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Identification of Key Factors Affecting the Trophic State of Four

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Identification of Key Factors Affecting the Trophic State of Four water Article Identification of Key Factors Affecting the Trophic State of Four Tropical Small Water Bodies Homero Cuevas Madrid 1,*, Alfonso Lugo Vázquez 2, Laura Peralta Soriano 2, Josué Morlán Mejía 2, Gloria Vilaclara Fatjó 2, María del Rosario Sánchez Rodríguez 2, Marco Antonio Escobar Oliva 2 and Javier Carmona Jiménez 3 1 Posgrado en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Ciudad Universitaria 3000, C.P. 04510, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, Mexico 2 Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. de los Barrios No. 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico; [email protected] (A.L.V.); [email protected] (L.P.S.); [email protected] (J.M.M.); [email protected] (G.V.F.); [email protected] (M.d.R.S.R.); [email protected] (M.A.E.O.) 3 Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, C.P. 04510, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, Mexico; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 31 March 2020; Accepted: 18 May 2020; Published: 20 May 2020 Abstract: Due to their dimensions, small and shallow water bodies are more sensitive to changes in nutrient load, water flow, and human management. The four water bodies studied are small (area <0.01 km2), constantly supplied by a non-anthropogenic source of nutrients, and these water bodies present different trophic states: mesotrophic, eutrophic, and hyper-eutrophic. The objective of this study was to identify the key environmental factors that created differences in the trophic state of these adjacent shallow urban lakes by modeling chlorophyll-a (Chl a) through the application of the Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR). The models (n = 36) explain 45.8–60.6% (R2), and predicts 39–52.9% (Q2) of the variance. Environmental variables were identified in the water bodies as critical factors of trophic state determination, water residence time (WRT), ions (e.g., Ca2+), and minerals as hydroxyapatite (HAP). These variables were related to processes that could improve trophic conditions, such as flushing and phosphorous precipitation. Conversely, N-NH3 concentration was associated with nutrient recycling, and found to be able to promote eutrophication. Keywords: eutrophication; trophic state; shallow lakes; nutrients; PLSR 1. Introduction Recent studies propose that the number and surface of small and shallow water bodies can play an essential role within the global carbon cycle because dissolved organic carbon concentrations show a negative correlation with lake size, which means they can play a significant part in carbon sequestration [1]. The small water bodies are also essential for the maintenance of regional biodiversity in aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates [1,2]. From an anthropogenic point of view, they are vital for human development [3]. A specific type of small water body is the urban shallow lake. These water bodies can have high social value and provide various landscape, recreational, or cultural services [4]. The small magnitudes of depth and surface of some water bodies make them critically vulnerable to nutrient enrichment or eutrophication processes, which in turn entails a series of undesirable changes that alter the quality of their waters [5]. Today, eutrophication is the greatest threat to water bodies on the planet, and this situation will continue for at least the next decade [6]. Moreover, eutrophication is costly in economic terms [7]. Water 2020, 12, 1454; doi:10.3390/w12051454 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19 theWater planet,2020, 12 and, 1454 this situation will continue for at least the next decade [6]. Moreover, eutrophication2 of 19 is costly in economic terms [7]. TheThe size size and and shallowness shallowness of of these these water water bodies bodies make make them them susceptible susceptible to to external external processes, processes, suchsuch asas cloudlesscloudless days, days, intense intense solar solar radiation, radiation, high waterhigh temperatures,water temperatures, strong winds, strong and winds, fluctuations and fluctuationsin the water in supply, the water which supply, can modify which thecan ecologicalmodify the dynamics ecological of dynamics the lake, evenof the in lake, the littoraleven in zone. the littoralSomeof zone. these Some processes of these also processes influence also the influence trophic state the [trophic8]. state [8]. UnlikeUnlike early early studies studies on on the the critical critical factors factors of of eutrophication, eutrophication, which which were were focused focused mainly mainly on on the the rolerole of of nutrients nutrients [9], [9], current current research research has has a a much much broader, broader, often often multifactorial multifactorial approach, approach, centered centered on on predictingpredicting Chl Chl a a concentrations concentrations and and identifying identifying key key factors factors that that support support their their production, production, such such as as temperature,temperature, waterwater retention retention time, time, water water level, photoperiod,level, photoperiod, presence presence of macrophytes, of macrophytes, and zooplankton and zooplankton herbivory [10]. herbivory [10]. The lakes studied in the present research are adjacent to each other and share the same water The lakes studied in the present research are adjacent to each other and share the same water source. Therefore, their environmental conditions and trophic status would be expected to be similar. source. Therefore, their environmental conditions and trophic status would be expected to be similar. However, as this did not occur, the present work sought to know which were the main variables at However, as this did not occur, the present work sought to know which were the main variables at the the root of this difference, and how they interacted. root of this difference, and how they interacted. In identifying the key factors, the aim of this study was to identify the variables by PLSR, In identifying the key factors, the aim of this study was to identify the variables by PLSR, besides N and P concentrations, that are important in the differential expression of eutrophication in besides N and P concentrations, that are important in the differential expression of eutrophication small and shallow lakes, and that could participate in processes that promote (e.g., nutrient recycling) in small and shallow lakes, and that could participate in processes that promote (e.g., nutrient or diminish (e.g., precipitation of phosphates, co-precipitation with divalent cation minerals, or recycling) or diminish (e.g., precipitation of phosphates, co-precipitation with divalent cation minerals, flushing) eutrophication. or flushing) eutrophication. 2.2. Materials Materials and and Methods Methods 2.1.2.1. Study Study Site Site TheThe lakes lakes are are located located within within the Eastern the Eastern Quarry Quarry (EQ) (Cantera (EQ) (CanteraOriente, in Oriente, Spanish; in19° Spanish; 19′ 15” -19°19◦19 18015”–19′ 47”N ◦and18047” 99° N10 and′ 22” 99 W)◦10 within022” W) the within Ecological the Ecological Reserve of Reserve Pedregal of de Pedregal San Angel de San(REPSA), Angel situated(REPSA), northeast situated northeastof the Xitle of thevolcano Xitle volcanolava spill, lava whose spill, extension whose extension is 80 km is2 80 (Figure km2 (Figure 1a,b) 1[11].a,b) [The11]. lakesThe lakes are located are located within within the theEQ,EQ, which which is part is part of ofthe the Ecological Ecological Reserve Reserve of of Pedregal Pedregal de de San San Angel Angel (REPSA).(REPSA). This ecologicalecological urbanurban reserve reserve protects protects the the last last existing existing portions portions of vegetationof vegetation that that were were very veryextensive extensive in the in past the past at Mexico’s at Mexico’s basin, basin, like thelike scrub the scrub of “Palo of “Palo loco” loco” (Pittocaulon (Pittocaulon praecox praecox)[12].) [12]. Figure 1. (a) Study site location, Xitle volcano, and lava spill; (b) Eastern Quarry (EQ) map showing Figure 1. (a) Study site location, Xitle volcano, and lava spill; (b) Eastern Quarry (EQ) map showing the lakes [North Lake (NL), Central Lake (CL), South Lake (SL), and Regulation Lake (RL)] and their theappearance lakes [North (green Lake color (NL), intensity Central is Lake analogous (CL), toSout thath Lake observed (SL), inand the Regulation field), springs Lake [Spring (RL)] and Puddle their 4 appearance(WS 4)], gates, (green water color supply intensity flow, is and analogous topographic to that profiles. observed in the field), springs [Spring Puddle 4 (WS 4)], gates, water supply flow, and topographic profiles. Water 2020, 12, 1454 3 of 19 The water that filled the EQ lakes came from the springs of a shallow aquifer flowing through the rocks (fractured basalt) along with the lava spill, as the main recharge sites of the shallow aquifer are the terrains near to the Xitle volcano [13], whose summit is 3100 m a.s.l. and is located 9.5 km southwest of the EQ [11] (Figure1a). The EQ has a total area of 206,000 m2 divided into two areas. The northern part corresponds to the ecological reserve. From the D-D’ topographic profile to the southern end of the EQ (Figure1b), the area is a training ground for a professional football team [12]. The EQ is a depression created due to the extraction of volcanic rock (basalt) during the period 1970–1994. The depression has an altitude range between 2254 and 2292 m a.s.l. [12]. Then, the lakes are classified as high-altitude water bodies, but are also tropical, considering the latitude [14]. The lakes originated when the excavation reached the aquifer and several springs appeared. EQ lakes approximately have the following surfaces, excluding flood zones: NL(5450 m2) < RL(6400 m2) < CL(8300 m2) < SL(9500 m2)[15]. The water flows through a series of channels to the different lakes. The water flow is regulated by gates (4), two of which are located near the mouths of the SL and the RL, with one in the channel, and another that divides NL and CL.
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