Livia Kohn

DOUMU: THE MOTHER OF THE DIPPER

Introduction The goddess 4- f.J:, the Mother of the Dipper, is a Daoist stellar of high popularity. Shrines to her are found today in many major Daoist sanctuaries, from the Qingyang gong. jf.i;inChengduA lllthrough Louguan tttfL plearXi' iN~)to * t1Jin . She represents the genninal, creative power behind one of the most central Daoist , the Northern Dipper, roler offates and central orderer of the universe, which is said to consist of seven or nine stars, called the Seven Primes or the Nine Perfected. 1 The Mother of the Dipper appears in Daoist literature from Yuan times onward, there is no trace of any scripture or material associated with her in Song sources or libraries. 2 Her major scripture, the Doumu jing4- f.J: ~I (translated below), survives in both the Daoist canon of 1445 and in a Ming­ dynasty manuscript dated to 1439. The goddess can be seen as part of a general tendency among Daoists of the Ming to include more popular and female into their pantheon, which in turn is related to the greater emphasis on goddesses in popular and at the time. 3 In

I Edward Schafer calls them the Nine Quintessences (1977, p. 233).

2 Van der Loon (1984) has no entry on any te;-.."t regarding her worship.

3 A prominent example of a popular goddess at the time is ~ 111 or Tianfei f:. 9(.. who was also adopted into the Daoist pantheon. On her development, see Wädow 1992: on her Daoist adoption, see Bohz 1986. Another popular goddess with Daoist overtones of the same period is Bixia yuanjun ~ i1 j(; ;g-, the daughter of the god of Mount Tai. On her legend and

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn

Fig. 1 - Weituo, the protector of scriptures

150

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper addition, her elevation is also linked with the increased influence of Tantric Buddhism on later Daoism, because she is a Daoist counterpart of the Indian goddess and Tantrie Mariei, an offspring of Brahma and personification of light, who serves as the roler of fates and plays a role in various dhärani sutras in the Buddhist eanon.4 In addition to this Buddhist origin of the goddess, she also has forerunners among Daoist female deities or eonsorts ofthe Dipper, who appear in texts from the middle ages, making her a faseinating and potent eonglomerate of powers and religious traditions. The following is a first study of the nature and evolution of the Daoist goddess Doumu as she is represented in her key seripture, the Doumu jingo The goddess will be examined in relation to the tradition al veneration of the Dipper, the Tantrie goddess Mariei and her myths, various divine Dipper consorts, and in regard to forms ofworship that evolved around her. Before all that, however, let us take a closer look at the manuscript of the Doumu jingo

The Doumu The manuscript was found in the late 1960's as one of eleven Ming­ dynasty texts contained in the interior of a wooden Buddha statue. The statue, whieh had made its way to an art dealer in Hamburg, Germany, was subjected to unexpected moisture due to a flood of the river EIbe and began to dissolve in its parts. It was then obtained by Mr. Wemer Burger, who in turn passed it on to Professor Herbert Franke (Münich) for eritical scholarly examinatioll. Franke describes its various manuscripts in a short article. 5

worship, see Naquin 1992. Among Buddhist goddesses, the outstanding examp1e is Miaoshan ~. ~. Her legend and development is studied in Dudbridge 1978.

4 The dhärani sutras are nos. 1254-59 in vol. 21 ofthe Taishö canon. See Franke 1972, p. 63. Tantric influence on Daoism since the Tang is also evident in the increase in the number of deities and in the more martial gods occupying a central position (see Davis 1994). A special Maricf dhärani sütra or Molizhi pusa toluoni jing '* flJ J( 'J:..:g: Pi pt Il Jt, *.~ ( T. 125. 21.259-60) is ascribed to Amoghavajra (Bukong 1- ~) and thus presumably dates from the eighth century (see Nakamura 1981, 1280).

5 See Franke 1972. The manuscripts are now collected in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (Munich) and are available in microfilm. The Doumu jing manuscript has the acquisition number 4L.sin.C229. I am indebted to Dr. Ute Engelhardt for obaining and sending me a microfilm copy of the manuscript.

151

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn All texts found in the statue date from the reign of the Ming emperor Yingzong ~ *, i.e., around the middle of the fifteenth century. The Doumu jing is among the earliest (1439), others go back to the 1450's. Franke divides the texts into three groups: Buddhist prints, Buddhist handwritten scroIIs, and Daoist texts. Six texts belong to the first category. There is first an illustrated copy the Lotus sutra, followed by three -U -f dhärani sutras that claim to be efficacious in difficulties and the healing of diseases. A work with thirty-two poems encouraging Buddhist devotion and a woodblock print of a standing Buddha complete the first group. The second group, handwritten Buddhist materials, has three works: an apocryphal dhärani text that promises aid in all situations of life, an abbreviated Nirväna Sutra, and a copy of the Heart Sutra with introduction and commentary. All these are said to be efficacious in the management of daily life, providing protection and support in difficuIt situations. Many begin with a dedication that wishes the emperor many ten thousand years of life, contain relevant woodblock illustrations, and often conclude with a picture of Weituo ~ rt:, the protector of holy scriptures (see Fig. 1).6 The two last texts found in the statue are Daoist works. First, the Sanyuan jiewei yansheng jing .::. Je M- ~ ~ ::i ~~ (Scripture of the Three Primes to Dissolve Dangers and Extend Life) focuses on the three rulers of the Daoist other world who dissolve sins, grant good fortune, and aid in the prolongation of life. The text consists of fifteen pages and can be divided into eight sections. It begins with a woodblock illustration of the judges of hell, then presents incantations for purification, followed by four prayers for protection to the mIers ofthe other world. Next come apreface to the main text, the text proper (also in DZ 1442), a concluding poem, and a colophon which specifies the date (1450) and informs us that the sponsor ordered the text's printing to ensure the salvation ofhis ancestors. It concludes with an illustration ofWeituo. The Doumu jing is listed last in Franke's description. It, too, matches the overall intellt of the other ten texts in that it is an invocation-based text that serves to grant protection and support to the faithfuI. Like the majority of texts in the statue, it begins with good wishes for the emperor and ends with an image ofWeituo for the scripture's protection. It also has, before the scriptural part, a detailed illustration ofthe key elements ofthe text (see Fig. 2).

6 See Don: 1914, vol. 7, p. 206.

152

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper Shown here, from right to left, is the Dipper Mother, her head surroWlded by a glowing halo, seated on the jeweled throne and attended by three ladies­ in-waiting, two at her back, one closer to her side. She faces the nine stars of the Dipper, beginning with the two senior stars, clearly marked with name plates as the Great Emperor Celestial Sovereign Ä .i :Je '* and the Great Emperor of Purple Tenuity 'ffi ~ *- *. They wear formal, embroidered court robes and elaborate headdresses and hold audience scepters in their hands. Behind them follow the seven lords of the Dipper, so marked in a sm all name plate at the top of the page. They, too, are dressed in formal garb and hold audience scepters, hut their headdresses are merely small crowns. Slightly behind them, above in the picture, are the two additional stars Fu and Bi, secondary emanations of the two Great Emperors. They are seen only in their upper bodies and wear helmet-like headgear. One final figure, above the first three of the seven lords, holds a sacred scripture in a gesture similar to that of Weituo. He is dressed in martial garb and has a more barbarian and violent expression. Not named in a matching plate, we can surmise that he is a guardian figure in the service of the Dipper lords. The manuscript then presents the text of the Doumu jingo This can be divided into three major parts: apreface on the technicalities of reciting the scripture and venerating the goddess; the scripture's text; and a concluding encomium and mantra for the goddess. The first part or preface has three seetions, a technical set of instructions on recitation (p. 1), a laudatio for the goddess which clearly refers to her Indian origins (p. 2), and an incantation in her honor ( p. 2-3). It is Wlique to this manuscript, with the exception of the laudatio, which is also fOWld in a Doumu ritual as documented in the Xiantian doumu zougao xuanke 7t Ä -+ f.J: -* % -t H (Mysterious Rites of Petitioning the Dipper Mother of Former Heaven, DZ 1452, The second part is the scripture proper. It is also, with very minor character variants, contained in the Daoist canon (DZ 621). Revealed by Lord Lao, it contains the empowerment of the goddess as an executive of the Dao. It can be divided into seven sections. First, it describes the goddess's actions in the world, listing the numerous emergencies and problems that she will alleviate and describing her as the physician of the Wliverse (p. 3-4). Next, it shows her role among the stars, characterizing her as being the essence of water and having the Dipper for her po or material soul (p. 5). A third section lists several of her tides, such as Goddess Dipper Mother of the Brahma

153

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn

-.- ;, :\1: 1,;,; . i· 'i; .I'!!'~ l:, \\.~~ • r \.'i :~ . " \.

<) (j t: <) :a ::l eil ] 'Qj (j ..,.... b t;j E.... S .... .c<) '0 ~.... <) Cl. Cl. 0 <) .c E-

N ob ~

154

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Daumu: the Mather af the Dipper

Energy of Central Heaven; it notes that each title indicates a different function and power ofthe goddess (p. 5). The fourth part focuses on the myth of the origin of the Dipper, retelling how the Dipper Mother bathed in the Flowery Pond ~ ~ and was impregnated by nine lotus flowers, then gave birth to nine sons. After seven days and nights on earth, she took them up to heaven, where she created divine residences for them and empowered them, with various mantras and dhäranis, to become the rulers of the universe (p. 6). This part is an abbreviated retelling of the more elaborate myth contained in the Beidou bensheng zhenjing ~t + '*- 1. ~~ (Perfeet Seripture of the Original Life of the Northem Dipper, DZ 45). In a yet more abbreviated form it is also found in the ritual text Xiantian doumu zougao xuanke (DZ 1452, 15b). Part five deseribes the stars of the Dipper, giving their eanonieal names and listing their powers (p. 7). Part six outlines the effects of the proper worship of both the Dipper and its Mother, ineluding the delights of ascension to celestial immortality (p. 8). And the last and seventh part coneludes the scripture with a formal prayer and dhärani to the Dipper Mother (p. 9). The manuscript goes beyond the Doumu jing in the Daoist canon by providing a third part, a concluding encomium for the goddess. This has four short sections, beginning with a paragraph of praise, which notes that "her majestic radiance is glorious and grand, her wondrous appearance full and strong" (p. 10). Then there is an invocation, which calls upon her by eight different titles (p. 11). These two seetions also appear in the ritual text Xiantian doumu zougao xuanke as part of the petition to the goddess (l2a). Next follows a note on the proper conclusion of the text's reeitation, whieh in turn leads to the final mantra Dm, Marfcf swäha (p. 11). The text as a whole eontains instruetions on the proper recitation and empowennent of the text, several effieacious prayers and invocations of the goddess, as weIl as mythical information on her deeds and celestial stature. It is a comprehensive and integrated work that, especiaIly with the vivid illustration in the beginning, provides a strong and lively presentation of the goddess and the ways ofher worship.

The Dipper The Northem Dipper is a major in the northem sky, 10cated elose to the Northstar that has served travellers for centuries as a elear

155

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn indicator of direction. It is prominent as a heavenly guide and appears in the mythology of many peoples, i.e., as the Great Bear among the ancient Israelites, Arabs, and Romans, and as the Great Chariot among the Greeks. 7 Also known as fera major or the "great beast," its main story in Western mythology is associated with the nymphe Callisto, a daughter of Lycaon and princess of the Greek state of Arcadia. Serving in the entourage of Artemis, the goddess of the hunt, she attracted the lustful attentions of Zeus who appeared to her in the shape of Artemis. When Callisto turned up pregnant, Zeus's wife Hera took revenge by having her pulled apart by the hair, then transformed into a big, ugly bear, and banished into the sky. This, then, is the Great Bear of the ancients, a female deity at heart. g The Chinese have seen the same constellation less as an animal and more as a vehicle or device. Sima Qian 5] .~ l! in his Shiji!i:. ~c.(Historical Records, dat. 104 B.C.E.) notes that

the Dipper is the carriage of the emperor; it is placed in the center, ... govems the four cardinal points, separates the yin and the yang, and deterrnines the four seasons. 1t balances the five agents, arranges the divisions [of time] and the levels Iof space), and sets the various measures 9

Similarly other early sources, and notably also the apocrypha of the , describe the Dipper as part ofthe entourage and governing mechanism of the Celestial Sovereign (Tianhuang 7:.. !), who resides in the center of the sky and mIes all from bis palace of Purple Tenuity (Ziwei '* {It), often also simply called the Purple Palace (Zigong 'Jk '3).10 In human beings, this palace is located in the heart, the center of the human body. 11 The color purple represents the heightened and intensified dimension of yellow, the symbolic color of the center. Purple is a symbol of unlimited

7 Benhamouda 1972, p. 52-53.

8lbidem, p. 53.

9 Robinet 1989, p. 178; 1993, p. 212.

10 See Hirohata 1965. p. 38; Yanagizawa 1967.

11 * {I' =f (Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplieity, DZ 1085), eh. 18; see Ware 1966, p. 302.

156

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper power, totality, unity, and the return to the cosmic Dao, and as such considered highly sacred. It was worn only by the highest aristocrats in ancient times. 12 A combination of black (great yin) and scarlet (great yang) in the palace of the center (yellow), it is created as an empowering and salvific color and represents the dynamic, yang aspect of the center, while yellow is its passive, yin dimension. 13 In medieval Daoism, the Dipper was especially important in the practices of the Highest Clarity (Shangqing L ~) school. Here it was seen as an embodiment of the central powers of the universe which governed the human life span and afterlife, serving especially as the agency that would eradicate an adept's name from the registers of death and enter it into the ledgers of life. 14 Playing such an important role, the Dipper was invoked for protection, visualized to descend into the adept's body for inner illumination, and used as a celestial set of stepping stones in an ecstatic excursion to the heavens. Protection through the Dipper was achieved through invoking the names of its stars and by visualizing them descend and arrange themselves surrounding the adept. 15 Making the Dipper shine brightly in one's body was reached by seeing its stars enter into one's three cinnabar fields. Traveling ecstatically to the Dipper involved a practice known as "pacing the net" (-}Y" 1E),16 during which adepts visualized themselves traveling among the stars in a set rhythm of steps, which corresponded to the "three primordial energies and nine stars" and reenacted "the union of ."I7 A formal ritual accompanied by the burning of , incantation of scriptures, and application of talismans, this practice was a powerful way for adepts to achieve a sense of celestial presence and reality. They visited each single star of the Dipper, and there rested in its central palace, made from the essence of water and lapis lazuli, enjoying its luxurious

12 Porkert 1961, pp. 439-40.

13 Porkert 1961, p. 441. Seeing the color purple is also an essential aid in visualizing the Dipper in Daoist practice. This is made clear in the Jiuzhen shengxuan shangji JL !f. 11- E ~ ~G (Highest Record of Ascension to the Mystery Through the Nine Perfected, DZ 1351), 3a-4a.

14 Robinet 1993, p. 201.

15 Robinet 1989, p. 175; 1993, p. 205.

16 On this practice, see Andersen 1990.

17 Robinet 1989, p. 176; 1993, p. 210.

157

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn

s

1 Yang Brightness 2 Yin Essence 3 True One 4 Mystery Darkness 5 Cinnabar Prime 6 North Culmen 7 Heavenly Pass

Fig. 3 - The stars of the Dipper

158

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access DOU11lu: /he /her of the Dipper tree, full of colorful fmit and gilded birds, as weIl as the variety of supernatural plants, which granted life spans of thousands of years. 18 According to ancient Western and modern astronomy, there are seven stars in the Dipper, but the Daoists know nine, including two invisible ones, known as Fu fiIi [Sustainer] and Bi ~ [Equalizer]. The seven stars, in called the Seven Primes (qiyuan-l:; ft), divide into two groups, four that form the carriage or bowl of the Dipper (or torso and legs of the bear), and three that form its axle (or the neck and head ofthe bear; see Fig. 3). The two additional stars, possibly identified as two of several asterisms in the immediate neighborhood of the Dipper, 19 are said to be loeated near its main opening, guardian figures that wateh over the constellation. Creating a group known as the Nine Perfeeted (jiuzhen ;fL ~), the two stars are eommonly added to the bottom of the list in medieval sourees, known by different names in astronomie and Daoist texts. In works assoeiated with the Dipper Mother and with Yuan- and Ming-dynasty Dipper myths, however, these two are described as the secondary emanations of the two leading stars of the Nine Perfeeted, the first two sons of the Dipper Mother, who are the mler of the universe and central agency of all aetivities. They eome first and take primary rank among the group. Called Celestial Sovereign and Purple Tenuity, they are two figures or constellations that were originally quite separate from the Dipper, serving as mlers of heaven and later in the funetion of arbiters of destiny.20 In addition, the basie seven stars in the later text have completely different names (see Table I).

TABLE 1 NAMES OF TRE STARS OF TRE DIPPER21

18 Robinet 1989, p. 175; 1993, p. 205.

19 See Benhamouda 1972, p. 56.

20 Noguchi et al. 1994, p. 547.

21 For the Arab star names and their explanation, see Benhamouda 1972, p. 54-56; For the Chinese names, both astronomical and Daoist, see Schafer 1977, p. 51. The star names found first in Doumu-related texts reappear in the , in materials on Fengshui and fortune­ telling. Here the stars with the more auspicious names signal bad fortune, while those with rather unpleasant appellations indicate a good turn. See Field 1999,21-22. On the role and importance ofthe two ell.1ra stars Fu and Bi, see Robinet 1989, p. 172; 1993, p. 202; Yüsa 1983, p. 334.

159

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn

No. Arab Astronomie Daoist Doumu texts Cel. Sovereign Purple Tenuity 1 Dubhe Heavenly Pivot Yang Brightness Greedy Wolf 2 Merak Heavenly Cog Yin Essence Wide Gate 3 Phecda Heavenly Annillary Perfected Person Prosperous Life 4 Megrez Heavenly Beam Mystery Darkness Literary Song 5 Alioth Jade Transverse Supreme Prime Pure Modesty 6 Mizar Disclosed Yang North Culmen Martial Song 7 Alcaid Wavering Light Heavenly Pass Ruined Army 8 Grotto Brightness Sustainer Sustainer 9 Hidden Prime Equalizer Equalizer

This new development in the understanding of the Dipper is related to an overall increase in its worship and the veneration of its powers. One indication of this increase is the appearance, in the tenth century, of a set of six new texts that present talismans and invocations of the Dippers of the five directions. 22 The texts divide according to geographical direction into materials concerning the Northern (DZ 622, 623), Southern (DZ 624), Eastern (DZ 625), Western (DZ 626), and Central Dipper (DZ 627). Claimed to go back to a second major revelation by Lord Lao to the first Celestial Master * :it F~in 155 C.E., after he had already received the Covenant of Highest Unity jE - .I in 142. In contents, they outline devotional measures of protection involving scriptural recitation and fonnal rites for the Dippers, preferably undertaken on onels birthday, at new moon, or on generally auspicious days. For example:

To recite this scripture, you must first develop utmost sincerity and purify your mind. Then, facing east, elap your teeth and pay reverence in your heart. Kneeling, elose your eyes and visualize the gods [of the Eastem Dipper] as if you physically saw the limitless realm of the east. Mysterious numinous forces, imperial lords, realized perfected, and great sages-a countless host

22 See Yüsa 1983, p. 334. A Southem Dipper counterpart was already known in the , when Shangqing practitioners invoked the Southem Palace as the location of the ledgers oflife. See Noguchi et al. 1994, p. 548.

160

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother ofthe Dipper

lines up before you. Looking at them will help you overcome days of disaster. (DZ 625, 2bi3

In addition, the texts provide talismans to swnmon the divine officers of the Dipper to protect life and help in difficulties, assuring the faithful that the perfected will respond immediately and grant a life "as long as the Dao itself' (DZ 624, 5a). The talismans are used in the presentation of petitions to the Dipper and contain the power to make its lords respond. Today, the scripture to the Northem Dipper (Beidou jing ~t -+ #~) is among the central texts chanted during so-called Dipper Festivals (lidoufahui ft -+ A; i") at popular in , which last three to five days and serve to ensure good fortulle?4 In aseparate development, the Daoist texts also inspired the creation of a Buddhist Beidou jing, which survives in Chinese, Uighur, Mongolian, and Tibetan versions, and several other sutras on "rites and recitations for the Northem Dipper" that are associated with the eighth-century Tantric masters Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra but do in fact go back to the Yuan dynasty (T. 1307; 21.25b-26b). They were created in the 1380's after the general persecution of Daoist texts, which left a gap of efficacious scriptures and talismans, duly filled by Daoist materials reappearing in Buddhist guise. 25 Around the same time, Dipper worship also made its way into , where it became popular as part of Yoshida Shintö. 26 The development of the Doumu jing and the origin myth of the Dipper can be placed in this same context, i.e., of the increased popularity of the Dipper as the horne of a group of powerful, protective deities and of the banishment of purely Daoist materials, which may also have encouraged the adoption of the Tibetan bodhisattva MarlcI as the encompassing goddess of the Dipper.

23 Kohn 1998a, p. 98.

:4 See Matsumoto 1997. The text is also recited on a regular basis at jiaa ~ ceremonies in . See Matsumoto 1983, p. 203.

25 Franke 1990, p. 110.

26 See Sakade and Masuo 1991. Over the following centuries, the belief in the nine stars of the Dipper spread further in Asia, so that today it is present even in . See Yusa 1983, p. 334. There is even atempie to Doumu. See Harada 1979, p. 8.

161

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn and Doumu Mariei is the goddess of dawn and of light. She is a later version of the goddess Usha of the Aryans in aneient India, who also appears as Aurora, the goddess of dawn, among the Greeks. 27 Although of Indian origin, she plays only a minor role in today, but appears in Tibetan Buddhism as an aeolyte of the Green , the female counterpart or shakti power of Buddha, and most popularly of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Mariei is plaeed to her right and ealled Asokakäntä.28 She is depicted as sitting on a lotus flower, with a third eye, three heads, and eight arms. Her Tibetan name is Hod-zer-ean-ma, whieh means "the resplendent" and refers to her symbolie representation of dawn and the light of universe. 29 A variant name of the goddess is Vajravarähi, whieh translates as '"dianlOnd sow" and refers to MaricI's dose relationship to the . The left of her three heads in her depietion as an aeolyte of Tara, for example, is that of a pig. Another, more popular representation of the goddess has her riding on a sow, in addition to having three heads and eight arms and sitting on a lotus throne (see Fig. 4).30 Then again, she is seen as riding in a ehariot drawn by seven pigs, whieh may be a variant of a more aneient image of the goddess that had her related to seven bears rather than boars and thus to the stars of the Dipper. The most aneient depictions of the goddess, moreover, have her in association with a creature that "resembles no animal in partieular.,,31 The two dominant eharaeteristics of Mariei in Tibetan Buddhism, then, are her assoeiation with light and radianee and her link with seven lesser animals, most commonly identified as pigs. Both eharacteristies earry over directly into the Daoist goddess Doumu who in addition is charaeterized as the savior and healer of the world. This eharaeterization is emphasized in the beginning of the Doumu jing, whieh notes that the Highest Celestial Mother of Mystery Prime, the great sage Marici, is an Indian goddess who serves as the teaeher of dhamla kings, controls the light and order of the world, and has an anllY of

27 Getty 1962, p. 133; WaddellI972, p. 361.

28 Grünwedel 1900, p. 142; Getty 1962, p. 133,

29 Grünwedel1900, p, 145; WaddellI972, p, 361.

30 WaddellI972, p, 362; Noguchi et aL 1994, p, 471.

31 Getty 1962, p, 133,

162

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother 0/ the Dipper celestial generals at her disposal whom she dispatches to bring help and relief to people. Here Marici is elevated from the female shakti power of a bodhisattva and mler of light to the mother and healer of the universe, carrying not only her traditional attributes but also those of the Dipper as the mler of fates and controller of universal order and those of the great Mother Goddess who gives birth and grants salvation to all. 32 This is reflected also in the many titles she is addressed with, in the powers attributed to her, and in the description of her celestial splendor. In addition, her wlique stature not only as the Mother of the Dipper, but as a powerful bodhisattva and savior is illustrated in the myth that teIls of how she gave birth to the Dipper. The clearest and most extensive version of the myth is told in the Beidou bensheng zhenjing (DZ 45).33 The text begins with a description of the splendor of Primordial Beginning, the creator deity of Dao, who then grants a celestial audience to an assembly of perfected. He is duly asked about the origin of the Dipper and its powers and gives the following sermon in response.

Exeellent, this question ofyours! In the old days, during the kalpa Dragon Han ~ß i., there was a Ioeal king by the name of Zhou Yu%l 1;tp. His sagely virtue was without bounds and his time among people amounted to 84,000 great kalpas. The king had a preeious consort who was bright and perceptive, eompassionate and wise. Her name was Lady of Purpie Radiance f: 7t j( A. She had sworn that if ever born in the world of grime, she would follow an ultimate vow. This vow

32 Even in her Tibetan version, she comes to the rescue of suffering humanity as is documented in the story of the monastery of Semding, whose inhabitants were transformed into pigs to save them from the raids ofthe Mongoi warrior Dzun-gar. See Getty 1962, p. 132-33. 33. On the text, see Ren and Zhong 1991, p. 38-39. 34. On the relation ofwater, the female, and goddesses in traditional China, see Schafer 1973. On supernatural birth myth in China, see Kaltenmark 1980, p. 39-45. For comparative birth myths in other cultures, see Biallas 1986. Even in her Tibetan version, she comes to the rescue ofsuffering humanity as is documented in the story of the monastery of Semding, whose inhabitants were transformed into pigs to save them from the raids ofthe Mongoi warrior Dzun-gar. See Getty 1962, pp. 132-33.

33 On the text, see Ren and Zhong 1991, pp. 38-39.

163

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn celestial generals at her disposal whom she dispatches to bring help and relief to people. Here MaricT is elevated from the female shakti power of a bodhisattva and mier of light to the mother and healer of the Wliverse, carrying not onIy her traditional attributes but also those of the Dipper as the mler of fates and controller of Wliversal order and those of the great Mother Goddess who gives birth and grants salvation to alL 32 This is reflected also in the many titles she is addressed with, in the powers attributed to her, and in the description of her celestial splendor. In addition, her Wlique stature not only as the Mother of the Dipper, but as a powerful bodhisattva and savior is illustrated in the myth that teIls of how she gave birth to the Dipper. The clearest and most extensive version of the myth is told in the Beidou bensheng zhenjing (DZ 45).33 The text begins with a description of the splendor of Primordial Begimling, the creator deity of Dao, who then grants a celestial audience to an assembly of perfected. He is duly asked about the origin of the Dipper and its powers and gives the following sermon in response.

Excellent, this question ofymITs! In the old days, during the kalpa Dragon Han ~~ il, there was a local king by the name of Zhou Yu %l ;jjp. His sagely virtue was without bounds and his time among people amounted to 84,000 great kalpas. The king had a precious consort who was bright and perceptive, compassionate and wise. Her name was Lady of Purple Radiance * 7\:; f::. A. She had sworn that if ever born in the world of grime, she would follow an ultimate vow. This vow

32 Even in her Tibetan version, she comes to the rescue of sufIering humanity as is documented in the story of the monastery of Sem ding, whose inhabitants were transformed into pigs to save them from the raids ofthe Mongoi warrior Dzun-gar. See Getty 1962, p. 132-33. 33. On the text, see Ren and Zhong 1991, p. 38-39. 34. On the relation ofwater, the female, and goddesses in traditional China, see Schafer 1973. On supematural birth myth in China, see Kaltenmark 1980, p. 39-45. For comparative birth myths in other cultures, see Biallas 1986. Even in her Tibetan version, she comes to the rescue of sufIering humanity as is documented in the story of the monastery of Semding, whose inhabitants were transformed into pigs to save them from the raids ofthe Mongoi warrior Dzun-gar. See Getty 1962, pp. 132-33.

33 On the text, see Ren and Zhong 1991, pp. 38-39.

164

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper contentment in this life," and after death they will "transcend all and be born in the perfect heaven ofGreat Brahma" (3ab). The myth is retold in an abbreviated and occasionally cryptic form in the Doumu jing, suggesting that readers were expected to be fanliliar with the longer story and thus that the Doumu jing was composed later than the Beidou bensheng jingo It can be divided into four phases or segments: (1) an initial vow of the goddess to give birth to a group of sons to aid in ruling the universe; (2) her birth on earth as Lady of Purple Radiance (a tide that again reflects her association with heaven and the sacred power of the center) and her enjoyment of the cool waters of the Flowery Pond; (3) her impregnation by nine lotus flowers and subsequent birth of the nine sons, the two senior rulers and the seven essential powers (both good and evil); and (4) her establishment of the nine sons as celestial lords in the palaces of Purple Tenuity above and their empowerment as rulers of the world and of human fate. The version in the Doumujing, moreover, adds that the stars, once established in heaven, brought forth a sacred speIl or dhärani, which created the gods and thus the personified rulers of the nine stars. Both the beginning and the end of the myth, therefore, rest with the power of the sacred word, first the vow of the goddess, then the dhärani of the sons. In between there is movement back and forth, first adescent of the goddess from heaven to earth and into the body of the Lady of Purple Radiance, then an ascent back to heaven and a transformation of the sons into celestial rulers. The central focus ofthe story is the birth proper, which is characterized by the conception in a pond and through nine lotus flowers, indicating a strong water symbolism associated with the female and with the stars-both the goddess herself (in the Doumu jing) and the stars in general (in traditional literature) are said to be the essence of water (shuijing *- ~ )-and suggesting supernatural fatherhood, a classical feature in many traditional birth myths.34 Once the sons are born, they are ranked and grouped into the two leaders and the seven stars. The latter in their names are characterized as good or evil and claimed to be responsible for the creation of"the host ofhuman emotions," a statement that echoes the notion expressed in the Doumu jing that the Dipper is closely related to the po ~ soul in human beings, the more instinctive,

34 On the relation of water, the female, and goddesses in traditional China, see Schafer 1973. On supernatural birth myth in China, see Kaltenmark 1980, pp. 39-45. For comparative birth myths in other cultures, see Biallas 1986.

165

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn materially oriented, and baser dimension of life (as opposed to the hun i1 or more spiritual soul). The text notes that the seven stars of the Dipper match the seven openings in people's faces (eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth), saying that "through the openings the stars resonate immediately with people's minds within. Also because of them the human po soul consists of seven perfected members; it is because the po soul is received directly from the Dipper" (p. 5). Typically the po soul is described as a negative influence in people's lives, one that causes them to be lascivious and evil, stingy and greedy, jealous and full of envy, always hankering after luxury and ease. 35 However, judging by the names of the seven stars in the Doumu jing, the po soul is here understood as a more open force, one that can be both negative and positive. Some star names reflect the harmful tendencies, such as Greedy Wolf and Ruined Anny. But then there are also positive appellations, such as Prosperous Life and Pure Modesty. Rather than just a negative and violent influence on life, the seven members of the po soul as represented in the Dipper thus show the full gamut of emotional and instinctive reactions to life. 36 Pacifying and harmonizing them, in turn, with the help of the Dipper Mother will create a higher dimension of peace and wellbeing, a balance of the emotions, and thus the potential for spiritual cultivation.

Ritual Activation This cultivation, then, takes place in a formally ritualized setting, which can be either personal and individual or public and communal. As regards the personal and individual ritual, the Dipper and its mother are activated by focusing on the nine yin or female powers, potent partners of the nine lords of the DippeL These deities and their accompanying ritual practice are described in the Jiuzhen dijun jiuyin jing ;fL JJ, * ;t ;fL Ili #.~ (Scripture of the Nine Yin [Powers] of the Nine Perfected Imperial Lords [of the Dipper)), a text

JS See the sanshijiuchong baoshengjing Jlt. .::. F :fL Ii 1* 1. !~ (Scripture of How to Preserve Life by Expelling the Three Corpses and Nine Worrns, DZ 871), a ninth-century text that focuses on a description ofthe various souls and other inner forces.

J~ This more positive evaluation of the po soul is also reflected in the fact that the Dipper is described as the po soul of the goddess (p. 4).

166

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother 01 the Dipper

Fig. 4 - The Tibetan bodhisattva MarIeT depicted as riding on a sow

167

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn cited in chapter 31 ofthe fun}t qtqtan ~ & -t I. (Seven Tablets in a Cloudy Satchel), which dates from the early (c. 1023).37 According to this, adepts who wish to attain higher powers of immortality, such as invisibility, multilocation, free travel through the cosmos, and control over spirits and demons, must cultivate the inner, female forces of the Dipper. The text then lists them one by one, giving their location (palace), rank, name, appellation, and the garb they typically wear. For example:

In the third star, there is the Palace of Perfect Prime. In this palace resides an imperial lady who controls the six dun i\ il [gods of time] and the seven yin -t!li [powers]. She is the Cinnabar Mother ofHighest Prime. Her name is Emptiness and Inaudibility of the Great One, her appellation is Sign of Central TransfOImation. She wears a cape of green brocade over an embroidered feathery, flying skirt of flowery pattern, and has her top knot in the design "whirlwind cJouds." ... In the eighth star, there is the Palace of the Imperial Seat. In this palace resides an imperial lady who transforms the sun, the moon, water, and fire. She is the Lofty and Sovereign Dipper Lady to the Left. Her name is Gern and Pearl of the Great One, her appellation is Falling Blossom. She wears a cape of purple brocade over an embroidered feathery, flying skirt of cinnabar color, and has her top knot in the design "whirlwind clouds." (3l.l Ob, 11 b)

Each of the nine goddesses has a rank either of mother (mu f,J:), lady (foren ~ A.), consort (Jet ~c.), or daughter (nü -9:). They each have different powers to convey and each wear formal garb of a different color, while sporting the same hair style of"whirlwind clouds." After concluding the (rather repetitive) description, the text goes on to say that practitioners in their efforts at reciting the goddesses' names should only focus on "their position, title, names, and appellations, and should not actually pronounce the style of their capes, skirts, and hairdo" (11 b), which are listed as

37 The text is also listed as contained in the Daoist canon, but was lost therein. It is later supplemented by interpretative works, now contained in the jiyao ~ " ~ J.. The nine goddesses are mentioned in Robinet 1989, p. 172; 1993, p. 205; Schafer 1977, p. 138.

168

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper aids to visualization and do not belong to the efficacious incantation. This visualization in turn forms an essential part of the ritual, which begins (after proper purification) with entering a pure chamber, burning incense, lying down on one's back, and closing one's eyes. One then first visualizes the nine lords of the Dipper in the Purple Chamber (Zifang 'Jl{ %) of the Great Ultimate ( * ;f!), located both in the stars and in the center of one's head. Then one envisions the Great One and its five attendant gods (of the five phases) in the six hannonies surrounding the Great Ultimate. After placing the stars of the Dipper in the heart for proper illumination, one focuses on the nine goddesses appearing in the Hall of Light (Mingtang B)j :t), a head cavity located about on inch inside on the level ofthe point between the eyebrows. One by one, beginning with the goddesses and moving on the Great One, the deities are then taken from their various locations and moved up and into the Purple Chamber, where they stand at attention before the Nine Lords. Then the entire assembly is transformed into one single figure, which in turn changes into the shape of a newly born infant with the name "Lad of Impermanence" (Wuchang tongzi $ 1{; i -f). In his hand, he grasps the nine stars of the Dipper, on bis head he wears the sun, in bis mouth he holds the moon. Using the combined radiance of these key celestial bodies, the Lad then irradiates and illuminates the entire body of the adept. Feeling that everything in and around him becomes bright red and submerged in fire, the adept no longer has any awareness of where his body begins and ends or what and who he iso This is the state when he attains complete oneness with the lords and goddesses of the universe. He stays in this state for a prolonged period, then emerges to clap bis teeth twenty-four times, swallow the saliva nine times, and chant a laudatory incantation (31.12a-I3a). The ritual of activating the nine yin powers or shaktis of the Dipper lords can be seen as areversal of the myth of the birth of the Dipper through Doumu. One single figure in the beginning, she emerges from the purple center and cosmic potentiality of the Dao, then diversifies by giving birth to nine sons who manifest themselves as celestial rulers in the stars and as various emotional drives in human beings. The ritual, in areverse process, begins with the multiplicity of human emotions and a large number of different gods and goddesses, then joins them in the central "purpie" chamber in the head, to eventually merge them into one single figure. This figure (like the goddess) stands at the root of creation, representing the most basic principle of the universe, i.e., continuous change or impermanence. At the end of the ritual, it

169

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn penneates and irradiates the entire being of the adept, creating an inner state that matches the flowing nothingness of the cosmic prinlordiality from which the goddess first arose. The oneness with the cosmic principle attained in the ritual can therefore be seen as a way of recovering the creative potential at the beginning of time and, by extension, as an activation of the goddess and her powers within the individual. Two texts in the Daoist canon describe more commWlal and public rituals involving the Dipper Mother. The first is the Beidou ershiba zhangjing ~t. 4- :::.. + /\. =- M~ (Scripture of the Twenty-eight Stanzas of the Northern Dipper, DZ 629), of Yuan-dynasty origin. 38 The bulk of this text focuses on rites for protection and long life perfonned to the stars of the Dipper ön the first nine days of the ninth mondl, when the registers of life and death, good and bad fortune are updated above. It presents a mythical setting for the creation of these rites by telling the story of their revelation by the Dipper Mother to Emperor Ming of the Han j~ BJl ~ -in imitation of both the story of the first official notice of Buddhism in China and of the revelation of the Dao by Heshang gong )PT L 0. It was under the Han emperor Ming in 50 c.E. that Buddhism was first officially recognized in China. The story goes that the emperor dreamt of a great sage arising in a golden fonn and appearing to him with benevolence, a sign that was interpreted by his courtiers as referring to the arising of Buddhism in the west. 39 The revelation of the Dao by Heshang gong, the Master on the River, involves his encoWlter with Emperor Wen, who sets out to learn the Dao and upon meeting the sage reprimands hirn for not paying proper respects. Heshang gong then gives a demonstration of his supernatural powers by rising up into the air, and the emperor sinks to the groWld and apologizes, becoming his eager student.40 The DOunlU story told in the Beidou ershiba zhang jing is a mixture of these two. Emperor Ming of the Han wanders about in the Zhongnan mountains .*'~ lW t.L when he sees

38 On the tell.1, see Ren and Zhong 1991, p. 453.

39 See Zürcher 1959, p. 22.

40 See Chan 1991, p. 91; Kohn 1992, p. 63.

170

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother ofthe Dipper a woman clad entirely in a plain robe sitting upright on a rock with disheveled hair and bare feet. He approached her, but she did not rise. The emperor said: "I am the mler of all the people under Heaven. What kind of person are you that you meet your mler and fail to pay respects?" The woman answered: "I am the carriage minister of the of Brilliant Heaven, the star that controls the seven primes of the Northem Culmen. What kind of person are you that you try to teach me to perform obeisance?" (la)

The emperor duly recognizes her as a celestial goddess and , asking her to "graciously transmit a perfected formula that will help me cultivate my body and destiny" (1a). He then approaches more cIosely and sees her for the numinous power she truly is, noticing that "a cIoudy haze surrounded her head and her body and feet were shimmering in multicolored light. Her auspicious energy being hovered about five feet in midair, with seven sages resting above her and two officials standing at her. back" (l b). She then explains that she is not one single entity, but in fact consists of seven personages plus the two starry officials Fu and Bi, and gives the narnes of the seven stars, which correspond to those given in the Doumu jingo The remainder of the text is taken up by a dialogue between the emperor and the goddess on the nature and powers of the Dipper stars, the correct ways of worshiping them, and the best way to conduct one's life. Between admonitions to stay free from sin, remember the Dao, give up greed and licentiousness, and be moderate in all things, she outlines rites that involve purifications, prayers, petitions, incantations, visualizations, and the activation of talismans (see Fig. 5). The 1110St detailed description of cOlmuullal rites illvolving the Dipper Mother is found in the Xiantian doumu zougao xuanke ~.'k -+ -HJ: * % i: H (Mysterious Rites of Petitioning the Dipper Mother of Fonuer Heaven, DZ 1452), another Yuan-dynasty work. 41 It presents short ritual instructions interspersed in lengthy recitation texts and describes an elaborate ritual sequence that can be described as consisting of eight parts.

41 So dated in Ren and Zhong 1991, p. 1149.

171

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn First, there is the Introit, when the incense burner is brought in, the altar is purified, the celebrants and officiating priest enter the sacred precinct, and a dedicatory prayer is chanted (lab). Next, during the Announcement, the priest bows several times and oifers a fonnal invitation to the goddess and her extensive entourage, including also numerous heavenly emperors, immortals and sages as well as dragons and phoenixes, to descend and participate in the ritual. Incense and a talisman are burned, flowers are scattered (2a-4a). Third, the Invocation praises the gods on high and calls particularly upon the stars of the Dipper to accept the invitation and take part in the rite. Several talismans are burned (4b-7b). The fourth step in the ritual is the Lighting of the Lamps of the Dipper, both on the altar and in the heart/mind of the priest. This signifies the gods' descent into the sacred area. They are invoked to take away sickness and misfortune, bring the dead back to life, destroy specters and evil spirits, and give peace to all. As the lamps shine forth, so the bodies of the celebrants are illwninated. An oifering is made, incense is burned, the priest bows repeatedly (8ab). Fifth, a Memorial is dispatched to the Dipper Mother, addressed with numerous elaborate titles (including her Indian name MarieT), in which she is praised as controlling the Seven Primes, governing thunder and lightning, radiating a light brighter than the sun and the moon, and asked to descend to the altar to liberate all from sickness and affiictions, dissolve evil and bad fortune, and bring happiness throughout. A cloud of purple radiance is burned to establish communication with her, the entire congregation chants an invocation in her honor, then the priest in silent communion visualizes her descent (9a-lla). This descent is fully activated in the sixth section of the ritual sequence, when the priest chants aseries of holy Dhärani (in secret braluna language), moving to the left and right and raising alternate hands (lla-12a). The seventh part is tlIe central focus of the ritual, the Petition to the goddess, now present in the holy community. She is praised extensively (using phrases also found in the beginning and end of the Doumu jing manuscript) and the story of her life is retold in abbreviated fashion. Next she is asked to eradicate all sins, take the celebrants' names from the registers of the dead and transfer them into the ledgers of life, rectify yin and yang, steady the cosmic order, and generally give health, longevity, prosperity, and happiness to all. At regular intervals during the recitation of the petition, flowers are scattered and the priest bows to the goddess (l2a-16b). The ritual concludes with the priest

172

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper

Fig. 5 - The perfected talisman of the Dipper that saves from drowning during travels as presented in the Beidou ershiba zhang jing

173

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn pacing the heavenly net and issuing a fonnal Mandate, a ceiestial order which activates a messenger who delivers the petition to its proper place in the ceiestial realm. It is thereby fully Iegalized and now carries the weight of divine power. A five-colored talisman is offered for protection, and the goddess, the seven stars, and the assembled celestial entourage are sent back to their heavenly hornes. Universal order is now in renewed harmony and great good fortune has been attained (l7a-18b). In both fonns of rituals involving the goddesses of the Dipper, the goal is the attainment ofharmony, either within the self or in the entire universe. The central powers of the Dipper are seen focused in its female counterparts and activated through them. They become vibrantly present to the practitioner in visualization and ritual communication, and empower him with their divine light, irradiating the entire body and self and dissolving sins and ego-focused problems. As the adept is filied with the power of the Dipper consorts or the Dipper Mother, his or her own fate is made whole and raised to the level of the immortals, while the world benefits from great blessings and universal good fortune.

Conclusion The Mother of the Dipper is a powerful mother goddess of late imperial China, who appears first in the Yuan dynasty, then flourishes in the succeeding periods, and is still highly popular today. Her main scripture, the Doumu jing, is extant both in the Daoist canon of 1445 and in a manuscript dated to 1439. It is closely connected to a cluster of related texts, a retelling of the myth of the origin of the Dipper, a revelation of Dipper rites to a Han emperor, and an extensive liturgy dedicated solely to the Dipper Mother. All these texts have in common that they change the established names of the Dipper stars and add the two stars Heavenly Sovereign and Purple Tenuity to the group of Dipper gods. These two stars were originally the rulers of heaven and, although located in the northern finnament, not part of the Dipper constellation. Through their integration, the Dipper becomes an even more powerful force, being raised from the carriage and executive office of the celestial rulers to their proper residence and horne. The seven stars, as also expressed in their new names, are appropriately demoted to a more secondary position. Instead of powerful rulers of fate and protective deities, they are now the representatives of various emotional forces within people, forces that can be controlled and/or developed

174

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper with the help of the gods. In addition to this shift in the understanding of the Dipper, the establishment of a female deity as their integrative power, their mother goddess, causes it-and with it the two central rulers of heaven-to be seen as emanations of the original goddess, secondary to a female power which creates and ultimate governs all. While the trend in Dipper worship can be observed already in the Song dynasty, the tendency to establish a mother or other female goddess at the center of the universe or as the main savior of humanity is a Yuan and Ming dynasty phenomenon. The rise of the Dipper Mother is closely related to this tendency. In addition, the various texts associated with her can be dated to after 1281, when the Mongoi rulers issued a strict and radical proscription of Daoist texts and worship. At this time, originally Daoist materials, such as the "Scripture of the Northern Dipper," were recast in a Buddhist framework to avoid persecution. The new Dipper texts, too, did not only relate the powers of the stars to a female deity, but also identified this deity with the Tibetan goddess and bodhisattva Marici, thus giving the Daoist belief a Buddhist cover. It is telling, too, that the Ming dynasty manuscript-unlike the text transmitted in the Daoist canon-both begins and ends with clear references to the Tibetan goddess, emphasizing that the work is ultimately about a Buddhist and not a Daoist figure. Plus, of course, the text was placed in a Buddha statue and there served to aid the donor's ancestors in attaining salvation and residence in a pure land. The figure of the Mother of the Dipper then testifies once again to the intense and continued close interaction of Buddhist and Daoist materials, which can be observed from the fifth century onward and does not cease even in the Ming dynasty. It is fostered by proscriptions and government policies, but they alone do not explain its pervasiveness. It rather seems that, as in the middle ages so in later years, the most efficacious deities were worshiped by believers of aB traditions, venerated more for their powers and their celestial stature than for their rank in one or the other religious school. The Doumu jing, then, when chanted with the proper purification and in the proper ritual setting, regardless of the religious affiliation of its practitioner, has the same powers, bringing the unlimited goodness and primordial potentiality of the Dao and of Buddha to humanity. The Dipper Mother, both shakti to the Buddha as Marici and mother of the Dao as Doumu, emerges as a potent and ever present goddess, a supporting and saving mother to all.

175

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn

176

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother oi the Dipper

177

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn

178

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother 0/ the Dipper

179

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn

~ lit.;ft.. J:.. tff' -:k" ~1 ~ ~ 0 -K- ~ ~ 3&jJ:~~;f[.... , ~ ~ ~~tF ~ ~ 4- ~~ ~'jfJ '* ~ -10: ~ ~ *- ~~7j(. ~ l Xl ~~~ ~ ...;H-- J~~~~* 1±- ...... 'Q €J )~)1t~ J2..

-+ iN 0 A -'P~ ~ ~ ~~* ! ± * :itP:Jf ~ -f.lf. ~\:::..... Ji- At;&-1t-it--=.. ft ~ " -T- 7f}o

180

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother oj the Dipper

~ -aJJ ,~ ~ ", ;/' ~ g~ ~ ~J? ~ ßJ1 Q:Q ~ ..- ~ vAl"" Jf- ~ .. tJDk.'o~~ · > :/ ~., !J -iJJ -t:" ~!trffv{ a ""Y®'!/f.:/

..~. t:p @J ~

181

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn

TRANSLATION

HEART SCRIPTURE OF ORIGINAL DESTINY AND EXTENDING LIFE OF THE GREAT SAGELY GODDESS DIPPER MOTHER

[1]42 Every time you recite this seripture fIrst purify yourself and observe the preeepts, don formal garb and headdress, ealm your mind, settle your life­ force, clap your teeth, and loosen your vocal cords. Then only can you chant it distinctly. Be careful never to take the scripture lightly or be lax about the chanting, engaging in chatter or conversation in between. It is your duty at this time to be extremely reverential, so fully concentrate on your task without fail. Then all your prayers for long life and blessings will naturally be answered in duc response. [2] With all my heart, I take refuge and bOW. 43 In the western COWltry of India, in the radianee of great wisdom, resides thc Highest Celestial Mother of Mystery Prime, the teacher of the dharma kings of perfeet emptiness and wondrous appearanec. Where her golden brillianee shines forth, even the sun and moon eoneeal their brightness; when her jeweled baton beats the time, even the gods and demons give up their fonn. Her radiant nwninosity leaves its traces all throughout the world of dust; her proteetive sageliness extendes through all the land of the Jambu tree [the world]. If anyone among living beings ealls out her name in sorrow and distress, she will send forth her great generals to investigate where the sound comes from and bring prompt relief. Great is her compassion! Great her vows! Immense is her sageliness! Immense her mercy! She is the queen of heaven, full of sagely virtue and of irnmeasurable brilliance. She is the great sage Molizhi [MarleT]!

Mysterious and Wonderful Incantation for Opening the Scripture Serene and tranquil, the ancestor of ultima te nonbeing, Empty and distant, for kalpas together,44

42 The page numbers ofthe manuscript are provided in brackets.

43 The following section, up to but not including the "Incantation," is also found in the Doumu ritual as documented in the Xianlian doumu zougao xuanke (DZ 1452, 12b). Jt appears here as part of the central petition offered to the goddess.

182

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother 0/ the Dipper

Deep and descending, this text that penetrates the mystery­ Who could fathom its depth and age?

[3] May I enter the path of the Greater Vehicle, And for incalculable years and kalpas, Not take birth nor pass on Wishing for life, may I follow the lotus blassam.

A disciple going beyond the Three Worlds, With compassionate heart, may I move through the web of the world. A perfected of highest virtue, Generation after generation, may I come back as an immortal.

Heart Scripture of Original Destiny and Extending Life of the Great Sage Goddess Dipper Mother of the Highest Mysterious Numen45 [DZ la] Lord Lao said: The Dipper Mother46 is most numinous. In the precious moon that radiates rowldly in the great sky, there are a soaring tree whose color glitters like glass and ajade who pounds and refines the great medicine oflong life. 47 Now, there are many times when the circulation of heaven and earth is interrupted or off-course, when the sun, moon, or planets make a wrong move, when rain and sunshine, light and darkness are not timely, when wind and cold, heat and dampness are not in their proper order, when there are oppressions and droughts, floods and fires, epidemics and pestilences, [4] misfortunes and disasters, even armies and weapons, insects 48 and locusts, goblins and sprites,

44 The three last characters of this line are jie dao a. which is presumably a set of sacred syllabies, but which I could not identifY as any known entity or specific dhärani.

45 The central, or scripture, part of the text is also found in the Oaoist canon, OZ 621. Page numbers will be added in brackets with the notation "OZ."

46 The OZ text uses the word for "mother" with the "female" radical jliJ, while the manuscript uses "mother" .fit alone.

47 This description is part ofthe myth about the moon. For a discussion. see Schafer 1977,174-85; Eberhard 1968,9.

48 The OZ has the longer character chong li for "insects," while the manuscript uses hui .cf:..

183

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn demons and monsters, sicknesses and diseases and other injuries to life, when there are contention49 and litigation, opposition and disturbance-when all manner of things are not auspicious. All these situations are due to a disruption of qi. In all cases the Dipper Mother will descend with the great medicine and distribute it evenly in an efIort to remedy and heal. She will adjust and regulate the five phases, raise and lower [the level of] the two qi [yin and yang], dissolve blockages and remove obstructions, destroy darkness and dispei evil. 50 Those who missed their proper time, she will make them meet it; those who lost their salvation, she will help them attain it. She will grant safe pregnancies and deliveries, heal and alleviate illnesses and diseases. She will moisten and fertilize all roots and foundations, open 51 and restore the phases of qi, bring forth and raise people and other beings, and refine and save all ghosts and spirits. [DZ I b] She will dissolve and disperse52 the hundred knots,53 strengthen and supplement the eight yang energies, aid and rectify complete perfection, invite and bring increased blessings. Softly she activates the power of the medicine, serving again and again as everyone's celestial physician. She brings forth the radiance of all moons in the skies; she is the mother of all stars in the Northern Dipper. The Dipper is her po SOUI,54 water is her

49 The DZ has zheng .f instead of zheng W, thus reading "struggles."

50 These are tasks commonly associated with the Northern Dipper. See Kohn 1998a, pp. 97- 100.

51 Substituting yang lIJ for yang /li.

52 Substituting rang ~ for rang 'il.

53 According to Daoist doctrine, people develop inner, embyonic knots which keep them tied to worldly things. They have to be dissolved for the attainment of higher stages and immortality. See Robinet 1993. In Buddhism, the image of the knot is related to the tangles of people create over time. They. too, must be resolved prior to the attainment of salvation.

54 The po soul is the material, or earth-based, soul in human beings, associated with the instinctive and more basic elements of life. It is, as Edward Schafer points out, a constituent of people that comes into being immediately upon birth, preceding the emergence of various other psychological and spiritual forces, such as the more celestial hun soul. Among celestial bodies, the po soul describes the early stage of the waxing moon; among cosmiv forces, it is the initial power that softly arises from the origin; generally, it is a "solitary embryonic Iife-form" (Schafer 1977, 178).

184

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother ofthe Dipper essence. 55 Manifest [in form], she appears in a human body; pure radiance, she coagulates her nature into water. 56 All water forms one moon,57 [5) all moons form one radiance, which he sometimes embues with feelings, sometimes not. She equally endows [the seven Dipper stars] with numinous radiance and the qi of the Dao, one by one letting them take shape and grow to fullness, allowing them to guard and protect all. They represent her profound grace and strong virtue-more than anyone could ever realize. Her embodiment of the seven stars is the reason why people's hearts and faces have seven openings. S8 Through them the stars re sonate immediately with people's minds within. Also, because of them, the [human] po soul consists of seven perfected members,59 it is because the po soul is received directly from the Dipper. The Dipper Mother has the venerable title of Ninefold Numinous and Greatly Wondrous Ancestral Mother Goddess of the Golden Essence of Nightly Radiance of the Turtle Terrace of White Jade. She is also called

55 In Chinese star lore, the stars are the essence or "embryonie state" (or essence) ofwater, the initial bloom of primordial qi; water, vice versa, is the concrete actualization of the stars inherent potentiality. Also, according to the * *f", the essence of water constitutes the moon, while the essence of yin and yang forms the stars (Schafer 1977, 43).

56 The same transformative pattern is also mentioned in the case of Lord Lao. The jing :t f" ~ 1t #! (Scripture of the Transformations of Laozi) describes hirn: "Gone, the primordial; present, a man!" See Kohn 1998b, p. 47.

57 Again, according to Chinese star lore, the moon-with its elear relation to the tides­ consists of a highly refined form of water, a water most subtle and perfeet. It is uncontaminated, pure yin, and described as the essence ofwater (shuijing). See Schafer 1977, pp. 173-74.

58 These are the ears, eyes, nostrils, and mouth. They are necessary for people to interact in the world and associated with the loss of the innocence and purity of original chaos. See the myth as discussed in Girardot \983.

59 Daoist psychology proposes that there are seven po and three hun souls in every human being. They are described·and illustrated in the Chu sanshijiuchong baoshengjing (DZ 87\) of the ninth century. According to this, while the three hun souls are representatives ofheaven who guide people toward greater goodness, the seven po souls "are basically demons. They can make a person commit deadly evils, be stingy and greedy, jealous and full of envy. They give people bad dreams and make them clench their teeth, incite them to say 'right' when they think 'wrong.' They also cause people to lose their vital essence in sexual passion and get dissipated by hankering after luxury and ease. Through them, people will completely lose all original purity and simplicity" (2a). Their names are Corpse Dog, Arrow in Ambush, Bird Darkness, Devouring Robber, Flying Poison, Massive Pollution, and Stinky Lungs (3ab). For more details, see Kohn 1997.

185

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn Goddess Dipper Mother of the Brahma Energy of Central Heaven; or again, Wise and Merciful Primal Queen of Great Simplicity and Purple Radiance. One of her transformation titles is King of the Radiance of the Great Round Full Moon; she is also known as the Merciful Savior Imperial Lady of Eastern Florescence [DZ 2a] and as the Great Sage of Celestial Healing. Her various titles match different situations and are not the same. She resides and governs in the jeweled pavilion of Central Heaven, while her ancestral energy for kalpas has been in the perfect and pure Heaven of Mysterious Brightness. She cultivates the wondrous Dao of mysterious numen and properly honors [6] the Ultimate Worthy of Primordial Beginning [i.e., the Dao]. Her wisdom creates a fragrant atmosphere, her knowledge shines forth in its brilliance. 60 Once she issued a great vow, and this vow was to give birth to a group of sagely sons, who would support and aid creation and transformation, rule and order the [heaven and earth trigrams ] Qian and Kun. The power of her vow was strong and firm, and it remained the same from beginning to end. A time came when the Dipper Mother [lived on earth and] took a bath in the Flowery Pond ofthe nine streams, which gushed forth at the Turtle Terrace of White Jade, near the Jeweled Throne of the Divine Unicorn. There she ascended the Jeweled Throne and proceeded to nurture her spirit and perfection, refine her essence and po soul. Melting and smelting, she coagulated her qi and made it enter the mystery of mysteries. Floating about in harmony with the numinous wind, she saw the purple vacuity change into luxuriant growth. 61 Thus she truly witnessed the mysterious numen and wondrous Dao. Releasing her subtIe and marvelous radiance, she deeply pervaded the Flowery Pond.

60 The following story is an abbreviated version of ~he origin myth of the Dipper as found in the Beidou bensheng zhenjing (DZ 45, 2ab). An even more abbreviated retelling is found in the ritual text Xianlian doumu zougao xuanke (DZ 1453, 15b). It functions here as part of the formal petition to the Dipper Mother.

61 The color purple in this sentence implies a reference to the earthly name of the Dipper Mother. which was Ladey of Purple Radiance. See Beidou bensheng zhenjing 2a. The observation of the change in cosmic patters indicates her immense longevity and universal power. It is reminiscent of the myth of the immortal lady Magu, the Lady, who was famüus für witnessing the ocean tuming to dry land several times over. Her story is told in the Shenxian zhuan # fw ~ (Biographies ofSpirit Immortals). See Güntsch 1988.

186

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access DOUl1lu: ,he Mo,her of ,he Dipper

There and then, she transfonned and gave birth to nine [sons fathered byJ golden lotus flowers. She let them pass through the human world for seven days and sevcn nights, while the bright radiance of the Flowery Pond eontinued to blaze and grow. Then, aIl at one time, she soared up with the nine flowers, ascending into heaven. There she created nine great jeweled turrets and pavilions. [DZ 2b] In these turrets and pavilions, she then [7] mixed and coagulated the Brahma energy [ofthe nine flowers] into the Nine Perfected [to be stars of thc Dipper ]. They in turn spontaneously created the saered speIl: "Zun di mo ni da li niu ben zhai." Placed before the heavenly net, their radiance spread out and turned into the mantra "zhi er." With their sharp corners flaming forth, they were the nine characters of the speIl that brought forth the gods. They then changed to become thc Dao body of the nine sovereigns [of the Dipper]. They are (1) Celestial Sovereign (2) Purple Tenuity (3) Greedy Wolf (4) Wide Gate (5) Prosperous Life (6) Literary Song (7) Pure Modesty (8) Martial Song (9) Ruined Annl2 The first two venerable stars, Celestial Sovereign and Purple Tenuity, reside at the entrance to the Dipper, in the Sälar~a Palace63 Thcir perfeet radiance is as big as a wagon wheel. Anyone who can see them will attain long life in this body, find a position of perfected or immortal [in the heavens], and be forever free from transmigration. The excessive brilliance radiated by these stars, moreover, split off and created two more: the Fu star on the left and the Bi star on the right. 64 They are qing yang ta luo65 and their spirit transfonns without bounds. [8] Together they rule the proper qi of the dark and yellow. The remaining star lords of the Seven Primes manage and guide

62 These names of the stars of the Dipper appear in all the texts related to the Dipper Mother and the Dipper's origin myth, but are significantly different from the names used in astrological and Daoist texts ofthe medieval period. See Schafer 1977, p. 51.

63 This name means "victor over vice and passion".

64 These are the two invisible stars of the Dipper. which come to prolect adepts during Daoist practice. placing themselves below the navel and above the head. The ability 10 spot them in the sky signifies the attainment of immortals' powers. See Robinet 1989; 1993.

65 This is another sequence of syllables which sound like a dhärani, but I have not been able to identitY it.

187

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kohn yin and yang, ereation and transformation. Their merit benefits all in the Three Worlds; [DZ 3a] their virtue enriehes the multitude of living beings. The power oftheir merit and virtue is unfathomable indeed! Now, anyone eultivating and refming the great elixir of ninefold reversion and sevenfold return must hold on to them to attain the sudden awakening of the Mysterious Pass. 66 As the numinous radianee appears before you, you see it divided into thirty-nine seetions,67 whieh eaeh spontaneously give forth splendor. Through them you ean realize and witness the Dao of Great Mystery and ofthe Three-in-One.68 Knowing how to maintain the prineiple69 of original suffieieuey, you ean make your body of perfeetion firm and stable and eventually eultivate great mental firmness [samädhi]. Theu you ean reaeh the stage when body and mind are equally wondrous, join the Dao and merge with perfeetion. Flying up to the Jade Capital,70 you ean wander about freely and be in total, self-suffieient freedom. Onee you have reaehed this, even as kalpa after kalpa takes birth, you together with your mysterious aneestors and family members will all attain eomplete liberation. JOilltIy you shall reeeive the mysterious graee, and together go beyolld all living and dyillg. This, illdeed, is deep mystery!

66 This sentence refers to the practice of inner alchemy, which guided adepts to create a cinnabar elixir of ninefold reversion within their own bodies. On the Mysterious Pass 3r rH), see Robinet 1995; 1999. This sentence refers to the practice of inner alchemy, which guided adepts to create a cinnabar elixir of ninefold reversion within their own bodies. On the Mysterious Pass 3r rH) , see Robinet 1995; 1999.

67 Thirty-nine is the number of sections in the Dadong jing *- itiJ ~~ (Scripture of Great Profundity, DZ 6), the first and most central scripture of the canon of Highest Clarity. See Robinet 1984, no. Al.

68 These are Daoist deities residing in the body, notably in the head, solar plexus, and abdomen. For details oftheir visualization, see Andersen 1980.

69 Following the DZ edition, which supplies the word Ii l{, not found in the manuscript version.

70 This is located in the highest of the thirty-six heavens, known as Daluo tian *- Ei f::.. or the Heaven Grand Veil. The expression da/UD, moreover, is a Chinese transliteration ofthe word dhärani. The name of this heaven, therefore, indicates how the heavens and world were created-through the power ofthe sacred word.

188

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper Take refuge with all your heart and warship with veneration. Find your place on the Equalizer star71 -and your iImer radiance will never be lost through the six roots [of the senses], while your outer radiance will never be engulfed by the myriad forms of existence. [9] Great, indeed, is this Dao of purity and tranquility as it stands before our eyes! 72 Now, let us bow deeply to the perfecte fonn and reverently pray: Mysterious Numen of Lofty Splendar: May you forever conserve my lang life! Three-in-One of the Great Mystery: May you continue to guard my perfected body! Divine Lords ofthe Five Organs: May you each attain peace and hannony! Dou gau quan xing bi fu piao jiu [secret narnes of the nine stars]: Swiftly, swiftly, in accordance with the statutes and ordinances! This concludes the "Heart Scripture of the Dipper Mother"

[10] ENCOMIUM TO THE DIPPER MOTHER73 The days when in heaven above the network of cultivation is changed and renewed are times when people on earth tend to run into difficulties and agitation. 74 Then the Dipper Mother75 cOl1IDlOnly wanders ahead ofthe Silll and the moon and the two heavens, by herself establishing spiritual and numinous forces in the Three WorldS. 76 Her majestic radiance is glorious and grand, her

71 This is the Bi star of the Dipper, one of the two invisible stars that issue directly from the two first sons ofthe Dipper Mother. See above. This is the Bi star ofthe Dipper, one ofthe two invisible stars that issue directly from the two first sons ofthe Dipper Mother. See above.

72 The expression "purity and tranquility" translates qingjing ~ ~, a general term for Daoist attainment associated with the Qingjingjing and popular since Song times. For details, see Kohn 1998a, pp. 65-69.

73 The following part is not contained in the Doumu jing of the Daoist callon. but is found in the ritual te,--( Xiantian doumu zougao xuanke. as the introduction to the petition (DZ 1452, 12a).

74 The Dl version reads: "when among people kalpie disasters are pervasive."

7~ The DZ version adds here: "with her four heads tracking the transformations and manifesting her spiritual pervasion. and with her eight arms grasping widely and spreading the strength ofthe Dao."

76 The DZ version replaces "spiritual and numinous forces" with "weapons alld soldiers." According to the Beidou bensheng zhe,ying, the key day of Doull1u worship is the day 01' "high

189

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn wondrous appearanee full and strong. She widely saves the multitude of living beings, helping them to overeome and end all sufIering. 77 Great is her eompassion! Great her vows! Inunense is her sageliness! Inunense her merey! Oh, Great Empress ofthe Ancestor ofThunder in the Nine Heavens! Oh, Imperial Lady of Great Yang in the Sun Palace! Oh, Savior Lady of Great Yin in the Moon Prefecture! Oh, Dipper Mother of Sagely Wisdom in Former Heaven! Oh, Golden Worthy ofPurple Radiance! Oh, Celestial Queen of Sagely Virtue and Unlimited Light!78 Oh, Great Empress Marlci Who Saves From All Hardships!79 Oh, Heavenly Worthy, Dao Mother of Complete Enlightenment!80 NOTE: After eoncluding the recitation, chant the following dharani seven times in your mind. This done, withdraw. Through this practice, you can eliminate all sufferings and hardships. The dhärani runs: "Ma Li ji mang suo chang" [, Marlei swaha].81

spring," i.e., the spring equinox. This was the day when she first gave birth to her ni ne starry sons (2b). According to the Beidou ershiba zhang jing, the best time for worshiping her and her sons are the first nine days of the ninth month, each day being associated with a different star of the Dipper (DZ 629, 14b-20a).

77 The DZ version here adds: "Her great vacuity covers all; her original vow knows no bounds.'·

78 "Unlimited Light" is supplied from the DZ version.

79 The DZ version has "Great Sage" instead of "Great Empress." It also leaves out "Who Saves From All Hardships."

80 A highly similar list oftitles occurs variously in the ritual tex1 (DZ 1452): 2b. 9a, IOa.

81 Franke suggests that the fourth character mang jt is an error for sha 13. commonly used to transliterate Sanskrit swäha. Alternatively he thinks it possible that it might be a transliteration of Sanskrit manga/a, "happiness." See Franke 1972, 64.

190

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother of the Dipper REFERENCES Andersen, Pou1, The Method 0/ Holding the Three Ones, London and Malmo, Curzon Press, 1980.

Andersen, Poul, "The Practice of Bugang", Cahiers d'Extreme-Asie 5: 15- 53, 1990.

Benhamouda, A., Etoiles et eonstellations, Madrid, Altamira-Rotopress, 1972.

Biallas, Leonard J., Myths: Gods. Heroes. and Saviors, Mystic, Cr., Twenty-third Publications, 1986.

Chan, A1an, Two Visions 0/ the Way: A Study 0/ the Wang Pi and the Ho-shang-kung Commentaries on the Laozi, Albany, State University of New York Press, 1991.

Davis, Edward L., "Society and the Supernatural in Sung China", Ph.D. Diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1994.

Don~, Henri, Researehes into Chinese Superstitions, 10 vols. Shanghai, Tusewei Press, 1914-1938.

Dudbridge, GIen, The Legend o/Miao-shan, London, Ithaca Press, 1978.

Eberhard, Wolfram, T77e Loeal Cultures 0/ South and East China, Translated by Alide Eberhard, Leiden, E. BrilI, 1968.

Field, Stephen L., "The Numerology of Nine Star Fengshui", Journal 0/ Chinese , 27: 13-34, 1999.

Franke, Herbert, "Einige Drucke und Handschriften der frühen Ming­ Zeit", Oriens Extremus, 19: 55-64, 1972.

191

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn

Franke, H., "Bemerkungen zum volkstümlichen Taoismus der Ming-Zeit," Griens Extremus, 24: 75-112, 1977.

Franke, H., "The Taoist Elements in the Buddhist Great Bear Sutra (pei­ tou ching)", AsiaMajor, 3.1: 75-112, 1990.

Getty, Alice, The Gods 0/ Northern Buddhism, Tokyo, Charles Tuttle, 1962 [1914].

Girardot, Norman, Myth and Meaning in Early , Berkeley, University of Califomia Press, 1983.

Grünwedel, Albert, Mythologie des Buddhismus in und der Mongolei, Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1900.

Güntsch, Gertrud, Das -hsien-chuan und das Erscheinungsbild eines Hsien, Frankfurt, Peter Lang, 1988.

Harada Masami f!.. Efl iE. G, "Mareishia no kyukö shinkö" "'7 L.- --;.,. -r (J) }L i 1't 1'P, Tohoshükyo JR 1f *~, 53: 1-21, 1979.

Hirohata Sukeo Jl Efl *iIl tt, "Nihon ni okeru hokushin shühai ni tsuite" E1 *' (:: ß (t ~ ~t J& * ff (:: ') l' -C, Töhöshükyö * jj * ~, 25: 36-50, 1965.

Kaltenmark, Max, "Chine", 111 Dictionnaire des mythologies, Paris, Flammarion, pp. 1-75, 1980.

Kahn, Livia, Early Chinese Mysticism: Philosophy and Soteriology in the Taoist Tradition, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992.

Kahn, L., "Yin and Yang: The Natural Dimension of Evil." In Philosophies 0/ Nature: The Human Dimension, edited by Robert S. Cohen and Alfred I. Tauber, New York, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 1997, pp. 89-104.

192

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother ofthe Dipper Kolm, 1., God ofthe Dao: Lord Lao in History and Myth, University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1998a.

KoIm, 1., "The Lao-tzu Myth", in Lao-tzu and the -te-ching, edited by Livia Kohn and Michael LaFargue, Albany, State University ofNew York Press, 1998b, pp. 41-62.

Matswlloto Köichi f~ *- Ir§- -, "Dökyö to shük)'ö girei" :Jt tk: 0) 7% tk: 1l il in Dökyö :Jt tk:, edited by Fu1."Ui Köjul1 et al., To1..)'o, Hirakawa, 1983, 1:189-238.

Matsumoto Köichi, "Taihokushi no shimyö to reidö hökai" -.f ~t "$" O);f~ ~ C tf 4- A; i" Töhöshükyö JR 1i 7% tk: 90: 22-44, 1997.

Naquin, Susan, "The Peking Pilgril11age to Miao- Shan: Religious Organizations and Sacred Site", in Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China, edited by Susan Naquin and Chün-fang Yü, BerkeIey, University of Califomia Press, 1992, pp. 333-77.

Nakal11ura Hajil11e rf tt it, ed., Bukkyögo daijiten 1~ ~ * Je -i.f,j ~, Tokyo, Tokyo shoji, 1981.

Noguchi Tetsurö Nt IJ il &~, Sakade Yoshinobu FR. ili i-f 1$, Fukui FUl11il11asa;jj 1t je ft, and Yal11ada Toshiaki W !f1 ;f~ SJJ (eds.), Dökyöjiten :it ~ .. J€., To1..)'o, Hirakawa, 1994.

Porkert, Manfred, "Untersuchwlgen euuger philosophisch- wissenschaftlicher Grundbegriffe und -beziehungen im Chinesischen." Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft 110: 422-52, 1961.

Ren Jiyu 11: ~i :t alld Zhong Zhaopeng j{ ~ ~ (eds.), Daozang tiyao :it ii ~ J., Beijing, Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1991.

Robinet, Isabelle, "Visualization and Ecstatic Flight in Shangqing Taoisl11", in and Longevity Techniques, edited by Livia KoIm, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies Publications, 1989, pp.157-90.

193

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Livia Kahn

Robinet, 1., La revelation du Shangqing dans I'histoire du taofsme. 2 vols., Paris, Publications l'Ecole Franyaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1984.

Robinet, 1., Taoist Meditation, translated by Norman Girardot alld Julian Pas, Albany, State University ofNew York Press, 1993.

Robinet, 1., Introduction ci I'alchimie interieure taofste: De l'unite et de La multiplicite, Paris, Editions Cerf, 1995.

Robinet, 1., " - Inneres Elixier", Zeitschrift für Yangsheng 1999: 25-40.

Sakade Y oshinobu JlR tB 1-f iif! and Masuo Shin'ichirö ~ R.1if!- ~p "Chüsei Nihon no shintö to dökyö" rf i!t EI '* (1) 1':i1i C :i1i ~, in Nihon. Chügoku no shükyö bunka no kenkyü EI '* rf 131 (1) ;% ~ (1) * JE, edited by Sakai Tadao ;W #- ,'1L~., Fukui Fumimasa :fj:#-:t $., and Yamada Toshiaki wEE1 {IJ , To1-.)'o, Hirakawa, 1991, pp. 53-80.

Schafer, Edward H., The Divine Woman, Berkeley, University of Califomia Press, 1973.

Schafer, E., Pacing the Void: T'ang Approaches to the Stars, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1977.

Van der Loon, Piet, Taoist Books in the Libraries of the Sung Period, London, Oxford Oriental Institute, 1984.

Waddell, L. Austine, Tibetan Buddhism, New York, Dover, 1972.

Wädow, Gerd, Tien-fei hsien-sheng lu: Die Aufteichnungen von der manifestierten Heiligkeit der Himmelsprinzessin. Einleitung. Übersetzung, Kommentar, St. AugustinINettetal, Steyler Verlag, Monumenta Serica Monograph 29, 1992.

Ware, James R, Alchemy, Medicine and Religion in (he China ofAD 320, Cambridge Mass., MIT Press, 1966.

194

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access Doumu: the Mother 0/ the Dipper

Yanagisawa Taka typ ~ ~, 'Töhon hokuto mandara no ni irei" m*- ~t 4- t % ~ ~ ::.1! 171, Dökyö kenkyü :It ~ ~ 'i'E ,2: 205-35, 1967.

Yüsa Noboru * ii: Jt "Dökyö to chügoku bungaku" :It ~ C 4' 131 >c 1t, in Dökyö :It ~, edited by Fukui Köjun ~:#- JlP~et al., Tokyo, Hirakawa, 1983,2:311-69.

Zürcher, Erik, The Buddhist Conquest ojChina, Leiden, E. Brill, 1959.

195

Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 07:33:35AM via free access