Ch'ang murdered the duke Chien of

Ch'î. Confucius bathed, went to court and informed the duke Âi, saying, ‘Chan Hang has slain his sovereign. I beg that you will undertake to punish him.’”2Under this situation,

Confucius realized that he’s living in an era of “the prince be not prince, the minister not minister, the father not father, and the son not son”3. Therefore, Confucius proposed to reconstruct ancient ritual which may rectify and correct the chaotic social order. But who have the ability to do this? Confucius’s answer is junzi.

1 “春秋二百四十二年，亡国五十二，弑君三十六。”Huannan Zi Zhushu Xun [淮南子·主术训].

2 “陳成子弒簡公。孔子沐浴而朝，告於哀公曰：‘陳恆弒其君，請討之。’”(14.22)

3 齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰：“君君，臣臣，父父，子子。”公曰：“善哉！信如君不君，臣不臣，父不 父，子不子，雖有粟，吾得而食諸？”(12.11)

8 Before Confucius, junzi means noble class who have the political power to rule a state and manipulate ordinary people. For instance, Shijing（诗经 The Odes) said:“Junzi walks on the way, while ordinary people can only look at and follow them.”1; the Spring and Autumn Annals said:“Junzi rules lives by mental perplexity; xiaoren is ruled lives by physical labor, this is the regime of former kings”.2 But with the fall of old noble hierarchy and the rise of new hierarchy from lower social classes, the traditional concept of junzi needed to be extended to a wide scope which includes moral meaning. The traditional junzi(noble and official) class could not complete the task of rectifying the chaotic society. Therefore, Confucius broaden the meaning of junzi, and extended it to a broader scope of moral, ethic and politics. He set the junzi as the personality goal of his education. Besides junzi, Shengren( 圣 人 sage) is the highest goal of individual personality. However, in Confucius’s mind, Shengren cannot be achieved through education and individual pursing. So he said that “A sage it is not mine to see; could I see a man of real talent and virtue, that would satisfy me.”3 For Confucius, the highest personality goal of education is a moralized junzi.

1.2 What pedagogy Confucius used to illustrate Junzi?

Besides what we discussed above, another issue is raised: how to make his disciples understand and then become junzi? This is related to the pedagogy Confucius used in the

1 “君子所履，小人所视。”The Odes, Gufengzhishi, Dadong[诗经·谷风之什·大东]. 2 “君子劳心，小人劳力，先王之制也。”The Spring and Autumn Annals, the 9th year of Duke Xiang [春秋左传·襄公九年]. 3 子曰：“聖人，吾不得而見之矣。得見君子者，斯可矣。”(7.25) 9 Analects. The Analects points out that language(言) has its limit(junzi “is earnest in what he is doing, and careful in his speech”1, and the meaning of junzi could not be defined simply as defining an ordinary concept. Generally speaking, Confucius avoids to directly give a fixed or complete definition of junzi to his disciples. Instead, he use a strategy, to construct the meaning of junzi through language, based on at least three factors: shared experience, related concepts and the socialized context. Before these three factors can be discussed, it must be understood how the meaning of a concept is created and how people obtain the meaning of a concept.

2.2 ren 人 vs. min 民

Zhu Wenhao(2008) stresses that ren and min in the Analects refer two kinds of people in different classes. Ren are those people, among ruling class, who have the opportunity to become officials and junzi through xue, usually ren are eupatrids; min refers to most ordinary people who had no chance to receive formal education and enter the ruling class. Most of the population in Confucius’s time was min. In addition, ren has right and power to employee min, and junzi, who is also in the ren class, is able to use both of min and ren.

Song Yongpei(2003) points out that min means people in lower social status compared with ren. Ren was used to represent people who have the ability and social

1 The Master said, "The junzi wishes to be slow in his speech and earnest in his conduct."(4.24, Legge) 子曰：“君子 欲訥於言而敏於行。” 10 status to rule over min, or people who are humane and wise and capable. In Confucius’s time, many ren, including emperors, vassals, ministers and nobles who resided in higher positions, were not wise, moral, ethical nor capable. This requires Confucius’s to cultivate junzi from the ren class. The original meaning of min in the Spring and Autumn era was uneducated, foolish and senseless people1. Thus, min, as a social class, could only be manipulated or driven by ren or junzi2.

The Analects uses ren and min to demonstrate the differences between them and junzi.

1) The Master remarked about Zijian, "Of junzi indeed is such a ren! If there was not junzi in Lu, how could he have acquired this character?"(5.3)

子謂子賤：“君子哉若人！魯無君子者，斯焉取斯？”

1 《说文•十二下•民部》：“民,众萌也。”段玉裁注：“萌犹懵懵无知貌也。”；《说文•十二上》：“氓，民 也，读若盲。”；《周礼•遂人》郑玄注：“变民言甿...... 无知貌也。” 2 子曰：“道千乘之國，敬事而信，節用而愛人，使民以時。”The Master said, "To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons."(1.5, Legge); 子謂子產：“有君子之道四焉：其行己也恭，其事 上也敬，其養民也惠，其使民也義。”The Master said of Tsze-ch'an that he had four of the characteristics of a superior man -- in his conduct of himself, he was humble; in serving his superior, he was respectful; in nourishing the people, he was kind; in ordering the people, he was just.(5.15, Legge); 仲弓問仁。子曰：“出門如見大賓，使民如承大祭。 己所不欲，勿施於人。在邦無怨，在家無怨。”(12.2, Legge)Chung-kung asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, "It is, when you go abroad, to behave to every one as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself; to have no murmuring against you in the country, and none in the family."; The Master said, "Let a good ren teach the people seven years, and they may then likewise be employed in war."(13.29, Legge)子曰：“善人教民七年，亦可以即戎 矣。” .

11 2) The Master said, "In wen I am perhaps like other ren, but the character of the junzi carrying out in his conduct what he professes, is that I have not yet accomplished."(7.32)

子曰：“文，莫吾猶人也。躬行君子，則吾未之有得。”

3) Master Zeng said, "An individual who can be entrusted with the charge of an orphaned youth, and can be commissioned with authority over a state of a hundred lî, and who in approaching great matters of life and death remains unperturbed-- is such ren a junzi? He is a junzi indeed!"(8.6)

曾子曰：“可以託六尺之孤，可以寄百里之命，臨大節而不可奪也。君子人與？君子人也。”

4 ） Confucius said, "There are three things of which the junzi holds in awe: He stands in awe of the ordinances of tian. He holds in awe of daren(persons in high station). He stands in awe of the words of shengren(sages)."The xiaoren does not know the ordinances of tian, and consequently does not stand in awe of them. He is disrespectful to daren and ridicule the words of shengren."(16.8)

孔子曰：“君子有三畏：畏天命，畏大人，畏聖人之言。小人不知天命而不畏也，狎大人，侮

聖人之言。”

5) The Master said, "I had never met a shengren; seeing a junzi would satisfy me."(7.25)

子曰：“聖人，吾不得而見之矣；得見君子者，斯可矣。”

The examples above show that junzi is belong to the ren class, but junzi is in a higher status than most ren besides shengren 圣人(sage).

12 6) The Master said, "The Dao to to rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to official duties, and sincerity; economic in expenditure, and love ren; and the employment of the min at the proper time.(1.5)

子曰：“道千乘之國，敬事而信，節用而愛人，使民以時。”

7) The duke Ai asked Zai Wo about the altars of the spirits of the land. Zai Wo replied, "The Xia clans used the pine tree; the ren of the Yin used the cypress; and the ren of the Shang used the chestnut tree, in order to cause the min to be in awe."(3.21)

哀公問“社”於宰我。宰我對曰：“夏后氏以松，殷人以柏，周人以栗，曰：‘使民戰栗。’”

8) The Master said, "Let a good ren teach the min for seven years, and the min then likewise be employed in war."(13.29)

子曰：善人教民七年，亦可以即戎矣。”

Example 6), 7) and 8) show that ren has the right and capacity to shi 使(use, employ) min or educate(jiao 教) min.

9) Zilu said, "There are min and ren; there are the altars of the spirits to the soil and grain. Why must one read books before he can be considered to have xue(studied, learned)?"(11.24)

子路曰：“有民人焉，有社稷焉，何必讀書，然後爲學？”

13 The example 9) clearly shows that min and ren are two different kinds of people.

If we further discuss the relationship between junzi and min, we may find that

Confucius’s emphasizes that junzi needs to manipulate and affect min by proper ways.

Junzi are “born” to rule the min. This also puts forward the demand on moral and capability to the junzi and the process of becoming a junzi through learning and individual development. Moreover, it also refers to how junzi interact with min, and finally construct the image of junzi. For example:

10) The Master said of Zichan that there are four respects of a junzi -- he was humble in conduct of himself; he was respectful in serving his superior; he was kind to nourishing the min; he was just in employing min.(5.15)

子谓子产:“有君子之道四焉：其行己也恭，其事上也敬，其养民也惠，其使民也义。”

In this chapter, Confucius points out four respects on how a junzi treats themslves, interacts with the people in higher status (上, ruler) and those in lower status (min). As a socialization process, the ways of treating himself and other people in different social classes are observable virtues of a qualified junzi. To Confucius, a junzi must know how to treat different kinds of people, and conduct it with different standards in different contexts: gong 恭(humble) to himself, jing 敬(respectful) to superior, hui 惠(kind) and yi

义(just) to ordinary people in lower status. In that sense, the identity of a junzi should be

14 very diverse, which means that he needs to play different roles in different contexts; on the other hand, all of the qualities of a junzi must follow certain principles such as ren 仁, yi 义, gong 恭, jing 敬, and etc Confucius put forwarded in The Analects.

Another example of illustrating junzi with min is focus on how a junzi is able to influence and affect min, which emphasized the moral and ethical significance of junzi’s behaviors and virtues.

11) The Master said, " ...When junzi perform well all their duties to their relations, the min are aroused to ren(authoritative conduct).When their old friends are not neglected by them, the min are preserved from meanness."(8.2)

子曰：“...... 君子笃于亲，则民兴于仁；故旧不遗，则民不偷。”

In The Analects, one important task of junzi is affecting min and then manipulating them, in order to restore the order of the collapsed society. In Confucius’s mind, min have no ability to change the society, but they could be directed by junzi. This could be used as a positive power to reconstruct the social order. However, if the min could not be

“used” properly and correctly, the min would be a negative force in society. Generally speaking, Confucius’s junzi is cultivated, with individual development through xue 学, to direct and rule min, and then achieve the goal of changing the society.

15 Besides what we have discussed above, there is another very famous disputable interpretation of min in the Analects:

12) The Master said, "The min may be made to follow a way, but they cannot be made to realize it.(8.9)

子曰：“民可使由之，不可使知之。”

Some people argue that this sentence shows that Confucius despised min since he does not believe that min have the capability of zhi 知 besides being ruled. In fact, this phenomenon could not be simply considered as discrimination from Confucius. Instead, it reveals the necessity of cultivating junzi: junzi needs to lead min to the right way.

Because Confucius realized that min, as a social class, have little possibility to manipulate and change their own fates, and because of the historical limits in their times such as inequality on education, wealth, social status, and social background, junzi must bear the responsibility to rectify the corrupted society and give most people a better life.

This is also a great mission of junzi in Confucius’s mind.

So, why min can not zhizhi 知之？In Confucius’s time, most min, as a lower class than ren 人 and shi 士（officials, or who are qualified to be officials and rulers), had no chance to receive education and enter the ruling class. This means that the min is a class which should be ruled by higher classes. Min had little experience and knowledge that

16 can be shared with other higher classes because of the difference on education and social origins. Thus, min require wise, capable and moral people to lead them.

Moreover, I think Confucius’s attitude on min also shows his self-contradiction. On the one hand, he believes in that an individual may get into a higher status through learning and individual development. On the other hand, he realized that the barriers between different groups and hierarchies are very stable. Based on this premise,

Confucius emphasized the importance of becoming a junzi, and then affecting min. This is a way what Confucius knew to be the right direction.

Besides we discussed above, it’s noticeable that min has an important feature of being shi 使：

13) The Master said, "If rulers love to cherish the rules of propriety, the min will be easily to be employed for service."(14.44)

子曰：“上好禮，則民易使也。

14) The Master said, "The Dao to to rule a country of a thousand chariots,... economic in expenditure, and love ren; and the employment of the min at the proper time(1.5)

子曰：“道千乘之國...... 節用而愛人，使民以時。”

17 2.3 ren 人: junzi 君子/yeren 野人/xiaoren 小人

Based on what we discussed thus far, we may find that Confucius uses experience, related concepts and context to define junzi. In the Analects, as memebers of the ren class, yeren and xiaoren are two kinds of ren contrasted to junzi.

2.3.1 junzi 君子 vs. yeren 野人

First of all, junzi is not yeren. What is yeren? The Analects doesn’t give us a simple definition of it. However, there is a comparison between junzi and yeren, that reveals the difference between junzi and yeren, which helps us better understand the meaning of junzi:

1) The Master said, "The men who are the first to observe and perform ceremonies and music were yeren; while the men who came later later in ceremonies and music, are accomplished junzi(noblility).

If I have occasion to use those things, I follow the men of yeren."(11.1)

子曰：“先進於禮樂，野人也。後進於禮樂，君子也。如用之，則吾從先進。”

In this case, Confucius proposed his opinion on junzi and yeren. According to Yang

Bojun(1980), there are 107 mentions of junzi in the Analects, and 106 of them mean virtuous person. But this case is an exception. junzi in this case means people who are in the high social status as ruling class, which borrowed the original, widely accepted concept of junzi in and before Confucius’s time. Junzi here means nobles who are in the

18 ruling class. Since they are hereditary nobles, they have the right to be officials to rule the state after their birth. For them, receiving education on ceremony and music(liyue 礼

乐) is not mandatory of being a ruler. Instead, for those yeren who are in lower social status or who had not received enough education, learning liyue is the prerequisite to stepping into the ruling class and become an official.

Besides this case, the Analects mentions ye 野 twice . Each of these refers to a rustic, uneducated, unrefined or uncultivated state. For example:

2) The Master said, "When the basic disposition overwhelms refinement, the person is ye; when the refinement is in excess of the basic disposition, the person is an officious scribe(shi). When the refinement and basic disposition are equally blended, you then have the junzi."(6.16)

子曰：“質勝文則野，文勝質則史。文質彬彬，然後君子。”

3) The Master said, "How can you be so ye, You! A junzi, shows a cautious reserve to what he does not understand.”(13.3)

子曰：“野哉由也！君子于其所不知，盖阙如也。”

The examples above show that ye is an unrefined status. In order to be rectified, it still needs education and cultivation. Thus the comparison between junzi and yeren shed a light on junzi’s virtue and capability that a junzi should be cultivated by liyue,

19 otherwise, the junzi might be unqualified to be considered as a ruler even if his social status is inherited.

In this case, Confucius introduced the concept of yeren, the socialized context of comparison, and his personal experience and opinion to illustrate a feature of junzi.

2.3.2 junzi 君子 vs. xiaoren 小人

In the Analects, xiaoren appears 24 times, which 20 times among them refer to people who have no virtue, and 4 times refer to common people(contrasted with nobles and rulers) for. Most of these xiaoren were compared with junzi(19 of the 24 xiaoren), which are used to highlight, construct the positive significance of junzi. For instance:

1) The Master said, "The junzi associate openly with others are not partisan. The xiaoren being partisan do not associate openly with others."(2.14)

子曰：“君子周而不比，小人比而不周。”

In this chapter, Confucius raised a question: how does a junzi interact with other social members? As mentioned before, the understanding of junzi should be put into the context of socialization. Confucius points out an important virtue of junzi: zhouerbubi(周

而不比 associate openly and not partisan). This is an important standard to distinguish between junzi and xiaoren. Xiaoren, in reality is exceptionally common and junzi is rare.

In most instances, it can be almost impossible to distinguish between the two. In

20 response, Confucius provides two observable acts in social interaction to define junzi and xiaoren.

2) The Master said, "The junzi cherishes virtue; the xiaoren thinks of comfort. The junzi sherishes of the sanctions of law; the xiaoren thinks of favors what he may receive."(4.11)

子曰：“君子怀德，小人怀土。君子怀刑，小人怀惠。”

In the case above, Confucius compared the different mindset of the junzi and xiaoren. Through this comparison, Confucius is warning other people, especially his disciples, to avoid the shortcomings of xiaoren. Besides emphasizing what a junzi should do or should be, Confucius also pointed out what a junzi should not do. By illustrating the virtues of junzi from an opposite side, the meaning of junzi is clearer.

Furthermore, Confucius required his disciples to understand and be a junzi not xiaoren.

3) The Master said to Zixia, "You should be a ru after the style of the junzi, not after that of the xiaoren."(6.11)

子谓子夏曰：“女为君子儒，无为小人儒。”

In order to understand the meaning of this sentence, the first thing is to clarify what the ru 儒 means in the Analects. Originally, ru referred to the intellectuals who were

21 involved in early religious professions such as fortune telling and witchcraft1. In the

Notes on Language and Characters (shuowenjiezi 说文解字), an etymological dictionary compiled in the Eastern Han Dynasty, “ ru means gentleness — shushi 术 士

(intellectual). ” Ru had two meanings — one is “ gentleness ” (mildness and tenderness); the other is “intellectual”: people with professional skills and knowledge.

In the Spring and Autumn era, the “profession” of these intellectuals was “to assist the rulers in educating the common people to follow the natural laws（助人君顺阴阳明教

化 ） 2.” Thus, ru originally referred to those intellectuals in the fields of education, religion and politics. Meanwhile, the early Confucians abandoned ancient witchcraft.

With their knowledge of religion and rituals, some Confucians became assistants or ministers of dukes or kings. After retirement, they often worked on educating people for the government service. Other Confucian scholars used their experience and knowledge to supervise the rituals of aristocrats. Confucian teaching also includes moral education.

The responsibility of the Confucians was to stabilize society and pacify people through education. Their education emphasizes teaching morals but not the inheritance of knowledge.3

1 Zhang Taiyan 章太炎，Yuan Ru 原儒[The Origin of Ru]. 2 “儒家者流，盖出于司徒之官，助人君顺阴阳明教化者也。游文于六经之中、留意于仁义之际，祖述尧、舜，宪章文、武， 宗师仲尼，以重其言，于道最为高。”, Han Shu·Yi Wen Zhi 汉书·艺文志. 3 The Confucian School in the Pre-Qin Period, Chinese Civilization Centre, City University of Hong Kong, http://www.english.cciv.cityu.edu.hk/China_5000/?chapter=dicts/Confucianism 22 Therefore, in the 6.11, Confucius warns Zixia that he should be a ru focused on moral value but not merely an intellectual on teaching people knowledge. For Confucius, moral and xianwang zhidao 先王之道 (the doctrine in the fundamental essence of the morals of ancient kings) might be the priority for a juzi ru. However, another question is raised: what is xiaoren ru? Confucius mentioned that “junzi devotes his mind to attain the

Dao, and not worry about securing food (君子謀道不謀食)”. On the contrary, xiaoren

“devotes his mind to securing food, but not worry about the Dao(謀食不謀道)”1. As a professional, some ru in Confucius’s time began to serve ordinary people without too much concern about moral. Confucius was unsatisfied with this phenomenon and admonished his disciples to avoid being a xiaoren ru. Another possible reason why

Confucius warned Zixia is that Zixia had been teaching his own disciples at that time2. In order to require Zixia to be a “qualified” teacher, Confucius emphasized the importance of worrying about Dao as a junzi ru. In one way, Confucius expected Zixia to focus on moral and virtue but not merely material benefits in his teaching. On the other hand,

Confucius, as a ru, reaffirmed that his education goal is cultivating junzi. Confucius introduced the concept of ru to illustrate the characteristic of junzi. Confucius uses the

1 The Master said, "Junzi devotes his mind to attain the Dao, and not worry about securing food. There is plowing;-- even in that there is sometimes want. So with learning;-- emolument may be found in it. The junzi is anxious lest he should not get truth; he is not anxious lest poverty should come upon him."(15.31, Legge)子曰：“君子謀道不謀食。 耕也，餒在其中矣。學也，祿在其中矣。君子憂道不憂貧。” 2 The disciples of Tsze-hsiâ asked Tsze-chang about the principles that should characterize mutual intercourse.(19.3, Legge)子夏之門人問交於子張; Tsze-yû said, "The disciples and followers of Tsze-hsiâ, in sprinkling and sweeping the ground, in answering and replying, in advancing and receding, are sufficiently accomplished. (19.12, Legge)子游 曰：“子夏之門人小子，當洒埽、應對、進退，則可矣，抑末也。” 23 concept of ru and his understanding of ru to construct the meaning of junzi, and reveal how to interact with other social members in a proper context. Confucius’s main practical purposes revolve around how to socialize as a junzi ru.

In summation, the xiaoren functions as a negative reference to illustrate what a junzi should be and what a junzi should not be.

2.4 junzi vs. qi 器

Qi 器 appears 6 times in the Analects. According to Yang Bojun, Qian Mu and Li

Zehou(Mo Nan, 2009), the six qis have three meanings: utensil, appliance or tool; tolerance; using people according to their capacity. Confucius uses the qi as a contrast to one of junzi’s virtues: buqi 不器.

1） The Master said, "Junzi is not a qi(utensil)."（2.12）

子曰：“君子不器。”

2) Zigong asked, "What do you say of me?" The Master said, "You are a qi(utensil)." "What utensil?"

"A gemmed precious sacrificial utensil."（5.3）

子貢問曰：“賜也何如？” 子曰：“女器也。”曰：“何器也？” 曰：“瑚璉也。”

In the two instances above, Confucius points out that a junzi should avoid being a qi.

The key of understanding Confucius’s idea is figuring out what a qi is. On the surface, a

24 qi is a tool or utensil, but if we further investigate Confucius’s concept of qi, we may see why the qi contradicts with junzi. A qi means a professional man who does not need to have virtue and moral as a junzi. Hulian 瑚 琏 is a gemmed utensil in sacrificial ceremony, which may function in the ritual. For Confucius, a man who is like a qi, without the power of moral virtue, cannot shoulder the important task of changing and saving the chaotic society.

On the surface, being called hulian is a compliment to Zigong, since it means that

Confucius admitted that Zigong may function and behave well, with appropriate outside, in formal occasions. However, if we use junzibuqi 君子不器 to examine Confucius’s intention, we may find that he was actually warning Zigong not to be a qi. Since Zigong was famous for his yanyu 言语 1 among Confucius’s disciples, Confucius worries that

Zigong is only satisfied with his capability on yanyu and neglecting the learning and development on moral virtue. Thus, Confucius uses the metaphor of qi to admonish

Zigong.

1 子曰：“從我於陳、蔡者，皆不及門也。德行：顏淵，閔子騫，冉伯牛，仲弓。言語：宰我，子貢。政事： 冉有，季路。文學：子游，子夏。”（11.2, Legge） The Master said, "Of those who were with me in Ch'an and Ts'âi, there are none to be found to enter my door."Distinguished for their virtuous principles and practice, there were Yen Yûan, Min Tsze-ch'ien, Zan Po-niû, and Chung-kung; for their ability in speech, Tsâi Wo and Tsze-kung; for their administrative talents, Zan Yû and Chî Lû; for their literary acquirements, Tsze-yû and Tsze-hsiâ.

25 Another example can also illustrate the relationship between junzi and qi, and why the standard of junzi is higher than qi:

3)The Master said, "The junzi is easy to serve and difficult to please. If you try to please him with conduct that is not accordant with Dao, he will not be pleased. But in employing ren, he uses them according to their capacities. The xiaoren is difficult to serve, and easy to please. If you try to please him in a way which is not accordant with Dao, he may be pleased. But in employing ren, he wishes them to be good at everything." (13.25)

子曰：“君子易事而难说也。说之不以道，不说也；及其使人也，器之。小人难事而易说也。

说之虽不以道，说也；及其使人也，求备焉。”

In this instance, Confucius points out that junzi can employ ren 人(noble, official) as using a qi (according to their professional capabilities). Therefor, being a junzi is more important than being a qi.

From what we discussed above we may draw a conclusion: the Analects shed light on junzi from different angles through using shared experience, related concepts and appropriate contexts. The pedagogy is one part of Confucius’s grander pedagogy yincaishijiao 因材施教, which could be considered as the most significant characteristic of Confucius’s education in the Analects. Confucius was not only illustrating the meanings of junzi for his disciples, but also redefining the meaning of junzi for his time.

26 Chapter 3

Becoming a Junzi: 学以致道 and the Xue as a Process in the Pedagogy of Junzi

The ultimate goal of Confucius’s personality education is becoming a junzi. The

Analects shows that the approach to become a junzi is xue.1 in the Analects, xue is not an independent act. Actually, xue is a process which involves a series of activities such as si 思, xing 省, guan 观, cha 察, xi 习, xing 行, and etc.

The xue 学 in the Analects has a very important status in the Analects and

Confucianism. The first sentence of book 1 in the Analects is “The Master said:’Having learned, to then practice at the right time what you xue--that’s pleasure, isn’t it? ’(1.1)”.

There are two important points need to be noticed in this sentence: first, it points out that xue which is put into practice might be the source of pleasure, which stresses the significant status of xue in the whole Analects; second, it raises an issue that in order to gain pleasure xue needs to combine with xi. In the second respect, I think xue should be construed as learn but not study, because knowledge are studied but cannot be directly

1 子曰：“我非生而知之者。好古，敏以求之者也。”（7.19）The Master said, "I am not one who was born in the possession of knowledge; I am one who is fond of antiquity, and earnest in seeking it there."；子夏曰：“百工居肆以 成其事，君子學以致其道。”(19.7) Zixia said, "Mechanics have their shops to dwell in, in order to accomplish their works. The superior man learns, in order to reach to the utmost of his principles."

27 acted out. In another word, capacity is usually learned, and it can be performed at the right time point, such as language capacity, athletic ability, and etc. More importantly, the second sentence in book 1 is “To have like-minded friends come from distant quarters--that’s a source of enjoyment, isn’t it?(有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？)”, which shows that xue relates to a socialization process.

In English, xue as a verb can be translated into “study” or “learn”. “Study” and

“learn” have different meanings in English1:

Study verb

: to read, memorize facts, attend school, etc., in order to learn about a subject

: to give careful attention to (something)

: to conduct an organized experiment in order to learn more about (something)

Learn verb

: to gain knowledge or skill by studying, practicing, being taught, or experiencing something

: to cause (something) to be in your memory by studying it

: to hear or be told (something) : to find out (something)

Although the two verbs’ meanings overlap with each other, it’s not hard to tell their

1 From Merriam-Webster Online, http://www.merriam-webster.com/

28 differences: the purpose of “study” focuses “knowing” something by obtaining related knowledge and facts; “learn” mainly refers to acquiring skills or capacity through act and performance. More importantly, learning is not merely constrained by certain traditional educational institutes or knowing some knowledge; instead, learning is a socialization process of interacting with environment and other social members, which means that learning is a constructive and adaptive process.

However, traditionally there was no research on categorizing xue’s meanings in

English world. In China, few research discussed the deep meanings of xue from the perspective of distinguishing the meanings of study and learn. However, through investigating the use of xue in the Analects, my research shows that the meaning of xue in the Analects is far from simply being interpreted as two English verbs as study and learn. The xue is a complicated process which involves many other mental and physical activities such as si 思 (think), xing 省 (examine oneself), guan 观 (observe), cha 察

(examine), xi 习 (practice), xing 行 (act) in the Analects. When it comes to xue, the

Analects also uses different related concepts to illustrate the meaning of xue,which is similar to the pedagogy of constructing the meaning of junzi.

According Yang Bojun(1980), there are 65 mentions of xue in The Analects; in

Liang Qichao’s A Critique of Hu Shi’s “An Outline of Philosophic History of China",

Liang(1922) challenges Hu Shi’s point that xue in the Analects is merely reading or studying knowledge in books. Liang believes that Confucius’ xue contains act and

29 experience but not merely reading or studying. He uses many examples to illustrate that xue is interacting with the environment (天地), and acting and experiencing in order to adaptive to the universe(和宇宙融合为一).1 Furthermore, he emphasizes that xue as reading books or studying knowledge is merely in the second or third place2; while the first, and most important meaning of xue is acting and experiencing in the community.

Another important evidence to show that xue refers to “act, perform” but not only reading or study is just in the first sentence of the Analects.

The Master said:"Having xue, to then xi(act it out) at the right time what you have learned--that’s pleasure, isn’t it? To have like-minded friends come from distant quarters--that’s enjoyable, isn’t it?

Others don’t understand him, but he doesn’t resent it--that’s the junzi, isn’t it ?"(1.1)

子曰：“学而时习之，不亦说乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”

1 “《论语》的头一个字说的是‘学’。到底是学个什么？怎么个学法？胡先生说：‘孔子的‘学’，只是读书，只是文字上传授来

的学问。’我读了这段话，对于胡先生的武断，真不能不吃一大惊。鲁哀公问弟子孰为好学，孔子就只举了一个颜回，还说：‘不

幸短命死矣，今也则亡，未闻好学者也。’他说颜回好学，还下了一个注脚，是‘不迁怒，不贰过’。我们在《易传》、《论语》、

《庄子》里头很看见几条讲颜回的，却找不出他好读书的痕迹；他做的学问是‘屡空’，是‘心斋’，是‘克己复礼’，是‘三月

不违仁’，是‘不改其乐’，是‘无伐善无施劳’，是‘有不善未尝不知，知之未尝复行’，都与读书无关。若说学问只是读书，

难道颜回死了，那三千弟子都是束书不观的人吗？孔子却怎说‘未闻好学’呢？孔子自己说：‘吾十有五而志于学’，难道他老先

生十五岁以前，连读书这点志趣都没有吗？这章书跟着说‘三十而立’??等句，自然是讲历年学问进步的结果；那立、不惑、知天

命、耳顺、不逾矩，种种境界，岂是专靠读书所能得的？孔子的‘学’，学些什么？自然是学个怎样的‘能尽其性’，怎样的‘能

至于命’，拿现在的话说，就是学个怎样的才能看出自己的真生命，怎样的才能和宇宙融合为一。问他怎样学法，只是一面活动，

一面体验。《论语》说的：‘食无求饱，居无求安，敏于事而慎于言，就有道而正焉，可谓好学也已矣。’此外这一类的话还甚多。

孔子屡讲‘学而不厌，诲人不倦’，但有时亦说‘为之不厌，诲人不倦’。‘为’字正是‘学’字切训，可以说为便是学，学便是

为。至于‘行有余力，则以学文’，‘多闻多见，知之次也’，这是胡先生所说读书的，孔门论学问，把他放在第二位。” (Liang Qicha,

A Critique of Hu Shi’s “An Outline of Philosophic History of China", China’s Contemporary Academic Critiques, 2008. The article was

Liang’s speech in Beijing University in 1922.)

2 “知识论在孔子哲学上只占第二位第三位，他的根本精神，绝非凭知识可以发见得出来。” (Ditto)

30 This sentence shows that Confucius’ s idea on xue is putting what one learned into xi 习(practice, act out). Traditionally, shixi 时习 used to be interpreted as “review on time”, “often review” even “often recite”1. However, Fu Peirong (2012) points out that shixi is actually “practice at the right time”. I agree with Fu’s opinion. First, the meaning of shi in Confucius’ time was “at the right time”, for instance, “shi min yi shi 使民以时”2,

“shi ranhou yan 时 然 后 言 （ speak when it is time to speak)3. Second, the original meaning of xi was that a fledgling practices to fly. From the evolution of the character

“xi”, we may also find out its original definition.

In figure 1, the last characters are shell and bone inscriptions and bronze inscriptions which clearly show the original meaning of xi.

1 Wang Su (159-256) believes that shixi is “recite on time”; Yang Bojun agrees with his opinion, because it follows the classic translation in the Pre-Qin period.

2 The Master said, "To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love ren; and the employment of the min at the proper time."（1.5) 子曰：“道 千乘之國，敬事而信，節用而愛人，使民以時。”

3 The Master asked Kung-ming Chiâ about Kung-shû Wan, saying, "Is it true that your master speaks not, laughs not, and takes not?" Kung-ming Chiâ replied, "This has arisen from the reporters going beyond the truth. -- My master speaks when it is the time to speak, and so men do not get tired of his speaking. He laughs when there is occasion to be joyful, and so men do not get tired of his laughing. He takes when it is consistent with righteousness to do so, and so men do not get tired of his taking."(14.14)子問公叔文子於公明賈，曰：“信乎，夫子不言、不笑、不取乎？”公 明賈對曰：“以告者過也。夫子時然後言，人不厭其言；樂然後笑，人不厭其笑；義然後取，人不厭其取。”

31 1

Figure 1. The Evolution of the Chinese Character Xi

Therefore, “学而时习之” means that put what you xue into practice at the right time, which shows that Confucius believes that xue refers to acting out or performing.

The purpose of xue is being a junzi in the society but not merely a knowledgeable person. Because xue is a socialization process which involves many activities, the purpose of xue might be successfully and properly communicate with other people in the environment.

In the Analects, Confucius emphasizes that:

“Young people, why do none of you xue the Odes? The Odes train you in analogy, allow you to observe customs, teach you to be sociable, teach you to express anger.

Close at hand, you learn how to serve your father; in more distant terms, how to serve the ruler. And you become familiar with the names of numerous birds, animals, plants, and trees.2”

As I’ve discussed before, the purpose of studying the Odes is actually learning to

1 Hanzi Ziyuan: Dangdai Xin Shuowen Jiezi 汉字字源：当代新说文解字[The Etymology of Chinese Characters: Contemporary New Shuowen Jiezi], 2005, p. 136. 2 子曰：“小子！何莫学夫诗？诗，可以兴，可以观，可以群，可以怨。迩之事父，远之事君。多识于鸟兽草 木之名。”(17.9) 32 interact with other social members in the society. Judging a xue person is not merely from the perspective of how much knowledge he/she obtained, but also from the perspective of interacting with other people and performing properly in certain contexts.

The thought of “studying/learning for applying” is one of the most important ideas of the

Analects. Although some scholars argue that this thought might harm some purely theoretical research, it cannot be deniable that this thought has penetrated deep into Chinese culture and been influencing Chinese culture for thousands of years.

Moreover, historically, the Analects set a key goal of xue in the era that rite and music were wrecked (礼坏乐崩): putting what you studied and learned into practice through acting out, and finally becoming junzi through individual development.

Therefore, Confucius emphasizes that “A man may be able to recite all three hundred odes, but if you assign him as an envoy to some neighboring state and he can’t give his answers unassisted, then no matter how many odes he might know, what good is he?”1 He believes that acting properly and fulfilling tasks successfully is the goal of xue the Odes. This is also the reason why Confucius mentions that studying the Odes can

“serve the ruler (事君)”--”serving” is a capacity of “doing”.

3.1 The process of xue: haoxue 好学, si 思, xing 省, guan 观, cha 察, xi 习 and xing 行

1 子曰：“诵诗三百，授之以政，不达；使于四方，不能专对。虽多，亦奚以为？”(13.5) 33 The xue is not an independent activity. Instead, it is a process which includes other mental and physical activities such as si 思, xing 省, guan 观, cha 察, xi 习 and xing 行.

These activities represent different stages and status in the process of xue, and they co-construct the concept of xue in the Analects.

3.2 xue and haoxue 好学

The Master said, "He who wants to be a junzi does not seek to gratify his appetite in eating, nor does he seek the appliances of ease in his dwelling place; he is sensitive in what he is doing, and cautious in his speech; he frequents the company of men who have the Dao that he may be rectified:-- such a person can be said indeed to haoxue."(1.14)

子曰：“君子食無求飽；居無求安；敏於事而愼於言；就有道而正焉：可謂好學也已。”

In this sentence, Confucius points out some principles of haoxue: behave properly on eating, dwelling, doing, speech and following good person to rectify himself. Since in the Analects xue is either proactive1(haoxue, love to xue; xue er zhi zhi 学而知之 xue leads to know) or passive (kunerxuezhi 困 而 学 之 xue in response to difficulties

1 孔子曰：“生而知之者，上也。學而知之者，次也。困而學之，又其次也。困而不學，民斯爲下矣！（16.9） Confucius said, "Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men. Those who xue, and so, readily, get possession of knowledge, are the next. Those who are dull and stupid, and yet compass the xue, are another class next to these. As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not xue;-- they are the lowest of the people."

34 encountered), haoxue emphasizes the subjectivity of individual xue. People have different types and motivations on xue. However, to Confucius haoxue is a virtue in the process of xue. Moreover, he believes that haoxue is a significant quality to one’s individual development.1 Therefore, he warns Zilu, who was not good at taking the initiative to xue, not to ignore haoxue2. Thus, haoxue could be considered as a good attitude to effective and fruitful xue.

3.3 si 思 and xing 省

Si(think) and xing(examine) are two important concepts to xue. Literally speaking, both of them are mental activities. However, in the Analects, they are different mental activities in different stages in the process of xue.

On the one hand, si is independent to xue; on the other hand, it usually happens before xue or accompanied with xue.

1). The Master said, Xue without si is perplexity. Si without xue is perilous.(2.15)

子曰：“学．而不思则罔，思而不学．则殆。”

1 子曰：“十室之邑，必有忠信如丘者焉，不如丘之好學也。”(5.27, Legge)The Master said, "In a hamlet of ten families, there may be found one honorable and sincere as I am, but not so fond of learning."

2 子曰：“由也，女闻六言六蔽矣乎？”对曰：“未也。”“居！吾语女。好仁不好学，其蔽也愚；好知不好 学，其蔽也荡；好信不好学，其蔽也贼；好直不好学，其蔽也绞；好勇不好学，其蔽也乱；好刚不好学，其蔽 也狂。” （17.8）

35 2). The Master said, Once I went a whole day without eating and all night without sleeping in order to si, I got nothing from it, and would have been better off devoting the time to xue.(15.31)

子曰：“吾尝终日不食，终夜不寝，以思，无益，不如学．也。”

The two examples revealed that si, as a mental activity, sometimes does not happen with xue. It also shows that when a learner is in the process of xue, sometimes he/she does not si. For example, for a native language learner, the beginning of acquiring his/her native language usually happens without si, or at least without too much si. But

Confucius believes that xue without si may cause wang 罔(perplexity).

Xing 省 in the Analects has a different meaning with si.

1) The Master Zeng said, Daily I xing(examine) myself on three counts: in my undertakings on behalf other people, have I failed to be faithful? In my interactions with colleagues and friends, have I failed to make good on my word? In what has been passed on to me( or I passed on to my disciples), have I failed to xi?(1.4)

曾子曰：“吾日三省吾身：为人谋而不忠乎？与朋友交而不信乎？传不习乎？”

2) The Master said, "I can talk with Hui for an entire day, and he has not raised any objection to anything I said;-- as though he were slow. But when he has retired, and I examine his conduct on his own, and found him able to illustrate my saying. Hui, -- he is not slow indeed!"(2.9)

子曰：“吾與回言終日，不違，如愚。退而省其私，亦足以發。回也不愚。”

36 3) The Master said, "When we see men of exceptional character, we should think to equaling them; when we see men of little character, turn inwards and examine ourselves."(4.17)

子曰：“见贤思齐焉，见不贤而内自省也。”

Through investigating xing 省, we found that this mental activity usually happens after other activities, which has the learner evaluate what he did, and then give him an opportunity to rectify what he did and learn from it. And the xing can be considered as a part in the process of xue.

3.4 guan 观 and cha 察

In the process of xue, there are two concepts related to “looking at”--guan 观 and cha 察 . They refer to different directions of observation and examining. Generally speaking, guan is observing the acts and external characteristics, while cha is examining the intrinsic nature through external features and acts. For example:

1) The Master said, "When a man's father is alive, observe the bent of his will; when his father dies, observe his conduct. If he does not alter from the Dao(way) of his father for three years , he may be called a filial person."(1.11)

37 子曰：“父在，觀其志。父沒，觀其行。三年無改於父之道，可謂孝矣。”

2) The Master said, "Watch what a man does, observe his motives, examine in what things he dwell content. How can he conceal his character? How can he conceal his character?"(2.10)

子曰：“視其所以，觀其所由，察其所安。人焉廋哉？人焉廋哉？”

3) The Master said, "The faults of men are characteristic of the group to which they belong. In observing these faults, the ren(authoritative) can be known here."(4.7)

子曰：“人之過也，各於其黨。觀過，斯知仁矣。”

4) Zaiyu was sleeping during the daytime, the Master said, "Rotten wood cannot be carved; a wall of dirty earth cannot receive the trowel. Yu! -- what is the use of my upbraiding him?" The Master said, "There was a time when, my way with other ren was to hear their words, and believed their conducts. Now my way is to hear their words, and observe their conducts. It is from Yu that I have learned to make this change."(5.9)

宰予晝寢。子曰：“朽木不可雕也，糞土之牆不可杇也。於予與何誅？”子曰：“始吾於人也，

聽其言而信其行。今吾於人也，聽其言而觀其行。於予與改是。”

Obviously, guan in the sentences above has a clear meaning of “looking at; observing” from extrinsic, observable features.

Alternatively, cha refers to another kind of “looking at” intrinsic characteristic:

38 1) "Now the man who is prominent is solid and straightforward, and loves yi (righteousness). He examines what is said, and observes others’ countenances. He is thoughtful to humble himself to others. Such a man will be distinguished in the state; he will be distinguished in his ruling family.(12.20)

“夫達也者，質直而好義，察言而觀色，慮以下人，在邦必達，在家必達。”

2) The Master said, "Watch what a man does, observe his motives, examine in what things he dwell content. How can he conceal his character? How can he conceal his character?"(2.10)

子曰：“視其所以，觀其所由，察其所安。人焉廋哉？人焉廋哉？”

3) The Master said, "When everyone despises a man, it is necessary to examine into the case. When everyone likes a man, it is necessary to examine into the case."(15.27)

子曰：“众恶之，必察焉；众好之，必察焉。”

In sentences 1) and 2), guan and cha are put together to illustrate two aspects, extrinsic and intrinsic, that can be observed, and the objectivity in the two sentences are both other people. After guan and cha, one can achieve da 达 or zhiren 知人.

In another word, the capability of guan and cha are prerequisite to evaluate and judge people; after guan and cha, one can decide how to interact with other people and xue from them. In the pedagogy of performing another culture, “observation” is an

39 important part in the learning cycle. The Analects inspires us what a learner needs to

“look at” though using guan and cha: extrinsic acts and intrinsic intention of speech.

Behaviorists (such as John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner) believe that extrinsic public events (behaviors of the individual) are much more important than private events

(thoughts of the individual), since people’s real intrinsic psychology is not only reflected by their language or their “thoughts” they announced, but also by their observable behaviors. This theory shows that language actually has unavoidable limits on examining people’s inner intentions, because many “inner intentions” are announced by speech though the announcement might not be the real intention. The Analects admits the importance of observing individual extrinsic behavior, while it also values the examining of speech and intrinsic motivation. The extrinsic and intrinsic factors should be properly considered at the same time. At this point, Confucius is more comprehensive than most behaviorists.

As a researcher of language pedagogy, the main object of my research is language, thus it’s impossible for me to not take the language into account. On the other hand, language, act in certain context, and language user’s intention are interweaving with each other because every single respect has its limit on giving a clear meaning to certain language, which requires me to synthetically consider about their relationship and interaction. I’m a language researcher, but not a psychologist, thus what I am concerned

40 with is how to find out the relationship between language, the acts referred to in language, and the roles of learner and teacher in language learning process.

3.5 xi 习 and xing 行

In the Analects, xi means practice, act out. The Analects begins with “The Master said:"Having xue, to then xi(act it out) at the right time what you have learned--that’s pleasure, isn’t it? To have like-minded friends come from distant quarters--that’s enjoyable, isn’t it? Others don’t understand him, but he doesn’t resent it--that’s the junzi, isn’t it ?’(子曰：‘学．而时习之，不亦说乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，

不亦君子乎？’)”, which shows the status and importance of xue in the whole Analects.

However, through the further examination of the text I found that acting properly and interaction with other people are also the essence of this chapter.

The first sentence which referred to xue and xi actually indicates the relationship and interaction between the individual and the environment, and the starting point of the chapter as if from an individual dimension. However, after further investigation on the question of “learn from whom, and when and where to act out”, we may find that learning and practicing must be applied in an social-cultural interactive context. Thus, next, Confucius shows the importance of interacting with other like-minded people (有

朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？); finally, he points out how to handle an issue in interpersonal communication (人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？). Generally speaking, the process of xue

41 is actually a bidirectional process that an individual interacts with the environment and other social members. In this process, an individual is trying to be adaptive to the environment or have a response to it. This is an integrated process which begins with xue and ends with the individual growth and development; the interaction with the environment and other people plays an important role in the whole dynamic process; or we may see the individual development won’t be achieved without interaction with the outside environment and other people, and the realization of individual development is a co-constructive process which ultimately heads towards junzi 君子.

Besides the first sentence in The Analects, Zengzi1 also mentions the concept of xi：

2) The Master Zeng said, Daily I xing(examine) myself on three counts: in my undertakings on behalf other people, have I failed to be faithful? In my interactions with colleagues and friends, have I failed to make good on my word? In what has been passed on to me( or I passed on to my disciples),

1 Zeng Shen [or Can] ( 曾 参 ) was a native of South Wu in Lu, and forty-six years younger than Confucius. His courtesy name was Ziyu (子輿 or 子與). When he was sixteen he was sent by his father into Chu, where Confucius then teaching, to learn under the sage. Confucians later considered him to be his the second most senior student, after

Yan Hui. Zigong said of him, "There is no subject which he has not studied. His appearance is respectful. His virtue is solid. His words command credence. Before great men he draws himself up in the pride of self-respect. His eyebrows are those of longevity." He was noted for his filial piety, and after the death of his parents he could not read the rites of mourning without being led to think of them and being moved to tears. He was a voluminous writer. He composed ten books, compiled in the Rites of the Elder Tai (大戴礼). He was said to have composed and/or edited the Classic of

Filial Piety under the direction of Confucius. He was also associated with transmission of the Great Learning. He was first associated with the sacrifices to Confucius in 668 AD, but in 1267 he was advanced to be one of the sage's four

Assessors. His title, "Exhibitor of the Fundamental Principles of the Sage", dates from the period of Jiajing, when he was associated with Yan Hui. (Legge, 117-118)

42 have I failed to xi?(1.4)

曾子曰：“吾日三省吾身：为人谋而不忠乎？与朋友交而不信乎？传不习乎？”

In this chapter, Zengzi further developed Confucius’s idea about interaction with other people: being loyalty, being utmost, practicing what he learned everyday. There are three levels in this paragraph: first, how to serve the people of higher status; second, how to interact with peers; third, how to treat himself. The order of these three levels is from high to low, from extrinsic to intrinsic, from social interaction, act, to individual behavior.

It points out such a fact that individual development comes from establishing, maintaining and consolidating interpersonal relationships and facilitating social interactions.

Why Zengzi needs to xing 省 himself everyday? One possible reason is that he may develop individual capability and virtue through xing. Another interpretation is that

Zengzi wants to practice and act out what he taught to his disciples. Because some researchers argue that the Analects was edited by Zengzi’s disciples, thus chuan 传 here means “passing on” to his disciples, which shows that Zengzi cares about his own physical practice before teaching. No mater receiving education or educating other people, Zengzi realized the importance of practicing in individual development. And the individual development is also in a process of xue which ultimately leads to becoming a junzi.

43 Another important concepts about xue is xing 行. Xiao Lu and Wang Weimin (2014) argue that xing has seven meanings in The Analects:1) walk, 2) do; act, 3) practicable; feasible, 4) conduct; behavior, 5) go; leave, 6) run; circulate, 7) messenger; emissary. 51 chapters refer to xing, and xing in 38 of them is 2)(do; act) and 4)(conduct; behavior), which take the largest proportion among xing’s interpretations. Thus we’ll discuss the xing as “act” in the Analects, and examine the relationship between it and junzi.

1）The Master said, "The junzi in everything considers yi (appropriate) to be essential. He performs it according to the li (ritual propriety). He expresses forth in humility. He completes it with making xin

(good on one’s word). This is indeed a junzi."(15.17)

子曰：“君子義以爲質，禮以行之，孫以出之，信以成之。君子哉！”

2) “A junzi serves office, and performs the yi (appropriate) belonging to it. As to the failure of the

Dao(way) to make progress, he has known that already."(18.7)

“君子之仕也，行其义也。道之不行，已知之矣。”

3) The Master said, "The junzi wants to be slow to speak and quick to his conduct."(4.24)

子曰：“君子欲訥於言而敏於行。”

4) The Master said, "The junzi would feel shame to let his words outstrip his deeds."(14.29)

子曰：“君子耻其言而过其行。”

44 In the chapters above, Confucius emphasizes junzi’s virtues and related concepts on xing: li yi xing zhi 礼以行之(performs it according to the li (ritual of propriety)), xing qi yi 行其义(performs the yi (appropriate) belonging to it), min yu xing 敏于行(being quick in his conduct), chi yan guo qi xing 耻言过其行(feel shame to let his words outstrip his deeds). By using these related concepts, Confucius proposed several principles to illustrate what a junzi should xing. And the image of a junzi is getting clearer in these contexts which accompanied other concepts and principles such as li 礼 (ritual), yi 义

(appropriateness), xin 信 (trustworthy), dao 道 (way), ne 讷 (slow (of speech)), min 敏

(sensitive), yan 言(language; speech), and etc. Confucius uses these concepts to establish contexts to illustrate the importance of xing to junzi.

This chapter investigated the relationship between xue and junzi: how the Analects uses different concepts to construct a approach of becoming a junzi through xue.

45 Chapter 4

Shiranhouyan 时然后言, Wenzhibinbin 文质彬彬&Boxue 博学：

Assessing Key Indicators in the Progress of Becoming Junzi

In this chapter, I will discuss about the yan 言(speech, language), wen 文 and zhi 质, and examine how they function on the way of becoming a junzi.

4.1 shierhouyan 时(PARTS)然后言

Wittgenstein proposed the concept Language-game, which reveals a fact that language functions, and produces meaning, in a dynamic process of interpersonal social interaction. Accompanied with the socialized communicative acts, the meaning of language is approachable. Therefore, another issue is raised: When is the meaning created and can it be obtained?

When it comes to the Analects, we may see that Confucius is also emphasizing how to act at the right time point in a socialization process. For example, the first chapter in the Analects:

The Master said:"Having xue, to then xi(act it out) at the right time what you have learned--that’s

46 pleasure, isn’t it? To have like-minded friends come from distant quarters--that’s enjoyable, isn’t it?

Others don’t understand him, but he doesn’t resent it--that’s the junzi, isn’t it ?"

According to what we discussed above, we can divide this sentence into three layers: when the purpose of learning, the pleasure, can be obtained; learning with whom; and how to approach junzi’s virtue 不愠 by xue in a socialization process.

As we analyzed before, 时 here is “at the right, correct time point”; only putting what one learned into acting out at the right time can achieve the goal of gaining pleasure.

Furthermore, Confucius points out that this process of properly acting what one learned needs to be framed in a socialization process: interact with friends who have similar mind with you ( 朋 ). So why did Confucius put it in the second place? One possible reason is that he already realized that when to act out what one learned is crucial to achieving the goal of learning, and the “when” is the time of communicating with like-minded people. Then, why people have to be like-minded? The Analects mentions the importance of whom a juzi should talk to and communicate with. For instance:

“Don’t make friends with who are not as good as you are.”

无友不如己者(1.8)；

“The Master said, "People whose Daos(way) are different cannot lay plans together.”

子曰：道不同，不相为谋。(15.39)；

“The Master Zeng said, "The junzi on refinement(wen 文) of culture meets with his friends, and

47 thereby friendship promotes his virtue of ren (authoritative conduct).”

曾子曰：“君子以文会友，以友辅仁。”(12.24)

In the Analects, a like-minded friend is the prerequisite to making friends. Because people who have a similar mind with the learner might be able to share the same or similar values, goals and background with the learner, which makes the communication meaningful and successful. In this socialization process, the experience shared by people plays the key role in the language communication. More importantly, in the chapter

12.24, Zengzi emphasizes that junzi uses wen 文(language, writing, culture) to meet his friends. Either in writing or culture, language is the carrier of the meaning delivered in the communication between friends.

Confucius uses one sentence to combine the “time” and “whom” together by illustrating when and how to speak to the “right” person:

The Master said, "To fail to speak to a man who may be spoken with, it is to waste in reference to the man. To speak with a man who may not be spoken with, it is to waste in reference to our words.

The wise person neither in regard to their man nor to their words.”(15.7)

子曰：“可與言而不與言，失人。不可與言而與之言，失言。知者不失人，亦不失言。”.

In this situation, the language is meaningful to both participants. Only in the context of “ 可 与 言 (may speak with)” speakers may deliver meanings through language effectively, since the listener can understand the meaning created by the speaker who has the similar experience with him/her. Similarly, a conversation about the Super Bowl

48 championship between two football fans, either in form or content, might be very different than a conversation on that between a football and a soccer fan on the same topic. The shared experience or shared knowledge is a foundation of a successful communication.

The sentence above also refers to Confucius’s “时然后言(speak when it is the time to speak)”1, which emphasizes the importance of the appropriate context of language. A successful conversation at the right time in a certain context is the key to achieving the goal of “neither in regard to their man nor to their words(不失人，亦不失言)”; and the “right time” is when the speaker can make sure that he/she is conversing with the right person.

For a learner, the significance of learning is not merely on learning to do something, but also practicing and acting out what he/she learned in the correct context. A learner needs to speak when it is the time to speak, act when it is time to act.

Further more, the shi 时 does not simply equal to “time”; in fact, it represents the proper context of using language. Junzi knows what the right shi is, and yan 言(speak; give speech) at the right shi 时.

When the shi comes to Chinese language pedagogy, we may use Galal Walker’s

1 Kung-ming Chiâ replied, "This has arisen from the reporters going beyond the truth. -- My master speaks when it is the time to speak, and so men do not get tired of his speaking. He laughs when there is occasion to be joyful, and so men do not get tired of his laughing. He takes when it is consistent with righteousness to do so, and so men do not get tired of his taking." The Master said, "So! But is it so with him?"子問公叔文子於公明賈，曰：“信乎，夫子不言、 不笑、不取乎？”公明賈對曰：“以告者過也。夫子時然後言，人不厭其言；樂然後笑，人不厭其笑；義然後 取，人不厭其取。”子曰：“其然？豈其然乎？”(14.13)

49 hypothesis of PARTS(Place, Audience, Role, Time and Script) to illustrate the concept of shi 时 in the Analects. Generally speaking, the shi in the Analects is relatively close to

Walker’s PARTS.

Galal Walker(2001) points out that the meaning of language exists in a context which includes place, audience, role, time and script. A language learner can only acquire the correct use of language in an appropriate context; language without context is meaningless; in other words, the meaning of language is constructed by the interaction between language user and his/her environment. Mark Turner (2010) also believes that without context language is only some meaningless symbols, which supported Walker’ idea that PARTS plays the key role in producing meaning of language.

In the Analects, the shi is similar to Walker’s PARTS, because in a socialized environment shi 时 cannot be independent with place, participant or observer. The shi represents the context at a certain time point. A “right” shi is actually a right context which gives a clear meaning to the language used in the context. Therefore, we should not simply consider shi as “time” without considering other factors which co-construct the meaning of language.

For a Chinese language teacher, training foreign language learners to know what the right shi is, and then use Chinese language at the right shi are significant to have them become a “junzi” in Chinese language learning process. And the first step is to have a learner observe, recognize and then participate and behave properly with language in the

50 “right” context.

4.2 wenzhibinbin 文质彬彬

In the Analects, Confucius proposes the extrinsic and intrinsic qualities of a junzi: wenzhibinbin 文质彬彬(refinements and solid qualities are equally balanced).

“The Master said, "When the basic disposition overwhelms refinement, the person is ye; when the refinement is in excess of the basic disposition, the person is an officious scribe(shi). When the refinement and basic disposition are equally blended, you then have the junzi."(6.16)

子曰：“質勝文則野，文勝質則史。文質彬彬，然後君子。”

In this sentence, disposition(质) is the inner feature, and refinement(文) is the outer feature. In order to be a junzi, one must balance the inner and the outer qualities and only then becoming a junzi is possible. Thus, Confucius emphasizes the importance of harmonizing the two respects. The inner and outer qualities interdepend and mutually reinforce each other, which offers a prerequisite to becoming a junzi.

In Chinese language pedagogy, zhi 质 could be considered as inner intention, and wen 文 is outer, observable performance with language using. This situation is similar to

“Language-game” proposed by Wittgenstein, which language and outer behavior

51 co-construct the meaning of language in a context. When using language in the context, the intention, language and the outer performance must coordinate with each other, which requires the speaker to act properly according to the context. After doing that, the speaker is qualified to achieve the goal of learning language: speaking and acting out at the right time.

4.3 boxue 博学

1) Zixia said, "There are boxue (learning broadly), and having a firm and sincere purposes; inquiring with urgency, and reflecting with self-application:-- ren (authoritative conduct) lies in this."（19.6）

子夏曰：“博學而篤志，切問而近思，仁在其中矣。”

2) A man from Daxiang said, "Great indeed is the Master Confucius! He is boxue (learn widely), and yet he is not renowned in any particular field."（9.2）

達巷黨人曰：“大哉孔子！博學而無所成名。”

The Analects believes that junzibuqi 君子不器 (junzi is not an utensil). And the concept contrasted with buqi is boxue: xue broadly.

Many scholars argue that the thought of buqi impeded the development of science in ancient China, which caused slow progress in this field for modern China. On the one 52 hand, the Analects shows disfavor of only being a professional in a certain field, because

Confucius believed that a professional would not have the capacity nor the power to influence the changes their society so desparately needed. On the other hand, the ultimate goal of Confucius’s education is cultivating individuals who are able to employ and make good use of such professionals in the society. Therefore,boxue is much more important than qi when it comes to judging different types of people and determining their employment. Another possible reason for emphasizing boxue is that cultivating a professional in Confucius’s time usually did not require as much time and energy as cultivating a boxue person, such as a junzi, since the general scientific and technological level in the Spring and Autumn era was relatively low.

Therefore, boxue is a higher requirement to being a junzi rather than being a qi.

53 Chapter 5

Discussions

5.1 The pedagogy of junzi in the Analects

Through the discussion presented above, the pedagogy in the Analects represents a very important early Chinese tradition that key concepts are illustrated and constructed by related concepts, shared experience between interlocutors in appropriate contexts.

Shared experience between participants is the foundation of a successful discourse in a conversation. Generally speaking, the Analects and Confucius avoid directly defining key concepts such as junzi and xue; instead, they try to put these concepts into a framework that allows examining their meanings and values in different contexts. Zhou

Qingshan (2002) thinks that many conversations between Confucius and his disciples show that a heuristic pedagogy is the essence in Confucius’s teaching process.

Through the comparison between ren 人 and min 民, we realized that the Analects reveals that min has no opportunity to became ren or junzi in Confucius’s time, thus different strategies need to be applied to treat different social hierarchies in order to achieve the ultimate goal of cultivating junzi to rectify the state of chaos.

54 In this thesis, I analyzed the pedagogy of junzi in the Analects mainly from four directions: the Analects and its pedagogy; junzi in the age of shifting paradigms; becoming a junzi: xueyizhidao 学以致道 and the learning process in the pedagogy of junzi; assessing the progress of becoming junzi and its key indicators. Through discussing these respects, the pedagogical value of junzi in the Analects is clearly highlighted: cultivating a kind of people who have the ability to change the society through certain pedagogy in early China’s tradition.

First, the Analects used ren 人, min 民, yeren 野人, xiaoren 小人, qi 器, etc. to illustrate the characteristics of a junzi. This is a constructive process used to define junzi.

Second, the Analects revealed that xue, the approach to becoming a junzi, is a dynamic process, but not a dependent act as a “verb” like “learn” or “study” in the

English-speaking world. Third, the Analects introduced the virtue of haoxue 好学 and showed that the mental and physical activities such as si 思 (think), xing 省 (exmine oneself), guan 观(observe), cha 察(examine), xi 习(practice), and xing 行(conduct) to construct the process of xue. Finally, through illustrating the features and acts involved in the process of xue, the Analects requires learners to act accordingly in appropriate contexts, thus becoming junzi.

In addition, this research examined the characteristic and pattern of pedagogy in the

Analects from a modern pedagogical perspective that is represented by the PCA, which gave the Analects a new meaning in the field of CFL.

55 This research may also inspire today’s CFL and Chinese language pedagogy at least in three aspects: making use of Chinese pedagogy from early China’s tradition; designing

Chinese language curriculum and programs from a perspective of Chinese culture which might be more effective and pragmatic than only borrowing ideas and strategies from

ESL; broadening the horizon of Performing Culture Approach of Chinese language pedagogy.

Overall, in the age of globalization, constructing and shaping a modern Chinese language pedagogy needs a fusion of tradition and modernity, East and West.

5.2 Issues and challenges

5.2.1 Between min 民 and junzi 君子, between jiao 教 and xue 学

Today, do the barriers between min and junzi still exist? In Chinese language pedagogy, who are min and who are junzi? Is it necessary to stick to the categories in the era of Analects? If no, what can we get from the categorization in the Analects to reexamine Chinese language pedagogy?

To the roles of teacher and student, who is the subject and who is the object in jiao

教 and xue 学 is also very important to the design of Chinese language curriculum and program.

56 5.2.2 Between qi and junzi

As we discussed before, should we train learners to be qi while also junzi in the globalization era? Since nobody can really be a real boxue 博学 individual in such a modern time that division of work has become more and more skillful and professional.

How the concepts of today’s qi and junzi reshape the Chinese language pedagogy?

5.2.3 From zhizhi 知之 to haozhi 好之 to lezhi 乐之

The Master said, "Those who who love it are better than those who know it; are those who delight in it are better than whose who love it."(6.18)

子曰：“知之者不如好之者，好之者不如樂之者。”

Confucius proposed three stages of attainment in the Analects: Zhizhi 知之, Haozhi

好 之 and Lezhi 乐 之 . For Chinese language pedagogy, the three stages could be considered as three goals to learners in different levels. However, there are also some challenges to achieve these three stages in the age of globalization.

5.2.3.1 An interpretation of zhizhi 知之, haozhi 好之 and lezhi 乐之

Fu Peirong(2012) argues that haozhi is “know it; understand it”, haozhi is “like it”, and lezhi is “enjoy it”. The beginning is zhizhi, and the highest stage is lezhi. The three 57 stages refer to the attitudes of the attainment in learning process. According to his “学而

时习之，不亦说乎”, zhizhi sometimes does not need to act out, but in order to gain pleasure from what one knew, acting out is a way to achieve lezhi. The Analects emphasized the importance of acting out what one learned. Therefore, the “act” in the learning process can also be considered as a significant part of Confucius’s “yiyiguanzhi

一以貫之(one thread that links it all together)”.1

In Chinese pedagogy, it’s not very hard to design a curriculum to have learners “zhi”

Chinese language. But how to make the learner “haozhi” is a more important issue. One the one hand, zhizhi is the prerequisite of haozhi; on the other hand, haozhi can be a strong motivation to better and further zhizhi. For example, a learner who zhi something or some knowledge about Chinese language and culture might start to learn Chinese language and then achieve haozhi. Some American learners argue that they haozhi

Chinese culture then start to zhizhi through learning. On the surface, haozhi occurs before zhizhi; in fact, this kind of haozhi is not a hao to the real or authentic Chinese culture. Usually it’s a hao to an American Orientalism--a westernized, or even a distorted

1 子曰：“賜也，女以予爲多學而識之者與？”對曰：“然。非與？”曰：“非也！予一以貫之。”(15.2,Legge) How Confucius aimed at the knowledge of an all-pervading unity. The Master said, "Ts'ze, you think, I suppose, that I am one who learns many things and keeps them in memory?" Tsze-kung replied, "Yes, -- but perhaps it is not so?" "No," was the answer; "I seek a unity all pervading."

58 image of, “Chinese Culture”. The real hao happens after real zhi which accompanied with act.

Most traditional Chinese language pedagogy merely achieved the level of zhizhi since they usually treat Chinese language and culture as knowledge but not a series of actions that may have the learners participate in Chinese culture through using Chinese language. But PCA can provide learners with Chinese language contexts to have them memorize the language used in those contexts and then participate in the Chinese contexts, which have them acquire both physical and mental experience in Chinese language use and learning. This has created opportunities for learners to really hao, which reflected Wang Yangmin’s zhixingheyi 知 行 合 一 (the unity of knowledge and action; doing is knowing). “ 知 之 者 不 如 乐 之 者 (know it does not equal to like it)” reveals that a lezhizhe 乐之者 is a person who takes actions by using what he already zhi, and the experience on actions makes him go further than zhizhizhe 知之者.

5.2.3.2 What we can do and cannot do with the “zhizhi, haozhi and lezhi”

However, in the age of globalization, the haozhi and especially lezhi face some challenges: can the language pedagogy cultivate learners who really enjoy the target language and culture? The answer varies depended on the learner’s individual state: for those who participated in certain specific Chinese cultural contexts and got what they wanted before participating in it, hao often occurs in their acts by using Chinese

59 language, since the results of their actions fulfilled their anticipation; but lezhi is a very extrinsic physical attitude which is hard to be examined only from external expressions.

Moreover, both of haozhi and lezhi might have different layers which need to be further investigated.

Hao might refer to an individual judge or value, a kind of personal choice. For example：

The Master said, "If the search for wealth is a acceptable goal, even though I would serve as a groom with whip in hand to get them, I would gladly do so. As the search may not be a acceptable goal, I will follow after what I like.(7.11)

子曰：“富而可求也，雖執鞭之士，吾亦爲之。如不可求，從吾所好。”

Compared to haozhi, lezhi is rather an inner feeling which is beyond certain social values and standards. Thus lezhi is keyubukeqiu 可 遇 不 可 求 (a moment that cannot be engineered or planned). In CFL, we encountered many situations that learners achieved haozhi but not really lezhi, because their individual conditions had them fail to lezhi in their environments. Meanwhile, we also know that some learners already became lezhizhe since what they did allowed them to gain pleasure from their contexts of

Chinese language and culture. For example, an American Chinese language learner in

China is operating an online game company, who employed dozens of American

60 Chinese speakers who also love playing Chinese online games. They are a typical group who lezhi since they put Chinese language they learned into actions. But there’s another important reason to have them become lezhizhe: they love playing PC and video games.

This means that lezhi might not be learned from outer world, instead, lezhi is usually a result of individual experience. Thus, what the pedagogy should do it to have American

Chinese language learners go beyond zhizhi and achieve haozhi, maybe then they can really lezhi.

Generally speaking, in the age of globalization, the pedagogy of becoming a junzi in the Analects may offer many valuable insights to CFL. The discussion of the Analects from a modern perspective is a beginning to inspire researchers to reexamine what

Chinese tradition can teach us.

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