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Christopher Small's Concept of Musicking CHRISTOPHER SMALL’S CONCEPT OF MUSICKING: TOWARD A THEORY OF CHORAL SINGING PEDAGOGY IN PRISON CONTEXTS By © Mary L. Cohen M.M.E., University of Kansas 2000 Submitted to the graduate degree program in Music Education and Music Therapy and the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Chairperson Committee members Date defended July 9, 2007 The Dissertation Committee for Mary L. Cohen certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: CHRISTOPHER SMALL’S CONCEPT OF MUSICKING: TOWARD A THEORY OF CHORAL SINGING PEDAGOGY IN PRISON CONTEXTS Committee: Chairperson Date approved: ii ABSTRACT The purpose of this investigation was to raise and examine questions relevant to building a theory of choral singing pedagogy for prison-based choirs with reference to Christopher Small’s (1927- ) concept of “musicking.” Historical-biographical method was employed to construct an account of Small’s life and work using published sources and personal interviews with Small. Philosophical inquiry was used to examine his published writing, the roots and logic of major propositions contributing to his mature concept of musicking, and published criticisms to date of Small’s philosophy. Thereafter, Small’s philosophy of musicking was investigated in terms of its explanatory power in building a theory of choral singing pedagogy in prison contexts. In that regard, Small’s concept of musicking was compared to major propositions articulated by traditional aesthetic philosophies of music, and contrasted with three contemporary North American philosophies of music education (Reimer, Jorgensen Elliott) with respect to the logical capacity of each philosophical framework to respond to two primary assumptions: (a) choral singing typically entails the articulation and communication of words (“the word factor”) and (b) choral singing evidences a union between musical agent and musical instrument (“the somatic factor”). Major arguments advanced were that (a) Small’s concept of musicking more ably accommodates the word factor and the somatic factor than either traditional aesthetic iii philosophies or the three philosophies of music education examined; and (b) the contextual and relational components of Small’s concept of musicking render it able to address many of the variables unique to choral pedagogy in prison contexts. Finally, a theory of interactional choral pedagogy in prison contexts, based on Small’s concept of musicking, was advanced. The proposed theory was addressed in terms of defining its operational variables, specifying relationships among those variables, and stating the theory such that it could be falsified or confirmed through subsequent research and assessment. It was suggested that Small’s concept of musicking may signal a paradigm shift in ways of thinking about choral singing pedagogy in prisons and other contexts. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The process of designing, planning, researching, writing, and editing a dissertation is possible through a combination of wise and patient mentors. First and foremost, I want to express my appreciation to each of my committee members whose guidance and encouragement not only helped me complete this process, but also advised me in regard to research, writing, and professional endeavors: Dr. Alicia Clair, Dr. George Duerksen, Dr. Christopher Johnson, Dr. Dena Register, and Dr. Susanne Rice. My deep gratitude goes to my chair, Dr. James Daugherty, whose wisdom, direction, and encouragement provided me this opportunity to complete doctoral studies and write this dissertation. I appreciate the countless hours he spent talking with me about concepts, writing, and philosophical inquiry. Additionally, a university facility that supports creative research endeavors provides the groundwork for a dissertation such as this one that combines multiple disciplines. Thank you to the Division of Music Education and Music Therapy, the Department of Music and Dance, and the School of Fine Arts at the University of Kansas for offering this Ph.D. program that allows the student to explore research interests of his or her choice and supports the student by providing a means to participate in numerous conferences. Thank you to Professor Christopher Small who corresponded via telephone and numerous e-mail messages. His patient, consistent, and helpful communication facilitated a most enjoyable data collection process. I truly admire his thinking and am indebted to his scholarship and wisdom. v Thank you also to Ms. Elvera Voth who initiated a joint inmate-volunteer prison choir and allowed me to assist with rehearsals and observe her work. Her dedication to choral singing in prisons provided numerous opportunities for me to examine the experiences of singing in prison and observe inmates’ personal and social development. I am grateful for the opportunities to learn from her, from the inmates who participated in her choir, from the experience of conducting a prison choir, and from the volunteer singers. Many scholars were helpful in answering my various questions. Thank you to Dr. Susan McClary, Dr. Charles Keil, and Mr. John Thornley for your correspondence. My sincerest appreciation goes to my loving spouse, Matt. My gratitude for your patience and positive encouragement cannot be expressed in words. Thank you also to my family who also showed much needed support: Mom, Dad, Linda, Bob, Jane, and Judy, Jackie, Miles, and Ruth. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………. iii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….. v Chapter One: Introduction……………….……………………………………........ 1 Previous Studies……………………………………………………. 1 Vocal Music and Character Education…………………………….. 3 Education in Prison Contexts………………………………………. 5 Statement of the Research Problem………………………………………... 10 Background……...………………………………………………… 10 Criticisms of Aesthetic Philosophies of Music and Music Education……………….. 13 Specific Characteristics of Choral Singing………………………………… 17 Choral Music Has Words…………………………………………... 18 People Sing Choral Music…………………………………………. 20 Christopher Small’s Theory of Musicking: A Contextual Approach……… 22 Comparisons to Choral Music Textbooks and National Standards……................................ 23 Musicking………………………………………………………….. 25 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions…………….………………. 26 Methodology and Outline of the Study……………………………………. 26 Assumptions and Limitations of the Study………………………………… 29 Definitions…………………………………………………………………. 29 Choral Singing………...…………………………………………… 29 vii Education………………………………………………………….. 30 Pedagogy…………………………………………………… …….. 30 Prison-based Education………..…………………………… ……... 30 Theory……………………………………………………………….30 Chapter Two: Christopher Small: A Musician Who Thinks about His Art……….. 31 Section One: Christopher Small: A Biographical Profile of His Life……... 31 Unconventionalities……………………………………………….. 39 Relationships………………………………………………………. 43 Musical Influences from Cradle to Career………………………………… 47 Doris Evelyn Haggett Small and Charles Arthur Small…………… 47 Small’s Educational Experiences…………………………………... 50 Life in London…………………………………………………….. 59 Small’s Teaching Positions in England…………………………… 62 Neville Braithwaite………………………………………………… 67 Small’s “Retirement”………………………………………………. 69 Summary…………………………………………………………………… 72 Chapter Three: Christopher Small’s Published Writing…………………………… 76 Small’s Associations with John Calder, Susan McClary, and Rob Walser…………... 76 Small’s Writing: Influences and Thematic Analysis………………. 79 Most Frequent Citations…………………………………………… 85 Thematic and Chronological Examinations………………………... 87 viii Published Writing about Specific Composers and Their Compositions…… 88 Bertrand Rands……………………………………………………... 88 John Cage and Cornelius Cardew………………………….............. 90 Schoenberg………………………………………………..………... 92 Contemporary Music and Contemporary Culture………………………….. 94 Three Article Series on Small’s Philosophy of Music Education….............. 96 Music, Society, Education (1977)…………………………………………. 100 Music as Action……………………………………………............. 101 Western Classical Music Traditions……………………….. 102 Characteristics of Notation-Focused Musical Practices…… 102 Social Influences on Musical Practices……………………………. 103 Reciprocal Influences of Societies and Composers………... 103 Communal Experiences of Select Non-European Musical Practices…………………………………... 104 Communal Experiences of the Isle of Wight Festival…….. 104 Relationships in Musical Practices………………………………… 105 Tonal-Harmonic Traditions……………………………….. 105 African Thumb Piano……………………………………… 106 United States Musical Culture……………………………... 106 Two Assumptions of Western Classical Music Rejected by Small…………………………………………… 107 Critical Reviews of Music, Society, Education (1977)……………. 108 Leonard Davis………………………………………………108 ix Cyril Ehrlich………………………………………………...109 Tony Attwood……………………………………………… 110 Other Publications Contributing to Small’s Theory of Musicking………… 110 American Vernacular: A Meeting of Two Worlds………………… 111 The Vernacular in Music Education: Music as Verb………………. 112 Music: A Resource for Survival: First Use of Musicking………… 113 Performance as Ritual……………………………………………… 115 Music of the Common Tongue (1987)……………………………… ……... 120 Critical Reviews of Music of the Common Tongue………………… 124 Andrew Peggie…………………………………………….. 124 Eddie Meadows……………………………………………. 125 Richard Middleton…………………………………………. 125 Small’s Book Reviews…………………………………………………….. 125 Social Influences on Music…………………………………........... 126 Blues Fell this
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