Methods, Figures, and Practices in Early Nineteenth Century Geometry

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Methods, Figures, and Practices in Early Nineteenth Century Geometry Die Freude an der Gestalt: Methods, Figures, and Practices in Early Nineteenth Century Geometry by Jemma Lorenat M. A., City University of New York Graduate Center, B. A., San Francisco State University Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Joint Degree (cotutelle) Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science at Simon Fraser University (Canada); Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie (Paris 6), Institut de mathématiques de Jussieu-Paris Rive Gauche (France) c Jemma Lorenat 2015 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Spring 2015 All rights reserved. However, in accordance with the Copyright Act of Canada, this work may be reproduced without authorization under the conditions for “Fair Dealing.” Therefore, limited reproduction of this work for the purposes of private study, research, criticism, review and news reporting is likely to be in accordance with the law, particularly if cited appropriately. APPROVAL Name: Jemma Lorenat Degree: Doctor of Philosophy (Mathematics) Title of Thesis: Die Freude an der Gestalt: Methods, Figures, and Practices in Early Nineteenth Century Geometry Examining Committee: Brenda Davison Chair Department of Mathematics Dr. Thomas Archibald Senior Supervisor (co-tutelle) Professor Dr. Catherine Goldstein Senior Supervisor (co-tutelle) Directrice de recherche au CNRS, Institut de mathématiques de Jussieu-Paris Rive gauche Dr. Nilima Nigam Supervisor Professor Dr. Christian Gilain Internal Examiner (co-tutelle) by videoconference (Paris) Professeur émérite à l’Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris 6) Dr. Dirk Schlimm External Examiner Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, McGill University Date Defended: 10 April 2015 ii Partial Copyright Licence iii ABSTRACT As recounted by later historians, modern geometry began with Jean Victor Poncelet, whose contributions then spread to Germany alongside an opposition between geometric methods that came to be exemplified by the antagonism of Julius Plücker, an analytic geometer, and Jakob Steiner, a synthetic geometer. To determine the participants, argu- ments, and qualities of this perceived divide, we drew upon historical accounts from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Several themes emerged from the histori- cal perspective, which we investigated within the original sources. Our questions centred on how geometers distinguished methods, when opposition arose, in what ways geometry disseminated from Poncelet to Plücker and Steiner, and whether this geometry was “mod- ern” as claimed. Our search for methodological debates led to Poncelet’s proposal that within pure geometry the figure was never lost from view, while it could be obscured by the calculations of algebra. We examined his argument through a case study that revealed visual attention within constructive problem solving, regardless of method. Further, ge- ometers manipulated and represented figures through textual descriptions and coordinate equations. In these same texts, Poncelet and Joseph-Diez Gergonne instigated a debate on the principle of duality. Rather than dismiss their priority dispute as external to mathe- matics, we consider the texts involved as a medium for communicating geometry in which Poncelet and Gergonne developed strategies for introducing new geometry to a conservative audience. This conservative audience did not include Plücker and Steiner, who adapted new vocabulary, techniques and objects. Through comparing their common research, we found they differentiated methods based on personal considerations. Plücker practiced a “pure analytic geometry” that avoided calculation. Steiner admired “synthetic geometry” because of its organic unity. These qualities contradicted descriptions of analytic geometry as com- putational or synthetic geometry as ad-hoc. Finally, we turned to claims for novelty in the context of contemporary French books on geometry. Most of these books point to a peda- gogical orientation, where the methodological divide was grounded in student prerequisites and “modern” implied the use of algebra in geometry. By contrast, research publications exhibited evolving forms of geometry that evaded dichotomous categorization. Keywords: geometry, nineteenth century, analysis and synthesis, visualization, Jean Victor Poncelet, Joseph-Diez Gergonne, Julius Plücker, Jakob Steiner iv RÉSUMÉ Die Freude an der Gestalt: méthodes, figures et pratiques dans la géométrie au début du dix-neuvième siècle L’histoire standard de la géométrie projective souligne une opposition entre les méthodes an- alytiques et synthétiques. Selon les historiens de la fin du dix-neuvième siècle, la géométrie moderne a commencé avec le Traité des propriétés projectives de Jean Victor Poncelet en 1817, puis, pendant le premier tiers du siècle, les contributions de Poncelet se répandi- rent en Allemagne, ainsi qu’une opposition entre différentes approches géométriques dont l’exemple toujours cité est l’antagonisme entre Julius Plücker, un géométre analytique, et Jakob Steiner, un géomètre synthétique. Ce n’est qu’à partir des années 1870, selon ces récits, que les géomètres mirent fin à une distinction qui avait cessé d’être pertinente. Pour déterminer les participants, les arguments et les qualités de cette apparente division méthodologique, nous avons puisé dans les récits historiques écrits à la fin du dix-neuvième siècle et au début du vingtième siècles. Même s’ils insistent pour résumer la situation dans l’opposition globale et binaire que nous avons décrite, leurs écrits suggèrent déjà qu’il y avait plutôt une multitude d’oppositions à plus petite échelle, qui résultaient en particulier de ce que des découvertes multiples, presque simultanées, étaient faites par un petit groupe de géomètres. Plusieurs thèmes principaux émergeaient de cette perspective historiographique, qui forme le premier chapitre de cette thèse, et nous avons décidé de les approfondir en les confrontant à une étude détaillée des textes originaux : des textes de Poncelet, Plücker, Steiner et Joseph-Diez Gergonne sur la géométrie et la méthodologie écrits pendant le pre- miers tiers du dix-neuvième siècle. Nos questions sont centrées sur la manière dont ces géomètres ont distingué leurs propres méthodes géométriques de celles des autres mathé- maticiens contemporains, quand une opposition surgissait en géométrie, sur la manière dont à la fois la géométrie et ces oppositions se sont transmises de Poncelet à Plücker et Steiner, et dans quelle mesure cette géométrie était “moderne” et nouvelle comme le clamaient ses praticiens, et plus tard les historiens de la géométrie. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous examinons donc en détail un problème de mathéma- tiques concernant l’inscription de figures dans des coniques, problème qui a été discuté entre plusieurs mathématiciens (Gergonne, Poncelet, Plücker, etc.) et a déclenché des polémiques sur les méthodes de solution. J’ai étudié en détail les arguments, les techniques, etc. et les oppositions, j’ai aussi montré le rôle des nouveaux moyens de diffusion que sont les journaux mathématiques. Notre recherche sur ce débat méthodologique nous a conduit à un échange épisté- v mologique entre Poncelet et Gergonne sur l’utilisation de l’analyse algébrique en géométrie. En distinguant ce qu’il appelle la pure géométrie de la géométrie analytique, Poncelet in- sistait sur le role central de la figure. Il suggérait que tant dans l’ancienne géométrie pure, celle héritée d’Euclide et de l’Antiquité, que dans la géométrie pure moderne qu’il incarnait, la figure n’était jamais perdue de vue, et qu’elle pourrait être obscurcie par les calculs de l’algèbre appliquée à la géométrie. En géométrie synthétique, les objets de la géométrie étaient representationnels et tangibles, ces qualités étant encore mises en avant même lorsque les géomètres introduisirent des points imaginaires ou à l’infini. Nous examinons ici l’argument de Poncelet en action à travers l’étude de plusieurs solutions à un même problème de construction géométrique qui a été discuté et résolu dans un ensemble de publications étroitement connectées, mais écrites par plusieurs auteurs différents. Il s’agit de construire une courbe du second ordre ayant un contact d’ordre trois avec une courbe plane donnée, dont cinq solutions paraissent entre 1817 et 1826. En étudiant comment les auteurs invoquaient les figures et quelles formes alternatives leur servaient à représenter les objets géométriques, nous avons trouvé que l’attention visuelle est au coeur de la résolution de ces problèmes de construction, indépendamment de la méthode suivie, mais qu’elle n’est pas non plus réservée aux figures. Se fondant sur ce qu’il décrit comme le manque d’élégance des calculs analytiques, Poncelet perçoit cet exemple de construction comme particulièrement adapté à une approche de géométrie pure et développe en particulier le concept de corde idéale pour généraliser les cas où les points de tangence sont imaginaires. Figure 1: Illustration selon Poncelet de la corde idéale commune à l’infini entre deux cercles concentriques, Traité des propriétés projectives, 1822. Mais Poncelet et Plücker ont aussi développé des stratégies pour manipuler et visualiser d’autres types de représentations du problème. Plücker par exemple a développé de nou- velles formes d’équations permettant de révéler des éléments clés des objets géométriques sans recourir à des calculs excessifs. Pour une courbe du deuxième degré vi y2 + 2αxy + βx2 + 2δx = 0 tangente à l’axe des y à l’origine, Plücker utilise un système
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