Between Urartu and Assyria: the geography of a border region DAN SOCACIU University of Liverpool Abstract Urartu and Assyria were separated physically by the Taurus mountains, and also by a series of buffer-states. Urartu and Assyria were situated in neighbouring regions, but those are regions that had limited interactions between them and had different cultural and economic backgrounds. A close analysis of the border region between the two states allows a reflection on the nature of relationships between them. Keywords Urartu, Assyria, Borders, Geography, Buffer-states, Interactions West & East 155 Monografie, 3 dan socaciu 1. Introduction We know that it grew out of a series of small political entities that, starting from the thirteenth century The Neo-Assyrian Empire represents the first BC, united in different confederations known as world-empire and was the most powerful political Urartu and Nairi by the Assyrian sources.2 The annals en tity of its time. The Urartian kingdom was of Salmaneser mention the Urartian king Aramu, Assyria’s strongest rival, at least up until the end of who’s reign predated that of Sarduri. However, the eighth century BC. The capitals of the two states there is unfortunately no archaeological evidence for were separated only by 130 miles in a straight line, Aramu’s existence, and we therefore have to consider and we have a long list of warfare accounts between Sarduri the founder of the Urartian state as we know them in the ancient texts. it. Tushpa remained the capital of the kingdom for The aim of this contribution is to analyse the area its entire lifespan, although other important centres separating Urartu from the Neo-Assyrian Empire, were built in the Lake Van area. Toprakkale, for both from a geographical and a political point of example, has puzzled archaeologists for decades. view. This will help with a reflection on the nature The most common theory is that it served as the of the two states, on their political and economic main religious site after the destruction of Muṣaṣir. ambitions, and on the relationship between the two From here, the kingdom quickly expanded, towards powers. The conclusion will also draw attention east and north, and also towards the west, although to limits that hinder research of these topics, and the western border of the kingdom, and Urartu’s potential ways to overcome them. presence in that area, are less known. We can trace Urartu and Assyria did not share a border, not the expansion of Urartu into new territories by in the modern way we think of one. The territory the inscriptions left on monumental stelae, on cliff situated between the headwaters of the Tigris and faces, and included in dedicated structures. Under of the Lower Zab was independent and acted as a Minua, the Urartian dominion of the Urmia plain buffer zone between the two states. The southern was consolidated. The destruction of Hasanlu, and foothills of the mountains sheltered a number of the subsequent Urartian phase of the site, date to political entities that managed to steer straight this period. His successor, Argishti I, expanded the between the two crushing powers, and maintain a kingdom north of the Araxes, with the founding of certain degree of autonomy, even after the initial Argishtihinili and Erebuni.3 In the second half, and expansion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. This paper towards the end of the eighth century BC, after more will bring into focus Šubria, Kumme, and Muṣaṣir, than a century of conquests, Urartu was threatened which are some of the polities situated along the both from the South, by a stronger and more northern edge of Assyria during this period and aggressive Assyrian Empire, and from the North represent the other half of the barrier separating the by the Cimmerians. This moment put a stop to its powerful empire from Urartu, alongside the Taurus growth and influence. The kingdom enjoyed again mountains (fig. 1).1 a period of prosperity, under Rusa III, during the seventh century BC. Aside from the territory directly controlled by 2. Historical background the kingdom, there was an outer circle of lands under Urartu’s sphere of influence. We can see this clearly in The Kingdom of Urartu came to prominence in the Sargon’s letter to the god Ashur, where he mentions Ancient Near East under the rule of Sarduri I, who both actual provinces of Urartu, and outer regions founded the capital Tushpa on the eastern shores of indirectly controlled by them. Urartu challenged Lake Van. The formation process of the Urartian Assyria’s influence in both Northern Syria and state is not clear; we have a mostly finished product southern Anatolia, and in north-western Iran. when the kingdom emerges in the ninth century BC. 2 Salvini 1967 1 Radner 2012 3 Forbes 1983; Piotrovsky 1969. West & East 156 Monografie, 3 Empire. This paper will bring into focus Šubria, Kumme, and Muṣaṣir, which are some of the polities situated along the northern edge of Assyria during this period and represent the other half of the barrier separating the powerful empire from Urartu, alongside the Taurus mountains Between Urartu and Assyria: the geography of a border region (fig. 1).1 Figure 11.The border between Assyria and Urartu. The border between Assyria and Urartu 2. Historical background The Kingdom of Urartu came to prominence in the Ancient Near East under the rule of Sarduri I, whoThe founded southernmost the capital Urartian Tushpa inscriptions on the areeastern routes.shores It of was Lake most Van. likely Thetravelled formation by semi-nomadic process foundof the inUrartian and around state the is Kelishinnot clear; pass; we a have pass thata mostly tribes,finished but product at the current when state the kingdomof research emerges there are marks an important communication route leading no documented permanent settlements. th towardsin the 9 Mu centuryṣaṣir. These BCE. inscriptions We know are that bilingual, it grew out ofAssyria a series went of throughsmall political a period entities of upheaval that, writtenstarting bothfrom in th eUrartian 13th century and Assyrian, BCE, united which in differentand reassessment, confederations like most known of the as NearUrartu Eastern and suggests they were meant for a broader audience. and Mediterranean world, towards the end of the 2 TheNairi topic by the of theseAssyrian inscriptions, sources one. The dedicated annals by of Salmanesersecond millennium mention BC.the UrartianThis moment king inAramu, history Ishpuiniwho’s reignand his predated son Minua, that and theof otherSarduri. by Rusa However, I saw there the Assyrianis unfortunately territory reduced no archaeological to its core, with (this one found in multiple copies), are journeys only a thin strip of land in their hands. Fortunes andevidence offerings for atAramu’s the temple existence, of Haldi andmade weby these therefore quickly have to changed: consider Assyria Sarduri did notthe onlyfounder survive of thebut Urartian kings.4 gave birth to an empire that eventually stretched There are no major Urartian sites in the Hakkari from the eastern Mediterranean to the Gulf. 1 RADNER 2012 Province,2 SALVINI 1967directly to the south of Van, or to the The first Neo-Assyrian kings conquered regions south-west, towards the Upper Tigris. This area has a that they saw as rightfully theirs, following a pattern very rough terrain, and difficult climatic conditions, of conquest and control set out during the Middle and therefore lacks year-round communication Assyrian period.5 4 Salvini 2008. 5 Liverani 1988. West & East 157 Monografie, 3 dan socaciu Ashur-dan II (934-912 BC) and Adad-ninari II increase productivity. The two areas separated by (911-891 BC) focused heavily on the northern the Taurus can also make use of different natural frontier, with campaigns into Kurdistan, and up the resources, with the Anatolian highlands abundant Tigris valley. The annexed territories were left under in construction material and metals, both of which the control of local rulers in this initial stage. Tukulti- are lacking in Mesopotamia. Ninurta II (890-884 BC) subdued Bit Zamani Urartu’s topography sets the kingdom apart and consolidated the Assyrian rule in Northern from most states of the ancient Near East, and it Mesopotamia, but soon after, the rulers, who were separates it especially from the areas to the south, now Assyrian vassals, were overthrown by local rivals, and to a lesser degree from the north. and Ashurnasirpal II was forced to attack Bit Zamani «To a certain extent, Urartu may be considered again. In the Upper Tigris region, and within the a natural fortress, but is a fortress that has much territories of Bit Zamani, the Assyrian provinces of stronger walls on some sides than on others»,7 and Tushan and Amedi were created. These provinces the strongest wall is to the south. Lake Van lies were the northernmost territory controlled by the 1,680 m above sea level, and the mountains rise Assyrian kings. A series of fortified centres were built abruptly from the southern and western sides of the to enforce Assyrian rule. The most important one, lake. To put this into better perspective, it is worth which also served as the regional capital, was the city mentioning that the Assyrian heartland’s elevation of Tushan. Ashurnasirpal also carried out a campaign is around 200 m above sea level, while the Upper in the Garzan and Bohtan river valleys, but there was Tigris Valley finds itself at around 600 m above sea no interest, or no means to bring this territory north level. The isolation of the Urartian capital, Tushpa, of the Tigris under Assyrian control. Ashurnasirpal’s is clear when one looks at the routes in and out: there campaign remains the only documented one in this is no convenient passage to the south, and it is out region, and there are no Assyrian settlements in the of the way of the major routes to Iran (fig.