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1 ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWINGS

Interior design is a multifaceted and to consider the elements that remain con- ever-changing discipline. The practice stant in an evolving profession. In many of interior design continues to evolve ways, the design process itself remains due to technological as well as societal constant—whether practiced with a stick in changes. the sand, a technical pen, or a powerful computer and software. There are many The sentences above were written roughly stories about designers drawing prelimi- ten years ago, in the introduction to the first nary sketches on cocktail napkins or the edition of this book, and continue to hold backs of paper bags, and these stories lead true today. Digital technology continues to us to a simple truth. influence and to work as a change agent in Professional designers conduct research, the ongoing evolution of design practice. take piles of information, inspiration, and Today’s practicing interior designers use hard work, and wrap them all together in software for drafting, three-dimensional what is referred to as the DESIGN PROCESS, to modeling programs, digital rendering pro- create meaningful and useful environments. grams, digital imaging software, as well as a A constant and key factor in interior design is range of word processing, spreadsheet, and the fact that human beings—and other living presentation programs. creatures—occupy and move within interior In addition to undergoing constant, spaces. To create interior environments, rapid technological advancement, the pro- professional designers must engage in a fession of interior design has grownCOPYRIGHTED in process that involves research,MATERIAL understand- terms of scope of work, specialization, and ing, idea generation, evaluation, and docu- the range of design practiced. The growth mentation. These are significant constants of the profession, combined with efforts that exist in a changing world. toward development of educational stan- For the most part this book covers the dards, registration, and licensing, have process designers engage in and the relat- increased its legitimacy as a serious profes- ed presentation techniques used in DESIGN sional discipline. COMMUNICATION. These processes and Constant change in society and in one’s basic concepts are consistent, whether profession can be overwhelming and a bit generated manually or by computer. Some frightening, and for that reason it is useful examples included here were created

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FIGURE 1-11 1. Compass 2. Architectural scales 3. Drafting film 4. Template 29 5. T square 2 28 3 6. Lettering triangle 1 7 8 7. Triangle 6 8. Appliqué film 27 26 4 5 9. Vellum 24 10. Tracing paper (roll) 25 23 10 11. Cork-backed ruler 22 16 9 17 12. Flexible curve 21 13. Drafting tape 14. Drafting dots 20 15. French curve 19 13 15 16. French curve 18 14 17. Adjustable triangle 11 18. Electric eraser 12 19. Eraser shield 20. Erasers 21. Dry-cleaning pad 1-1 22. Disposable ink pens 23. Technical pen 24. Lead holder 25. Lead pointer manually, whereas others were computer well as an overview of the most common 26. Mechanical pencil generated. Regardless of how drawings and drawings used in interior design practice. 27. Wooden graphite pencils graphics are generated, they are part of a The information presented in this chapter 28. Layout pencils process of discovery, exploration, and cre- is meant as an overview, not a definitive 29. Drafting brush ation. drawing or drafting reference. Subsequent This chapter covers what is often chapters cover the other forms of drawings referred to as drafting, as well as other and design graphics used in sketching, and forms of two-dimensional graphics; this other forms of idea generation. specific type of drawing is required for all projects that will be constructed. The term MATERIALS, TOOLS, AND DRAFTING refers to measured drawings done EQUIPMENT FOR MANUAL with specialized tools and equipment. The DRAFTING truth is that not all drawings used in the The graphics and drawings used in interior process of interior design are drawn with design practice vary, ranging from concep- the aid of drafting tools or computers. tual sketches and rough layouts to meas- Often those drawings created in the pre- ured technical drawings. The materials, liminary stages of the design process are tools, and equipment used to create the rough sketches and involve little use of variety of drawings and graphics are drafting tools or equipment. As designs are numerous and ever proliferating. The refined, there is clearly a need for highly media and tools selected must be appropri- accurate, measured, and detailed drawings, ate to the task at hand. This means that and these are drafted with tools. their proper selection requires careful This chapter presents the materials, consideration of the drawing type and use, equipment, and tools used for manually as well as an understanding of the available drafted and freehand design drawings, as products. Currently most schools and

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design firms create the majority of design creation of many sketches and the genera- drawings digitally, using COMPUTER-AIDED tion of many ideas. Tracing paper also DESIGN (CAD) programs. However, some works very well overlaid on drawings for students begin the study of drafting by cre- transfer and refinement of images. Often ating drawings manually; for that reason a many layers of tracing paper are overlaid as description of manual drawing tools and a design is refined or as a complicated per- equipment follows. Figure 1-1 illustrates spective drawing is constructed. Images on commonly used manual drafting and draw- tracing paper can be reproduced easily by ing materials and equipment, which are being photocopied or being scanned for discussed as follows. inclusion in design presentations. While this is done less commonly in Drawing Surfaces current practice, final design drawings cre- The type of drawing surface selected ated manually and intended for diazo directly affects the quality of the drawn reproduction are drawn on DRAFTING VELLUM, image. Some surfaces accept pencil and ink a transparent paper available in a variety of readily and allow for clear, consistent finishes and weights (thicknesses) and imagery. Transparent papers allow for most often white. Drafting vellum should diazo reproduction (blueprinting) and can have a high rag or cotton content, giving it a be used as an overlay to continue a drawing rich finish, strength, and good stability. It by transferring details from one sheet to is excellent for line work generated with another. Drawings produced on nontrans- graphite pencils. Good-quality diazo prints parent surfaces are reproduced by photo- can be run from drafting vellum originals. copying, digital reproduction (scanning), Vellum is also photocopied, scanned, and or photographic processes. photographed with excellent results. TRACING PAPER is the most common paper In addition to vellum, PLASTIC DRAFTING surface for sketching in-process design FILMS are used for final drawings and for drawings and graphics. Known in various some design presentations. Plastic (and parts of the country as trace, flimsy, and polyester) drafting films are expensive, bumwad, this paper is highly transparent tear resistant, and generally do not react to and relatively inexpensive. Tracing paper fluctuations in temperature or humidity (as is available in cut sheets and in rolls in a do many paper surfaces). They accept ink variety of sizes. Rolls of tracing paper work beautifully and allow for easy ink erasure. well for interior design drawing because of These films require the use of special pen- the varying sizes of drawings required. cils. Drafting film originals produce excel- Tracing paper is available in white, buff, lent diazo prints and photocopies. For and canary (yellow). Most designers have a years prior to the use of CAD, plastic film personal color preference based on previ- and ink drawings were considered the ous experience. Some designers use trac- finest for reproduction. ing paper to create actual presentation A range of ART PAPERS is available; the sketches (used to communicate with a papers are made with a variety of materials client or end-user) while others use them and come in many colors, sizes, and finishes. only for personal exploration. Some of these papers can be used as a draw- Because tracing paper is relatively inex- ing surface or as a background or visual ele- pensive, it can be used to develop prelimi- ment included within a presentation; a range nary sketches and for in-process drawings. of paper types is discussed in Chapter 5, This allows for exploration through the beginning on page 145.

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ADHESIVE REPRODUCTION FILM, also H, 2H, and sometimes F leads are most called appliqué film and often referred to commonly used in drafting. generically as sticky back, is used on vellum The graphite described above is used in or bond drawings. Typed or printed images a variety of mark-making implements. can be drawn or photocopied onto adhesive WOODEN DRAWING PENCILS involve a graph- reproduction film. The film is then care- ite mixture encased in wood and are sharp- fully measured and cut and applied to the ened like standard wooden writing pencils. vellum or bond paper. MECHANICAL PENCILS are hollow instru- Manually generated design drawings ments that hold very fine graphite leads. can be reproduced on large-format photo- These are sold in a variety of lead widths to copying machines. However, CAD-gener- create a range of line weights. LEAD HOLDERS ated drawings—printed or plotted on bond are hollow implements that accept thicker paper—are the most commonly used in leads than mechanical pencils. Although current practice. It is also worth noting that lead holders do not allow for any variety in many designers and design firms scan lead widths, they do accept a range of lead hand drawings and combine them with types in terms of softness. Lead holders additional graphics using imaging software require the use of a specialized sharpener, such as Photoshop or page layout software known as a LEAD POINTER. such as InDesign® to create digital presen- Specialized colored drafting pencils and tations such as those in discussed in leads can be used to develop drawings prior Chapter 5, page 157 (Digital Rendering). to hard-lining them. NONPHOTO-BLUE col- ored pencils do not reproduce when pho- Line- and Mark-Making tographed; however, they sometimes Implements reproduce when photocopied. NONPRINT Lines and marks record spatial informa- colored pencils do not reproduce in diazo tion in interior design drawings and graph- prints. When appropriate, both types of ics. Control of line thickness and the type pencil can be used to lay out drawings prior of stroke used are important and convey to completion. specific information. Thus, the implement One of the significant advantages of used to create lines and marks is a key fac- using graphite pencils is the ease of eras- tor in manually created design drawings. ing. Harder leads are often the most diffi- GRAPHITE is mixed with clay and other cult to erase, whereas soft pencil marks are elements to produce what are commonly easily lifted with gray kneaded erasers or called lead pencils. Graphite pencils, used pink erasers. Plastic and film erasers can in design drawing, are available in a range be used to remove marks made with harder of hardnesses based on the mixture of clay leads. A metal ERASER SHIELD is used to pro- to graphite. Graphite pencils and replace- tect the drawing surface from unwanted able “leads” are coded with a standard rat- erasing. DRY CLEANING PADS, containing art ing system: H stands for hard, B stands for gum powder that sifts onto drawing sur- black (the softer leads). The number found faces, are available to keep drawings clean. next to the H or B refers to the level of TECHNICAL PENS have tubular points and hardness. For example, a 6B is softer than a refillable ink reservoirs. They are available 2B; an 8H is very hard. F-rated leads are at in a range of point sizes that allow for the center of the range, and HB leads are absolute control of line weight. Because slightly harder than Bs. The softer leads are they employ black ink and metal points, used in sketching and rendering, whereas technical pens create the finest line work of

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any drawing implement. They must be used sional practice. Triangles are used with a T with the appropriate ink, as specified by the square to create vertical and angled lines. manufacturer. Adjustable and 45/45-degree and 30/60- DISPOSABLE TECHNICAL PENS combine a degree triangles are readily available. tubular support with a felt tip and are avail- Triangles should be fairly clear, easy to see able in a range of point sizes. These pens through, and as substantial as possible. An require no maintenance or cleaning, mak- inking triangle with raised edges is required ing them easy to use. Although disposable when using ink. It is also useful to have a pens have been known to skip, causing tiny triangle on hand as an aid in lettering. inconsistent line work, they have improved Triangles should never be used as a cutting a great deal recently and are becoming very edge; this will ruin them. A cork-backed popular. metal ruler is the best edge for cutting. FELT-TIP PENS are available in a range of DRAFTING TAPE or PRECUT DRAFTING DOTS styles and point sizes; they are often used in are used to attach drawings to drawing sketching, exploration, and rendering. boards. Unlike standard masking and Felt-tip pens are not generally used for household tape, drafting tape and dots are refined drafted drawings or working draw- easy to remove from both the paper and the ings. drawing board. A DRAFTING BRUSH is used to Erasing ink marks is rather difficult and remove eraser debris from the drawing requires special erasers. Hard plastic surface. erasers can remove ink. However, an ELEC- Measured interior design drawings TRIC ERASER with the appropriate eraser require the use of a proportional scale. This insert is most useful in removing ink. allows for large areas to be reduced in size Electric erasers are very effective but must to fit on relatively small drawings. An always be used with an eraser shield. Ink ARCHITECTURAL SCALE is the standard scale marks on film are erased more easily than ruler used in interior design drawing. In those on vellum. Sharp razor blades are the United States, standard architectural sometimes used to scrape ink away from scales employ imperial units, that is feet drawing surfaces. and inches. Standard architectural scales A quality DRAWING BOARD is required for are marked incrementally with numbers the creation of successful drawings. running from left to right, with a number or Serious students must purchase a top- fraction to the right or left of the incremen- quality drawing board if possible. The tal lines that indicate scale. For example, in 1 board should accommodate a minimum ⁄4-inch scale the ruler is marked so that 1 paper size of 24 inches by 36 inches. each ⁄4-inch measures 1 foot in scale. Drawing boards should be covered with a Architectural scales have inches marked specialized vinyl drawing surface, sold at below the zero marking; these are used to drafting and art supply stores. The vinyl measure elements that are not exact to the surface helps to improve line consistency. foot. In transferring measurements, great T SQUARES are used in conjunction with care should be taken to record accurate the edge of the drawing board to provide an dimensions. Scale rulers should never be accurate horizontal line or right angle for used to draw against, as this would result in drawings. PARALLEL RULERS can be attached poorly drawn lines and damaged rulers. to drawing boards using a system of screws, More information on the actual scales used cables, and pulleys. This creates the sliding for specific types of drawings can be found straightedge that is the standard in profes- later in this chapter.

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FIGURE 1-2 An ENGINEER’S or ENGINEERING SCALE is The more expensive templates—constructed When an object is enclosed used for measuring larger scale items, typ- of heavy, durable plastic—are worth the in a glass box, each plane ically related to building sites, roads, topo- extra money. Furniture and fixture tem- of the box can serve as a pic- ture plane. The view through graphical features and other items such as plates work well to quickly lay out and plan the top plane (picture plane) water and sewer lines. In the United States spaces. However, in presentation drawings creates a plan view, in this these scales are based on imperial units— furniture and fixtures drawn from tem- case a roof plan. that is feet. These scales are marked incre- plates can appear artificial and monoto- mentally with numbers running from left nous. FIGURE 1-3 FRENCH CURVES The view through the picture to right only, with a number given at the left are drawn against as an plane enclosing the side of the of the incremental lines that indicates aid in producing curved lines. FLEXIBLE box is called an elevation. scale. These scales measure in parts to the CURVES, also known as snakes, are also used inch, such as 1 inch equals 10 feet, or one as an aid in drawing curved lines. These FIGURE 1-4 inch equals 20 feet and so on up to 60 feet— have flexible spines that can be bent to A section is a view of an object on standard scales. In using an engineer accommodate the desired curve. These also with the picture plane slicing neatly through it. scale, each value given requires that you work well for transferring curves from one multiply the value by 10. For example, using drawing surface to another. A COMPASS is FIGURE 1-5 the portion of the scale where 1 inch equals used for drawing accurate circles and arcs A floor plan is a view of the 10 feet; where the 1 is written actually meas- and is useful in situations where a template building from above with a ures 10 feet, and where the 2 is written does not contain a circle of the required horizontal plane sliced through size. It is worthwhile to purchase a good it and removed to expose the equals 20 feet. Individual increments thickness of the walls. marked by small lines along the ruler compass that adjusts easily and accepts Figures 1-2 through 1-5 drawn by (without numbers written next to them) drawing leads and ink heads. Ciarah Coenen represent individual feet—for example, two small line marks to the right of 2 represents UNDERSTANDING 22 feet. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION METRIC SCALES are standard throughout DRAWINGS most of the world (with the exception of the The practice of interior design requires the United States) and represent meters (m) creation and use of various types of draw- and centimeters (cm) or millimeters ings. These can be divided into three broad (mm). Much like the aforementioned engi- categories based on purpose. The first type neer’s scale, these scales are based on of drawing allows the designer to explore ratios, such as 1:50, where 1 millimeter ideas (known as ideation) and work concep- would scale to represent 50 millimeters. tually, often in the form of sketches. The More information on the actual scales used second type allows the designer to commu- for specific types of drawings can be found nicate to others, including members of the later in this chapter. It is worth noting that design team, the client, end users, consult- the simplified modern version of the met- ants, and other professionals (presentation ric system is properly called the Inter- drawings). A third type of drawing conveys national System of Units, symbolized by SI, the technical information required for con- according to the U.S. Metric Association; struction (construction documents or this system includes other units of meas- working drawings). This book focuses on urement as well. the first two types of drawing: those used for TEMPLATES are most commonly con- exploration and presentation or for graphic structed of plastic and are used much like communication of ideas. stencils to draw various shapes, including Unlike ideation sketches, presentation circles, ellipses, furnishings, and fixtures. drawings and construction documents

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1-2 1-3

1-4 1-5

must use certain standard drawing con- While this publication does not cover ventions to clearly communicate and them in any detail, highly technical con- delineate the proposed design; these gen- struction drawings are always drafted in erally involve drafting in scale. Unlike scale, either manually or using CAD, and fine art drawing, design drawing requires they employ many of the concepts covered adherence to conventions, proportional in this chapter. They are, however, quite scale, and accuracy of line. Design draw- distinct and follow very specific conven- ings are highly standardized so that they tions and because of this should be studied carry universal meaning. Or, as one early in detail by interior design students— reviewer of this book put it, “Design toward that end, the References section of drawing is much like a language; the draw- this chapter lists two books that describe ings must convey the designer’s meaning and illustrate construction drawings clearly clearly.” for students. Various examples of technical

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1-6a

FIGURE 1-6a construction drawings can be found at the a system and are mutually dependent on Common graphic notations end of this chapter in Figures 1-17a through one another. By their nature, orthographic used in orthographic projection 1-17d and Figures 1-18a through 18-c. projections appear flat and lack the three- drawings. The design drawings most commonly dimensional quality of perspective draw- used in scaled delineation of interior envi- ings. One way to visualize orthographic ronments are floor plans, interior elevations, projection is to imagine an object enclosed sections, and reflected ceiling plans. These in a transparent box. Each transparent drawings, called ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJEC- plane of the enclosing box serves as the TIONS, are created by projecting informa- picture plane for that face of the object tion about an object onto an imaginary The view through the top plane of the plane known as the PICTURE PLANE. This enclosing box is called a PLAN. In a plan direct projection of an object’s dimensions view only those elements seen when look- allows orthographic projections to retain ing directly down at the object are drawn. shape and proportion, making these draw- Figure 1-2 depicts a roof plan. ings accurate and precise. The views through the picture planes Orthographic projection creates frag- that form the sides of the enclosing box are mentary views of an object, resulting in the called ELEVATIONS. Elevations depict only need for multiple drawings. This means what is visible when viewed directly that because of their fragmentary nature through the picture plane. Figure 1-3 is an orthographic projections become parts of exterior elevation.

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FIGURE 1-6b Graphic symbols used for refer- ences and notes. Items shown with a 1 near them are reference symbols that include a number on top of another number. The number on top refers to the drawing number and the lower number refers to the sheet the drawing may be found on.

1-6b

A SECTION portrays a view of the object such as floor finishes and furniture (see or building with a vertical plane sliced Figure 1-5). through it and removed. One way of under- Orthographic projection drawings are standing section views is to imagine that a clearly an abstraction of reality and use very sharp plane has been inserted into the specific conventions to delineate space and object or building, cutting neatly into it and materials. Unlike some other forms of revealing the structure and complexity of drawing, orthographic projection drawings the object’s form (see Figure 1-4). require adherence to conventions, propor- A FLOOR PLAN, also known as a horizon- tional scale, and accuracy of line; these tal section, portrays a view of the building design drawings are highly standardized so with a horizontal plane sliced through it that they carry universal meaning. There- and removed, exposing the thickness of the fore, items such as walls, doors, windows, walls and the elements below the cut line property boundaries, references to other

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FIGURE 1-6c Graphic symbols used for light- ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING SYMBOLS ing and electrical information. Figures 1-6a through 1-6c drawn by WIRING AND OUTLET SYMBOLS ELECTRICAL DEVICES, SWITCHES, AND PANELBOARD SYMBOLS

Melissa Brewer HEIGHT DUPLEX RECEPTACLE (INDICATE NONSTANDARD BELL MOUNTING HEIGHT)

DUPLEX RECEPTACLE WITH PE PHOTOELECTRIC CELL GFI GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTER

HEIGHT SPECIAL PURPOSE RECEPTACLE ELECTRIC THERMOSTAT (INDICATE NONSTANDARD MOUNTING HEIGHT)

HEIGHT CLOCK RECEPTACLE (RECESSED) C (INDICATE MOUNTING HEIGHT) PANELBOARD AND CABINET

HEIGHT DATA COMMUNICATIONS OUTLET CEILING-MOUNTED (INDICATE NONSTANDARD LIGHT FIXTURE MOUNTING HEIGHT) (INDICATE TYPE)

HEIGHT TELEPHONE OUTLET WALL WASHER (INDICATE NONSTANDARD (INDICATE TYPE; SHADING MOUNTING HEIGHT) INDICATES LIGHTED FACE)

DUPLEX FLOOR RECEPTACLE SPOTLIGHT (INDICATE TYPE; ARROW INDICATES DIRECTION OF FOCUS) RANGE OUTLET R

SPLIT-WIRED DUPLEX FLUORESCENT FIXTURE RECEPTACLE OUTLET (INDICATE TYPE; DRAW TO SCALE)

S SWITCH FLUORESCENT (*D–DOOR; K–KEY OPERATED; STRIP LIGHT * LV–LOW VOLTAGE; (INDICATE TYPE; DRAW TO SCALE) M–MOMENTARY CONTACT; P–PILOT LIGHT) LIGHT TRACK S SINGLE POLE SWITCH (INDICATE TYPE; SHOW NUMBER OF FIXTURES REQUIRED) THREE-WAY SWITCH S3 FOUR-WAY SWITCH S4 DIMMER SWITCH SDIM 1-6c

drawings and other items are represented Floor Plans by very specific graphic symbols or combi- As stated, floor plans can also be called nations of lines. Figures 1-6a, 1-6b, and 1- HORIZONTAL BUILDING SECTIONS, this is 6c illustrate some graphic notations used because they are drawn as though a hori- in these types of drawings such as wall zontal cut has been made in the building lines, door and window symbols, as well as (typically between 3 feet 6 inches and 5 feet reference and notation symbols. 6 inches above the floor) as shown in Figure 1-7. Cutting into the building at this ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION location exposes the thickness of walls and DRAWINGS FOR INTERIOR other structural elements, and shows win- ENVIRONMENTS dows, doors, and can show floor finishes The special orthographic projection and furnishings—all of which are located drawings used in delineation of interior below the location of the cut. environments are based on the concepts In the United States, floor plans are 1 mentioned to this point. These drawings most often drawn at a scale of ⁄8" = 1'0" or 1 impart information particular to interior ⁄4" = 1'0", although this varies according construction. to project conditions. Larger-scale floor

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FIGURE 1-7 A floor plan is created when the picture plane cuts through the building horizontally, at 3'6" and 5'6" above floor level.

1-7

plans are useful for presentation of com- lie below the plane of the cut but above the plex or highly detailed spaces. Smaller- floor plane, such as fixtures, built-ins, and scale floor plans are required for large furnishings. A finer line weight is used to projects and are also used as key plans in outline surface treatment of floors and complex presentations. In creating floor other horizontal planes, such as tile and plans using metric measurements, a scale wood grain. Objects that are hidden, such as of 1:50 is relatively common; it is somewhat shelves, or above the plane of the cut are 1 similar to ⁄4" = 1'0" scale (that would be 1:48 dashed or ghosted in; this must be done in a to be exact). Architectural drawings—other manner that is consistent throughout the than small-scale interior related drawings, presentation. such as the floor plans mentioned—are Figures 1-8a and 1-8b are examples of commonly drawn using a metric scale of town-house floor plans drawn using 1:100. AutoCAD software and employing standard In drawing floor plans it is important to conventions and reference symbols. convey significant spatial relationships with Figures 1-8c is an enlarged portion of the consistent graphic conventions. Various floor plan included to show detailed infor- line weights are used to convey depths and mation. qualities of form. In standard floor plans Standard doors are generally drawn open the boldest line weight is used to outline at 90 degrees to the wall and are often shown those elements that have been cut through with the arc of their swing. The door frame and are closest to the viewer (such as full- and the space it requires must be considered height wall lines). An intermediate line in the drawing of the door system (this weight is employed to outline objects that means the dimensions of the frame must be

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3a 3

3

11 1a 10 3 2 6

7 5 9

4 5 1 12

8 1-8a

FIGURE 1-8a Town-house lower-level floor plan employ- full swing can be shown ensure that nothing 9. This is a section reference symbol. The ing standard drafting conventions. impedes the full swing of the door. arrow indicates the direction of the view of 1. Boldest lines indicate the location of 5. Specialized doors, such as smaller the section. cut, meaning full-height walls are bold. closet doors (shown), bi-fold doors, sliding 10. This is an elevation reference symbol. Lower walls may be shown with lighter line doors, and pocket doors, are drawn in a The arrow indicates the direction of the ele- weights (1a). way that indicates size and construction. vation view. The number indicates the par- 2. Fixtures, cabinetry, and finish materials 6. Window glass and sill lines are shown, ticular drawing that is referenced. are drawn with progressively lighter lines as often with a lighter-weight line than walls. 11. Flooring materials may be shown as they recede from the cut location. 7. Stairs are drawn as broken off past the required (using a light line weight). 3. Elements that are above or below the line of the cut; a special breakline is used. 12. This is a centerline, indicating the cen- cut line—such as cabinets (3a) and soffits— 8. A title, north arrow, and scale notation terline of the shared wall in the town house. or hidden such as dishwashers, are indicat- are required on all plans. Because this draw- ed with dashed lines. ing was reduced, a standard written scale 4. Standard doors are drawn open at 90 was omitted; instead, a graphic scale device degrees with the arc of swing shown; the is included.

considered). Doors other than standard such broken off past the height of the plane of the as smaller swinging closet doors, bi-fold, cut; this is signified with a special cut or sliding and pocket types are drawn in a man- breakline as shown in Figure 1-8a. An arrow ner that is consistent with their construction should be included to indicate the direction as shown in Figure 1-6a. Windowsills are of the stairs from the level of the floor plan, typically outlined, often with a lighter line with the word up or down (dn) adjacent to the weight at the sill only. Window frames and directional arrow. sheets of glass are shown in various details as A title, a north arrow, and some type of scale allows. Stairs are generally shown as scale notation should be included on all

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FIGURE 1-8b 1. Boldest lines indicate the 1 location of cut, meaning full- height walls are bold. Lower walls may be shown with lighter line weights (1a). 2. Fixtures, cabinetry, and fin- ish materials are drawn with 6 4 progressively lighter lines as they recede from the cut location. 7 3. Elements that are above or 3 below the cut line—such as cabinets (3a) and soffits—or 9 hidden such as dishwashers, are indicated with dashed lines. 5 2 4. Standard doors are drawn open at 90 degrees with the arc 10 of swing shown; the full swing can be shown ensure that noth- ing impedes the full swing of the door. 8 5. Specialized doors, such as 1-8b smaller closet doors (shown), bi-fold doors, sliding doors, and pocket doors, are drawn in a way that indicates size and floor plans. Scale notation can be stated 151. Additional examples of plans for com- construction. 1 6. Window glass and sill lines numerically, for example: ⁄4" = 1'0". mercial projects may be found at the end of are shown, often with a lighter- Current practice often requires the use of a this chapter beginning with Figures 1-17a weight line than walls. graphic scaling device, which allows for and 1-18a. 7. Stairs are drawn as broken reduction, enlargement, and electronic off past the line of the cut; stairs transmission of the drawings. Interior Elevations from lower floors are shown. Symbols relating the floor plan to addi- Just as exterior elevations are created to 8. A title, north arrow, and tional orthographic views or details are reveal exterior elements and features, inte- scale notation are required on all plans. Because this drawing often drawn on the floor plan and serve as rior elevations reveal the interior features was reduced, a standard cross-references. of a building. One way to understand the written scale was omitted; Successful floor plan presentation creation of interior elevations is to imagine instead, a graphic scale device drawings require a thorough understand- ourselves inside the room we are drawing. is included. ing of drafting conventions. Presentation Imagine standing inside a room facing one 9. This is a section reference floor plans may be drawn fastidiously with wall directly, with a large sheet of glass (the symbol. The arrow indicates the direction of the view of the sec- tools or drawn freehand. Regardless of the picture plane) inserted between the viewer tion. style of drawing, presentation floor plans and the wall. The interior elevation can 10. These are elevation refer- must be accurate and drawn to the appro- then be created by outlining (projecting ence symbols. The arrow indi- priate scale so that they communicate the onto the picture plane) the significant fea- cates the direction of the view design and can be used by the designer as tures of the wall. Each wall of the room can of the elevation. the project moves forward. Presentation be drawn in elevation by means of project- 11. This is a centerline, indicat- ing the centerline of the shared floor plans are enhanced by the use of tone, ing what is visible as the viewer faces that wall in the town house. value, color, and other graphic devices. The wall directly as illustrated in Figure 1-9. graphic enhancement of floor plans is dis- Interior elevations are used extensively in cussed in greater detail in Chapter 5, page professional practice. Successful elevations

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FIGURE 1-8c 1. Boldest line 2. Secondary line weights 3. Lighter line weight. Figures 1-8a to 1-8c design by Courtney Nystuen; drawn by Melissa Brewer

2

1 3

1-8c

must clearly depict all interior architectural Drawing interior elevations by hand or elements in a consistent scale. Interior ele- digitally can be difficult for beginning stu- vations are typically drawn in a scale ranging dents to master and requires a clear under- 1 from ⁄4" = 1'0" to 1" = 1'0". Elevations drawn standing of the concepts involved. To this to depict accessories, equipment, cabinetry, end, a plan and elevations for another proj- fixtures, and design details are often drawn at ect can be found in Appendix 3; additional 3 1 ⁄8" = 1'0" or ⁄2" = 1'0". Millwork and other drawing examples may also be found at the highly complicated elevations are often end of this chapter (see Figures 1-17a, 1 drawn at ⁄2" = 1'0" or larger. 1-17d, 1-18a, and 1-18c). All elevations require the use of differing Interior elevations are an excellent vehi- line weights to clearly communicate spatial cle for developing and refining interior relationships. Typically, any portion of walls details as illustrated by Figures 1-11a and cut through and those closest to the viewer 1-11b, which are interior elevations depict- are drawn using a bold line weight. Receding ing very different design schemes for the elements become progressively lighter in same lobby space. line weight as they move farther from the Like floor plans, elevations used for picture plane. Some designers draw the line design presentations vary greatly from representing the ground line as the boldest, those used for construction. Elevations with those lines representing the top and used for construction drawings must neces- sides of the wall drawn just slightly lighter in sarily contain significant dimensions as weight. Figure 1-10 depicts kitchen eleva- well as appropriate technical information as tions for the town-house project. illustrated at the end of this chapter (see

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FIGURE 1-9 In drawing interior elevations, the picture plane is inserted between the viewer and wall(s). What is visible through the picture plane is drawn in elevation.

1-9

FIGURE 1-10 1. Portions of walls cut into or closest to viewer are bold. 2. Receding elements are drawn with progressively lighter lines. 3. In elevations including cabinetry and or millwork, details such as countertops, 1 door frames, and hardware should be included. 4. Interior elevations require titles, reference symbols (names or numbers), and scale notation.

2

3

4 1-10

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1-11a

1-11b

FIGURE 1-11a Figures 1-17d and 1-18c). Those used for and other graphic devices, many of which This elevation delineates a tradi- presentations can be drawn more freely and are discussed in Chapter 5. tional wood-paneling design often contain less technical information but treatment for a hotel lobby. Because this drawing was must be drawn accurately and in consistent Sections reduced, a graphic scale nota- scale. Figure 1-12 is a preliminary elevation As described earlier, a building section is a tion was used in place of writ- sketch created to convey design elements view created as though a vertical plane has ten information. for a professionally designed project. cut through the building and been removed. For elevations to work well in visual Unlike interior elevations, which depict FIGURE 1-11b presentations, they must be clearly keyed, only what occurs inside the interior; sec- This elevation delineates a com- pletely different design noted, or referenced to the floor plan. tions can expose the structure of the build- approach for the hotel lobby Regardless of the referencing method used, ing. In drawing sections, it is important to shown in Figure 1-11a. Because titles must be included beneath all eleva- include the outline of the structural ele- this drawing was reduced, a tions and scale should always be noted. ments as well as the internal configuration graphic scale notation was used Elevations used for presentations are of the interior space. Sections require var- in place of written information. enhanced by the use of tone, value, color, ied line weights as a means of describing

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1-12

depths and spatial relationships. It is typical symbol that denotes the locations of the FIGURE 1-12 to show what is cut through, and therefore vertical cut. Figure 1-13 is an example A preliminary elevation study closest to the viewer, in the boldest line design section for the town-house project. for a professional project, drawn on tracing paper with weight; receding features and details are markers. drawn using progressively lighter line Reflected Ceiling Plans By Cuningham Group Architecture, P.A. weights. REFLECTED CEILING PLANS are often used in It is important to consider carefully the conjunction with floor plans, elevations, most useful location (or locations) of the and sections to communicate interior building to show in section. The section design. Reflected ceiling plans communi- should be cut through the building as a sin- cate important information about the gle continuous plane. Sections should design of the ceiling, such as materials, lay- expose and convey important interior rela- out and locations of light fixtures, items tionships and details such as doors, win- such as sprinklers, diffusers, grilles, and dows, changes in floor level, ceiling heights, ceiling heights. A reflected ceiling plan is and, in some cases, finish material loca- drawn as though a giant mirror were on the tions. floor reflecting the elements located on the Design and presentation sections differ ceiling. The use of reflective imagery allows greatly from construction sections. Con- for the ceiling plan to have exactly the same struction sections require technical infor- orientation as the floor plan. mation to communicate information about There is a distinction between ceiling building systems. In contrast, design sec- plans used for presentation and those used tions and presentation sections focus on for construction. Typically, ceilings plans form, finish materials, and definition of created for construction are highly techni- interior space. For sections to work well in cal and include a great deal of information. visual presentations, they must be clearly Reflected ceiling plans used in design pre- keyed, noted, or referenced to the appro- sentations can be simplified to include priate floor plan. Generally, sections are basic ceiling lighting information, ceiling referenced to the floor plan with use of a heights, and finish materials as shown in

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FIGURE 1-13 Building section for the town- house project. 1. Boldest lines indicate loca- tion of cut. 2. Receding elements are drawn with progressively lighter lines. 3. Sections require titles, reference symbols (names or numbers), and scale notation.

2 1

3 1-13

FIGURE 1-14 Simple reflected ceiling plan for town-house project. 1. Ceiling heights are noted and enclosed in a symbol. 2. Light fixture locations are 2 noted with various symbols and 2 are keyed to a legend. 3. Finish materials such as gypsum board, wood, and ceil- ing tiles are indicated in scale. 1 4. Reflected ceiling plans require titles, north arrows, and scale notation. Note: Reflected ceiling plans 3 require legends (keyed to sym- bols used); in this example, the legend has been omitted.

4

1-14

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Figure 1-14. Precisely measured, complex Additional types of orthographic draw- technical ceiling plans are required for ing are used to communicate the features of construction (as illustrated at the end of buildings and building sites. Site plans, this chapter in Figure 1-17c). foundation plans, demolition plans, roof Together, floor plans, elevations, sec- plans, framing plans, exterior elevations, tions, and ceiling plans communicate wall sections, and design details are also information about the quality of an interior used in the design of buildings. Designers environment. Because these drawings are of interior space must be knowledgeable abstracted, fragmented versions of three- about the nature of these drawings, how dimensional form, they depend on one they are created, and how they relate to the another to communicate effectively. interior architecture of a building. The orthographic projections covered in this chapter relate directly to the com- Lettering munication and design of interior space. Traditionally, in the days before CAD, floor Differing versions of orthographic projec- plans, elevations, and sections contained tions are used for construction and presen- notes and dimensions written in a stan- tation, but they are used in one form or dardized style of hand lettering. However, FIGURE 1-15 another on virtually all projects. changes in technology allow for creation of Hand-lettering reference.

1-15

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2 3 5 4

3 3

8

6

7

1

1-16a

FIGURE 1-16a type that can be applied to hand-drawn Dimensioned lower-level floor plan for should not have to turn the sheet upside orthographic projections. Lettering and town-house project, employing standard down to read these dimensions. type can be computer generated, printed conventions for locating interior and 4. Leader lines run from the building on adhesive reproduction film (sticky exterior dimensions outside of the plan location being dimensioned to the boundaries. dimension lines. Leader lines should not back), and applied to drawings and presen- 1. Dimension lines and leader lines touch the building; instead, they should tation boards. Lettering is also created by should be lighter than wall lines or be drawn slightly away. specialized machines (lettering machines) objects measured. 5. Dimensions are written in feet and that print on adhesive-backed tape that can 2. Horizontal written dimensions sit inches unless less than one foot. be applied to drawings. Lettering machines above the dimension lines, so they are 6. Dimensions measured from center- can be used to produce type in a range of underlined by the dimension line as lines must be clearly indicated. Windows shown, or are written in a break in the are commonly measured to centerlines or sizes, styles, and colors. In addition, all of dimension line. rough openings as shown. the commonly used CAD programs allow 3. Note location of dimensions: they 7. Exterior walls (and plumbing walls) for consistent, standardized type to be should not read by rotating the sheet are shown as nominal 6" thick (actual: readily applied to the appropriate location 1 1 counterclockwise (as in reading from the 6 ⁄2" to 7 ⁄2"). on a drawing. left side of the sheet) and one absolutely 8. Interior walls are shown as nominal 1 Even with these changes in technology, 4" thick (actual: 4 ⁄2" typically). it is useful to develop the ability to hand- letter in a consistent standardized style. Many designers still create quick sketches,

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FIGURE 1-16b Portion of a dimensioned upper-level floor plan for town-house project, delineating conventions for interior “paint to paint” or “finish to finish” dimensions. Note: This example has dimension numbers and line “tic marks” that are larger than is standard; in this case this was done so that the drawing size could be reduced for publication. Figures 1-16a through 1-16b design by Courtney Nystuen, drawn by Melissa Brewer

1-16b

preliminary design details and some pres- Dimensions entation drawings by hand, and for the sake Dimensions, required on most construc- of visual consistency, developing skills tion drawings, are sometimes necessary on related to hand lettering is crucial. drawings used for presentation purposes. There are some basic rules for lettering Their inclusion is based on the project and design drawings, as well as some stylistic the presentation audience. When included elements that influence letterform. Guide- dimensions must be accurate, complete, lines are required for all lettering loca- readable, and are generally listed in feet tions. Horizontal guidelines create the and inches; for example 2'4" is written, lines on which the lettering rests. Con- rather than 28", except for those dimen- sistent spacing between the lines of letter- sions that are less than a foot; for example, ing is required. Vertical guidelines must be 11" (or 0'11"). Dimensions should be placed drawn so that the lines of type are aligned on “top” of the dimension line, so that they consistently. Lettering for design drawings are “underlined” by the dimension line, is typically all capitals, allowing all letters to and should be placed to as to not require fit within a single pair of guidelines, with being read by rotating the sheet counter- no tips or tails above or below the guide- clockwise (reading from left to right) or lines. Letters should have perfectly vertical upside down. strokes; the vertical strokes should not Generally, for standard construction, slant to the left or to the right. A tiny letter- dimensions and dimension lines are ing triangle is used as a straightedge in placed outside of the object (such as the making vertical strokes. Figure 1-15 is a building) as shown in Figure 1-16a. In hand-lettering reference. terms of organizing a series of dimensions;

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1-17a

FIGURE 1-17a specific dimensions are placed close to the Dimensions typically run from the out- Floor plan for a professional particular object they are related while the side of exterior walls to the centerline of restaurant design project. This is overall distances are placed in the position interior walls: where interior tolerances are part of a set of construction farthest from the construction (as shown in critical, dimensions can be run from the documents (Figures 17b through 17d are part of this set). Figure 1-16a). face of the finished wall to the face of the Openings such as windows and doors other finished wall (paint-to-paint so to are dimensions to centerlines or to rough speak), as shown in Figure 1-16b. This type frame opening (R.O.); with the exception of of dimension can be employed for interior masonry openings (M.O.), which are not design projects created within existing drawn to centerlines. Another rule of architecture—for example, when dimen- thumb for dimensions is to dimension sioning walls for an interior renovation of things once and only once; repetition from an existing office or retail space, it is com- one drawing to another can lead to discrep- mon to dimension only the paint-to-paint ancy errors. dimensions rather than exterior to center

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1-17b

dimensions, as shown in Figure 1-16b. polylines, arcs, and text serve as the foun- FIGURE 1-17b Additional examples of dimensioned dation for more complex objects. Current A dimensioned floor plan for drawings can be found at the end of this AutoCAD versions allow for two-dimen- the project featured in the previous figure. chapter in Figures 1-17b, 1-17d, 1-18b, and sional and three-dimensional design and 1-18c. drafting and can serve as a base for industry specific products such as Architectural Computer-Aided Design (CAD): Desktop®. AutoCAD LT® is a scaled-down, Ongoing Advances less costly version of AutoCAD, which does Until very recently, Autodesk’s AutoCAD® not include full three-dimensional draw- was the most widely used CAD program in ing capabilities as well as certain presenta- commercial interior design and architec- tion graphics, sheet set management, and tural firms in the United States. AutoCAD other elements. is a vector graphics drawing program, in Autodesk Revit® Building software is which primitive elements such as lines, quickly becoming a new CAD industry

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1-17c

FIGURE 1-17c favorite for commercial interior design and MicroStation (owned by Bentley), which A reflected ceiling plan for the architectural practice. Revit is Building generates two-dimensional and three- project featured in the previous Information Modeling (BIM) software that dimensional vector graphic objects and ele- figure. allows for parametric modeling and drafting. ments. ArchiCAD® (owned by Graphisoft) An advantage of BIM software is its ability to is also used in architectural, facilities man- create coordinated, consistent, computable agement, and interior design practice and information about a building project. This employs “smart,” data-enhanced, paramet- means that changes made in one view are ric objects; these in turn help to create the automatically integrated into related draw- basic structure and elements that come ings and schedules. In contrast to AutoCAD, together to create the building. which at this time requires that drawings are Designers and sales professionals spe- “X-referenced” for this to occur. cializing in kitchen and bath design as well Other types of CAD software used by as those involved in residential design and design firms throughout the world include furniture sales use a software program

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1-17d

called 20-20 Design. This software allows design and design presentations. With that FIGURE 1-17d for two-dimensional drawing and planning said, it is important to note that the con- Elevations for the project as well as the generation of three-dimen- ceptual basis for orthographic drawings featured in the previous figure. Figures 1-17a through 1-17d by sional views that can be used for client pre- and drafting conventions is the same Cuningham Group Architecture, P.A. sentations and can incorporate manufac- whether created by hand or through the use turers’ specific product information into of electronic tools. The meaning commu- drawings. nicated in a floor plan is the same whether There are a number of software pro- the drawing is created by hand or with the grams used specifically for three-dimen- use of any within a range of CAD programs sional modeling and rendering; some of and for that reason this book covers the these are discussed in Chapter 4, page 133. concepts behind the drawings rather than Clearly, things continue to evolve in supplying detailed information about the terms of software and hardware used in software used to create them.

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1-18a

FIGURE 1-18a Floor plan for a professional restaurant design project. This is part of a set of construction documents (Figures 18b and 18c are included in this set).

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1-18b

REFERENCES FIGURE 1-18b (Contains both works cited and recommended reading. Annotations where appropriate.) A dimensioned floor plan for the project featured in the Ching, Frank. Architectural Graphics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996. previous figure. ———. A Visual Dictionary of Architecture. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995. Forseth, Kevin, and David Vaughn. Graphics for Architecture. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998. Kirkpatrick, Beverly, and James Kirkpatrick. AutoCAD for Interior Design and Space Planning Using AutoCAD® 2005. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005. Kilmer, Otie, Rosemary Kilmer, and Stephen Hanessian. Construction Drawings and Details for Interiors: Basic Skills. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2001. A good introduction to drafting concepts and to drawings for construction documents. Liebling, Ralph. Architectural Working Drawings, 4th edition. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. Contains some valuable information about drafting and drawings for construction documents. Porter, Tom. Architectural Drawing. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.

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1-18c

FIGURE 1-18c Smith, C. Ray. Interior Design in 20th Century America: A History. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. Elevations for the project fea- U.S. Metric Association (USMA). FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions About the Metric System. tured in the previous figure. http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/faq.html, 2006 (December). Figures 1-18a through 1-18c by Cuningham Group Architecture, P.A.

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