Rural Women and the Millennium Development Goals

This fact sheet highlights the progress culturally assigned roles that severely of rural women against key Millennium Women play an important limit women’s participation in Development Goal (MDG) indicators, role, but face persistent employment opportunities (see also pointing to some of the advancements structural constraints Goals 3 and 7). Rural women play a key role in made and gaps that still exist. It Faced with a lack of services and supporting their households and suggests that globally, and with only a infrastructure, rural women carry a communities in achieving food few exceptions, rural women fare worse great part of the burden of providing and nutrition security, generating than rural men and urban women and water and fuel for their households. income, and improving rural men for every MDG indicator for which In rural areas of Guinea, for example, livelihoods and overall well-being. data are available. While data collection women spend more than twice as They contribute to agriculture and along these lines has improved in much time fetching wood and water rural enterprises and fuel local and recent years – in part because of per week than men, while in Malawi global economies. As such, they increased donor and government they spend over eight times more are active players in achieving the interest – there still remains a general than men on the same tasks. Girls in MDGs. Yet, every day, around the lack of data not only disaggregated by rural Malawi also spend over three world, rural women and girls face sex, but also by rural and urban areas. times more time than boys fetching persistent structural constraints This has an impact on our global ability wood and water (Figure 1). to confidently monitor progress toward that prevent them from fully the MDGs for all people in all regions, enjoying their and urban and rural, and particularly where hamper their efforts to improve progress is needed most. their lives as well as those of others around them. In this sense, they are also an important target Goal 1: Eradicate extreme group for the MDGs. poverty and hunger Rural women’s poor access to infrastructure in rural areas limits This fact sheet is a product of the their opportunities to reduce Inter-Agency Task Force on Rural poverty and hunger Women, which is led by FAO, IFAD Rural women spend more time and WFP, and is composed of than urban women and men in the following members: ITC-ILO, reproductive and household work, SPFII, UNCTAD, UNDP, UNEP, including time spent obtaining UNESCO, UNFPA, UNIDO, water and fuel, caring for children UN Women and WHO. In and the sick, and processing addition, a substantial contribution food. This is because of poor rural was made by UNAIDS to the infrastructure and services as well as section on MDG 6.

United Nations Enabling poor rural people Educational, Scientific and to overcome poverty Cultural Organization Empowered lives. Resilient nations. Figure 1 across the total adult population in sectors is usually equal to or higher developing countries, although it than the male equivalent. Almost Average hours per week spent varies greatly by region (Figure 2). 70 percent of employed women fetching wood and water in rural The jobs of rural women who are in South Asia and more than 60 areas of selected Sub-Saharan African countries employed tend to be shorter term, percent of employed women in Sub- more precarious and less protected Saharan Africa work in agriculture.4 Sierra Guinea Madagascar Malawi Leone than those of rural men and urban The substantial involvement of rural (2002-03) (2001) (2004) (2003-04) people. The lack of flexible hours to women in agriculture, primarily women 5.7 4.7 9.1 7.3 accommodate family work combined as unpaid or contributing family men 2.3 4.1 1.1 4.5 with wage and job discrimination workers, highlights the importance of

girls 4.1 5.1 4.3 7.7 and limited representation of women developing policies and programmes in workers’ organizations are partly that address the needs, interests boys 4.0 4.7 1.4 7.1 responsible for this. and constraints of women as well as men in the agriculture sector. 1 Source: UNDP, 2011. As an important source of This includes revamping and Collectively, women from livelihoods for the poorest, strengthening extension systems to Sub-Saharan Africa spend about 40 agriculture is a means to eradicate be more responsive to and inclusive billion hours a year collecting water.2 extreme poverty, especially for of women, addressing structural rural women barriers to women’s access to For these reasons and because rural Despite women’s lower overall productive resources, and improving women tend to underreport their employment rates, among employed financial systems to respond to the employment as contributing family women the proportion working in needs of rural women producers and members, according to available data agriculture as opposed to other entrepreneurs, including to move out female employment in agriculture is of the less productive segments of consistently lower than it is for men the rural economy.5 Figure 2 Improving rural women’s access Employed population as a share to productive resources is central of total adult population, to addressing hunger by sex and sector On average, women make up about developing males 43 percent of the agricultural labour countries females force in developing countries. Evidence indicates that if these East and males Southeast Asia females women had the same access to productive resources as men, they Latin America males could increase yields on their farms and the Caribbean females by 20 to 30 percent, raising total agricultural output in developing Near East and males North Africa females countries by 2.5 to 4 percent, in turn reducing the number of males South Asia hungry people in the world by 12 females to 17 percent.6 For rural women Sub-Saharan males and men, land is perhaps the most Africa females important household asset to 0% 50% 80% support production and provide for food, nutrition and income security. agriculture industry services Yet an international comparison of Source: FAO, 2011.3

 Figure 3 Rural women’s economic to be less important than educating empowerment can help reduce boys. Furthermore, while significant Rural/urban ratios of percentage of the number of underweight progress has been made in reducing children who are underweight children the gender gap in primary school South America A large body of research indicates enrolment, a large gap remains that putting more income in the between rural and urban areas. Central America hands of women translates into Household data from 42 countries show that rural girls are more likely to Southern Asia improved child nutrition, health and education,12 yet data on child be out of school than rural boys, and Southeastern Asia nutrition disaggregated by both rural/ they are twice as likely to be out of school as urban girls (Figure 4). Northern Africa urban location and sex are sparse. In all developing regions13 of the Sub-Saharan Africa world, rural children are more likely Figure 4 to be underweight than their urban 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 counterparts. From 1990 to 2008, Out-of-school children by sex and Values above one indicate higher the proportion of children under area of residence, 42 countries percentage of underweight rural five in developing regions who were 2000/2008 (%) children compared to urban children underweight declined from 31 per 35 cent to 26 per cent, yet in parts of 30 Source: FAO, 2011.7 FAO elaboration. 25 boys Latin America and the Caribbean, and 20 girls agricultural census data shows that Asia, the disparity between rural and 15 14 10 due to a range of legal and cultural urban children increased. Figure 3 5 indicates that in South and Central 0 constraints in land inheritance, rural urban ownership and use, less than 20 America, rural children are about 1.8 percent of landholders are women.8 times more likely to be underweight Source: , 2010.16 Women represent fewer than 5 than their urban counterparts; other percent of all agricultural land regions do not fare much better. holders in North Africa and West Improvements in maternal nutrition, Asia, while across Sub-Saharan access to water and sanitation and Africa, women average 15 percent of health services, all of which are agricultural land holders.9 lacking in many rural areas in least developed countries (LDCs), would Extensive evidence shows that rural also contribute greatly to addressing female-headed households also this situation. have more limited access than male- headed households to a whole range of critical productive assets and Goal 2: Achieve universal services required for rural livelihoods, primary education including fertilizer, livestock, mechanical equipment, improved Poverty and inequality are barriers seed varieties, extension services and to universal education agricultural education.10 Similarly, in An extra year of primary school seven out of nine countries across increases girls’ eventual wages by 10- Africa, Asia and Latin America, 20 percent, encourages girls to marry female-headed households were less later and have fewer children, and likely to use credit than male-headed makes them less likely to experience households.11 violence,15 yet in many areas of the world, educating girls is perceived

 In rural areas, there is often a greater are illiterate compared to 14 percent Figure 6 prevalence of social and cultural of rural men, while in Burkina Faso barriers, labour requirements and 78 percent of rural women and 63 Participation in rural wage 17 distance “penalties,” that keep girls percent of rural men cannot read and employment, by sex (%) out of school. In Pakistan, a half- write.20 Yet literacy and education can kilometre increase in the distance to be powerful tools for empowering Ecuador school decreases girls’ enrolment by rural women and fighting poverty Guatemala 20 percent.18 Decreasing the distance and hunger. In fact, women who Nicaragua to school raises girls’ enrolment and are educated are more likely to be Panama attendance; building local schools healthy, generate higher incomes, Bangladesh in rural communities increased and have greater decision-making Indonesia girls’ enrolment in Egypt, Indonesia power within their households.21 Nepal Tajikistan and several African countries. The Viet Nam cost of education is another barrier, particularly for rural poor families. Goal 3: Promote gender Ghana equality and empower Malawi Many of the world’s people who women Nigeria are illiterate are rural women 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Women make up over two-thirds of Rural girls are doubly women men the world’s 796 million people who disadvantaged in global Source: FAO, 2011.23 are illiterate, and many of them live secondary school attendance in rural areas.19 In some countries, Secondary school attendance has far fewer rural women can read and implications for future employment Rural women are less likely to write than rural men. For example, in and economic opportunities as work for wages than rural men Cambodia 48 percent of rural women well as health outcomes. Evidence Recent data from a number of indicates that rural girls are less likely countries from Africa, Asia and Latin to attend secondary school than rural America indicate that women are boys, and they are far less likely to far less likely to participate in rural attend than urban girls. According wage employment (both agricultural to Figure 5, 39 percent of rural girls and non-agricultural) than men attend secondary school compared to (Figure 6). Instead, they are most 45 percent of rural boys, 59 percent active in the informal rural economy, of urban girls, and 60 percent of which operates outside of labour urban boys. standards. When they do work for wages, rural women are more likely to be employed in part-time, Figure 5 seasonal, and/or low-paying work.24 Men’s average wages are higher than Global secondary school women’s in both rural and urban attendance (%) areas, and in some countries, the 70 gap in wages between rural women 60 and men is also wider in rural areas.25 50 40 girls Rural women are also more likely 30 boys to be unpaid contributing family 20 members than rural men.26 10 0 rural urban Furthermore, rural women typically work longer hours than men, when Source: United Nations, 2009.22

 one takes into account both paid Figure 7 Goal 4: Reduce child productive and unpaid reproductive mortality or domestic and care responsibilities. Physical abuse among urban In Benin and Tanzania, for example, and rural women Child mortality rates in rural areas women work, respectively, 17.4 and 14 remain higher than in urban areas 100 hours more than men per week, while Between 1990 and 2009, all the rural Indian women work almost 11 90 regions of the world saw a significant hours more than urban women and 80 decrease in under-five mortality 27 12 hours more than urban men. 70 rates, with some developing regions 60 reaching or approaching 2015 In most regions, women are targets.31 Existing data, however, 50 under-represented in politics make it impossible to determine and decision making 40 how child mortality varies between Progress has been made in women’s 30 rural boys and girls. Although political representation since 1995, 20 levels of child mortality vary widely including in Africa and much of 10 between countries, rural rates are usually much higher than urban ones Asia, where there have been cases of 0 notable increases in the presence of (Figure 8). Sub-Saharan Africa has rural rural rural rural rural women parliamentarians. Strikingly, urban urban urban urban urban the highest rates of rural and overall Rwanda made great gains, with Bangladesh Brazil Peru Thailand Tanzania under-five mortality, but rural areas women now making up 56 percent are often equally disadvantaged in percentage never physically abused of the parliament, compared to 17 countries with much lower rates of 28 percentage of ever physically abused under-five mortality – for example, percent in 1995. Globally, however, who sought help in Honduras, rural children under a gender gap in women’s access percentage of ever physically abused to power, inclusion in decision who did not seek help five are almost twice as likely to die making, and leadership remains at all levels, including in rural councils. Source: WHO, 2005.30 FAO elaboration. Information available from Asia for 2010 indicates that women female genital mutilation (FGM), there represented between 0.2 early marriage, wife inheritance). percent (Bangladesh) and 7 percent According to a multi-country study (Cambodia) of chairs or heads of conducted by WHO, rural women rural councils, while they represented report more experiences of physical between 1.6 percent (Sri Lanka) abuse than urban women (Figure 7). and 31 percent (Pakistan) of elected However, the data from the study representatives in rural councils.29 show no clear pattern as to whether more rural or urban women are Many rural women experience accessing services to assist them in yet few dealing with the abuse. In general, seek services women may doubt that services A key to ensuring rural women’s will offer the help they require. They empowerment and eradicating may also fear for their children’s or poverty is to address inequitable their own safety if they report abuse. gender power relations and persistent Police, counseling and legal services norms and beliefs that maintain may be more difficult for women to gender-based violence (GBV) and access in rural than urban areas due, harmful traditional practices (e.g. for instance, to a lack of transport and distance to services.

 Figure 8 Figure 9 mothers with no education in the Latin America and Caribbean region Under-five mortality rate (per 1,000 Ratio of rural to urban under-five are 3.1 times more likely to die live births), selected countries mortality rate, 2000/2008 than those with mothers who have secondary or tertiary education and Nigeria Latin America and the Caribbean 1.6 times more likely to die than Niger Chad Eastern Asia (excl. China) and South-Eastern Asia those whose mothers have primary 34 Guinea education. These facts suggest that Southern Asia Cameroon rural women’s deficits in education Senegal have broader and longer-term Northern Africa and Western Asia Congo implications for family well-being and Uganda Sub-Saharan Africa poverty reduction. Tanzania Lesotho Caucasus and Central Asia Zimbabwe Goal 5: Improve Pakistan developing regions Haiti India 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 More rural women receive Bangladesh Values above one indicate higher assistance during delivery, but Indonesia under-five mortality in rural areas Honduras inequalities remain Viet Nam Source: United Nations, 2011.33 Quality reproductive health services 0 50 100 150 200 250 and well-timed interventions are fundamental for achieving good urban rural as urban children. Of the developing maternal health, yet hundreds of Source: WHO Global Health Observatory Data regions, Latin America and the thousands of women die each year Repository.32 FAO elaboration. Caribbean and Eastern Asia have because of a lack of such services. comparatively low levels of under- In most developing regions, rural five mortality, but they also have women have less access to skilled the highest levels of inequality health personnel in delivery, between rural and urban populations even though the long-standing (Figure 9). Overall, rural children differences between rural and urban under 5 in developing regions are areas have declined in all regions about 1.4 times more likely to die and even been eliminated in a few than their urban counterparts. (Figure 10).

Women’s education is a key Rural women see improvements determinant in their children’s in antenatal care, but still lag survival behind urban women Available information from 68 Between 1990 and 2008, the countries with data on under-five proportion of rural women receiving mortality by mothers’ education antenatal care at least once during indicates that a woman’s education pregnancy grew from 55 to 66 is a key factor in determining whether percent, while corresponding rates her children will survive past the first for urban women increased from five years of life. A child’s chances of 84 to 89 percent over the same surviving increase even further when period. While this would indicate that his or her mother has a secondary antenatal coverage has improved at a or higher education. Children of

 Figure 10 Figure 11 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Ratio of urban women to rural Rural antenatal care coverage – women attended by skilled health at least four visits (%), selected Rural women have a more limited predominantly rural countries personnel during delivery, understanding than urban women 1990 and 2008 Zimbabwe of how HIV spreads, the first step 1994 2005 to avoiding infection Sub-Saharan Africa Zambia 1996 Globally, women constituted half of 2007 the adults (15 years and older) living Southern Asia Tanzania 38 1996 with HIV in 2010. Young women 2004 are particularly vulnerable to HIV, Oceania Uganda 1995 and they account for 64 percent of 2006 HIV infections among young people Western Asia Rwanda 39 1992 worldwide. Yet only 33 percent 2005 of young men and 20 percent Latin America and the Caribbean Nepal 1996 of young women in developing 2006 regions have comprehensive and Northern Africa Namibia 40 1992 correct knowledge of HIV. Youth 2006 in rural areas, and especially young Southeastern Asia Mali 1995 women, are even less likely to know 2006 about prevention methods or to CIS in Asia Malawi 1992 use condoms than their urban 2004 counterparts.41 WHO data (Figure 12) Eastern Asia Kenya 1993 from 25 countries indicate that rural 2003 women are almost always less likely 0 1 2 3 India 1992 Values above one 2005 indicate more access for Burkina Faso 1992 urban women 2003 1990 2008 Bangladesh 1993 2007 Source: United Nations, 2010.35 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 faster pace in rural areas, a large gap Source: WHO Global Health Observatory Data 37 still exists.36 Repository. FAO elaboration. Available information from the mid- 1990s to the mid- to late 2000s 20 percent coverage in 2007, while indicates that some predominantly India and Nepal also improved, but rural countries (where at least 60 remained under 30 percent coverage percent of the population lives in in 2005 and 2006, respectively. rural areas) have made substantial In Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia progress in antenatal care coverage increased coverage by almost 20 (at least 4 visits) in rural areas percent between 1992 and 2006, but (Figure 11). In Asia, Bangladesh made most other countries made little or significant gains in antenatal care no progress, and many actually saw coverage, but still remained under coverage decrease.

 than urban women to report knowing Figure 12 about means of sexual transmission of HIV, in some cases by margins as Women who report knowing about means of sexual transmission large as 20-50 percent. Interestingly, of HIV/AIDS (%) in several countries with high levels Bangladesh of HIV infection (Malawi, Namibia, Kenya Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia Benin and Zimbabwe), the rural-urban Malawi gap is low, possibly reflecting the Bolivia (Plurinational State of) success of public interventions and Mali awareness-raising campaigns in Burkina Faso those countries. Namibia

Cameroon Antiretroviral therapy Nepal coverage is uneven Colombia The number of people accessing Peru antiretroviral therapy in low- and Dominican Republic middle-income countries reached an Rwanda estimated 6.6 million (47 percent of Egypt those eligible for treatment) at the Turkey end of 2010. Antiretroviral therapy Ghana coverage generally appears to be Uganda higher among women than men. Haiti Across all low- and middle-income United Republic of Tanzania countries, an estimated 53 percent India Zambia

Indonesia Zimbabwe

Jordan

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 rural urban

Source: WHO global health observatory data repository.42 WHO elaboration.

of women eligible for treatment terms of understanding differences were receiving it at the end of 2010, in uptake by rural versus urban compared with 40 percent of men. location, significant evidence from Coverage was higher for women than generalized epidemics indicates that men in East, South and South-East rural populations have less access Asia, and in Sub-Saharan Africa. But to treatment services than urban in Latin America and the Caribbean, populations, although the situation the reverse was true.43 is improving in some countries While research on utilization as services expand (e.g. Senegal, patterns is still in its early stages in Uganda).44

 Women assume the burden of Goal 7: Ensure Women’s presence matters, but care giving, including in environmental sustainability the nature of their participation is rural areas also important Most of the care for people living Rural women and natural While women’s involvement has with HIV is provided in the home, resources been associated with better local and women and girls account Environmental degradation has a environmental management, their for 66 to 90 percent of all AIDS great impact on natural resources, mere presence in institutions is care givers (in addition to the which rural women rely on for not enough to overcome deep- many tasks they already perform). their livelihoods. For example, rooted disparities. Institutional Conditions are most difficult for evidence suggests that women with change and flexibility are needed to women and girls in rural areas. The fewer occupational options and ensure that women can participate disproportionate share of AIDS- less mobility rely on forests more effectively in decision making. related care giving by women and than men do. Reduced quality and A recently published study of girls imposes a heavy toll on their availability of land, game, forests, community forestry institutions in own well-being, often leading to and genetic and aquatic resources India and Nepal found that women’s their increased vulnerability to HIV increase rural women’s time burden, proportional strength in forest infection. HIV-associated stigma reduce their capacities to cope with management committees has an and discrimination, increases in the shocks and climate change, affect impact on the effectiveness of their poverty of female- and child-headed where they live and provoke conflict, participation. The more women on households and a higher probability which in turn undermine rural the management committee, the of dropping out of school at an early health, education and livelihoods. greater the likelihood that they will age could all add to the burden faced Furthermore, there is some evidence attend committee meetings, speak by female caregivers.45 of causal linkages between gender up and become office holders.51 inequality and environmental Food insecurity, property degradation. For example, gender disinheritance and HIV inequality and deforestation were among rural women causally related in more than 100 49 Women form the backbone of countries between 1990 and 2010. agricultural labour, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa – which is the Women, policy and epicenter of the HIV epidemic. The environmental sustainability impact of HIV/AIDS on women, Research suggests that women either in their own capacity or as express more concern for the care givers, reduces their time environment, support policies and energy and is associated with that are more beneficial to the declines in agricultural productivity environment and tend to vote and, therefore, food insecurity.46 In for leaders who care about the the rural areas, households with environment. Evidence from 25 one or more persons affected by developed and 65 developing HIV and AIDS are more likely to countries indicates that countries be food-insecure than non-affected with higher female parliamentary households.47 HIV also exacerbates representation are more likely to property insecurity and the set aside protected land areas. A disinheritance of women, especially study of 130 countries shows that widows whose husbands have died women are also more likely to from AIDS-related causes.48 ratify international environmental treaties.50

 Figure 13 Goal 8: A global partnership for development Percentage of population using different sources of water by wealth quintile (urban and rural areas), Sub-Saharan Africa 2004/2009 A recent study of 23 members of the OECD Development Assistance urban areas rural areas Committee indicates that in 2007- 100 100 08, bilateral donors committed 90 90 USD 4.6 billion to 80 80 and women’s empowerment in the 70 70 economic and productive sectors (including agriculture).54 This 60 60 represents one-fifth of their total 50 50 aid in these sectors.55 Forty-two 40 40 percent of the aid for gender equality in the productive sectors was 30 30 earmarked for agriculture and rural 20 20 development.56 10 10 While there is increasing donor 0 0 recognition of rural women’s important contributions to

fourth 20% eradicating poverty and hunger second 20% middle 20% richest 20% middle 20% fourth 20% richest 20% poorest 20% poorest 20%second 20% and to overall well-being in rural unimproved sources other improved sources piped on premises households and communities, there remains a lack of data on the actual Source: United Nations, 2011.52 impact of aid on rural women’s empowerment and gender equality. Gaps in access to improved Progress towards such objectives sources of water between urban is often translated into monitoring and rural areas remain significant and evaluation indicators that assess In urban areas, levels of access ‘progress’ by numbers of rural to improved water and sanitation women participating in particular are generally high and above the interventions rather than the quality MDG target. In contrast, poor rural of those interventions and the populations still face great challenges broader impacts on rural women. accessing clean drinking water. There is an urgent need to invest in Coverage in rural areas across all rural women and to develop more regions lags behind urban areas comprehensive and nuanced metrics (Figure 13). In 2008, an estimated and related measurement systems 141 million people living in urban to assess the different impacts of areas and 743 million people living agriculture and rural development in rural areas relied on unimproved policies and programmes, together sources for drinking water. An urban with contributing aid allocations, on dweller in Sub-Saharan Africa is 1.8 rural women and men. times more likely to use an improved drinking water source than a person living in a rural area.53

10 Data challenges and measure progress for rural and urban Notes implications for future women and men, and to identify and address specific disparities. 1. UNDP. 2011. Human Development Report. development goals Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for All. p. 58. New York. (http://hdr.undp.org/en/ Better indicators are needed media/HDR_2011_EN_Complete.pdf) Some indicators are not gender- to monitor progress in rural 2. UNIFEM (now UN Women). 2009. Progress sensitive, and those that are, are 57 of World’s Women. Who Answers to Women? women’s lives Gender and Accountability. p. 36. (http://www. not necessarily sensitive to rural- As we work toward meeting the unifem.org/progress/2008/media/POWW08_ urban disparities MDGs and move toward developing Report_Full_Text.pdf) To a great extent, the MDGs monitor 3. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture new and better global targets, there 2010-2011 (SOFA). p. 17. Rome. (http:// www. general progress, providing the global are a number of areas that must be fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf). community and individual countries observed if we are to understand in Primary source: ILO. 2009. Key indicators with useful information for policy of the labour market, sixth edition. Geneva, greater depth the opportunities and Switzerland. and planning purposes. Although constraints in rural women’s lives, 4. FAO. 2011. SOFA. pp. 16-17. the MDG guidelines suggest that and to monitor progress towards 5. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural all indicators be disaggregated by rural women’s empowerment and Employment Policy Brief #3. Rural women’s sex and rural-urban location, this is entrepreneurship is “good business”! (http:// gender equality appropriately and www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2008e/i2008e03. only occasionally done owing to the effectively. Indicators and data pdf) nature of the indicators themselves, collected must be disaggregated, at 6. FAO. 2011. Op. cit. p. 5. low capacity and poor data systems, the very least, by sex and rural/urban 7. FAO. 2011. Ibid. pp. 125-131 (Statistical Annex, or lack of interest. Some of the Table A6). location. These indicators could 8. FAO. 2010. Gender and Land Rights indicators – for example those under include, but are not limited to: Database. (http://www.fao.org/gender/ MDG 2 (Achieve universal primary MDG1: average annual dietary intake landrights) 2011. Op. cit. p. 23. education) and MDG 3 (Promote per capita; access to employment, 9. FAO. 10. FAO. 2011. Ibid. (See Chapter 3. Documenting gender equality and women’s including the informal sector and the gender gap in agriculture, pp. 23-38.) empowerment) – are disaggregated agricultural self-employment; access 11. FAO. 2011. Ibid. p. 33. by sex. MDG 5 (Improve maternal to productive assets and financial health) focuses specifically on services (e.g. land, credit, extension women. Others – for example MDG 7 services, agricultural technology); (Ensure environmental sustainability) access to social security and safety – are difficult to disaggregate by nets; MDG2: ratio of orphans to non- sex. However, even when data are orphans (10-14 years old) attending disaggregated by sex, they are rarely school; MDG3: prevalence of gender- also disaggregated by urban and rural based violence (GBV) and GBV locations. In addition, rural dynamics knowledge/attitudes/perceptions; and women’s roles sometimes participation in institutions; MDG6: require different types of indicators proportion of people living with HIV to characterize and monitor progress who receive anti-retroviral treatment than those commonly used. For compared to those who need example, data to capture rural treatment; access to other health women’s multiple job holding and services (e.g. malaria/tuberculosis seasonal work are particularly difficult treatment); and MDG8: the impact to obtain with existing systems. of aid to agriculture and rural Overall, with a few exceptions, the development and of trade/debt on MDG indicators provide a rather rural women’s empowerment and limited base against which to gender equality.

11 12. FAO. 2011. Ibid. p. 9. 19. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural sector progress towards Universal Access. p. 13. United Nations. 2011. Millennium Development Employment Policy Brief #2. Investing in 19. Geneva. (http://www.unaids.org/en/ Goals Report. p. 67 states: “Since there is no skills for socio-economic empowerment media/unaids/contentassets/documents/ established convention for the designation of rural women. (http://www.fao-ilo. unaidspublication/2011/20111130_UA_Report_ of ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries org/fileadmin/user_upload/fao_ilo/pdf/ en.pdf) or areas in the , this 02EducationAndSkills_WEB.pdf) 39. UNAIDS. Securing the future today: Synthesis distinction is made for the purposes of 20. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Ibid. of Strategic Information on HIV and Young statistical analysis only.” (http://www.un.org/ 21. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Ibid. People. p.2. Geneva. (http://www.unaids.org/ millenniumgoals/11_MDG%20Report_EN.pdf) 22. United Nations. 2009. Millennium en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/ 14. United Nations. 2010. Millennium Development Development Goals Report. p. 20. (http://www. unaidspublication/2011/20110727_JC2112_ Goals Report. pp. 13 -14. New York. (http:// un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG_Report_ Synthesis_report_en.pdf) www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG 2009_ENG.pdf) 40. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p. 38 %20Report%202010%20En%20r15%20- 23. FAO. 2011. Op. cit. p. 18. 41. United Nations. 2011. Ibid. pp. 32, 39. low%20res%2020100615%20-.pdf) 24. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural 42. WHO Global Health Observatory Data 15. The Chicago Council on Global Affairs. 2011. Employment Policy Brief #4. Agricultural value Repository. Data ranges from various years Girls Grow: A vital force in rural economies. chain development: Threat or opportunity for between 2003 and 2007. (http://www.thechicagocouncil.org/ women’s employment? (http://www.fao.org/ 43. UNAIDS, UNICEF, WHO. 2011. Op. cit. pp. 96, UserFiles/File/GlobalAgDevelopment/Report/ docrep/013/i2008e/i2008e04.pdf) 98, 102. GirlsGrowReportFinal_v9.pdf) 25. FAO. 2011. Op. cit. p. 20. 44. UNAIDS, WHO. 2006. Progress on global access 16. United Nations. 2010. Op. cit. p. 18 26. http://www.fao.org/economic/es-policybriefs/ to HIV antiretroviral therapy: a report on “3 by 5” 17. World Bank. 2012. World Development Report briefs-detail/en/?no_cache=1&uid=29511 and beyond. pp. 23, 33. Geneva. (http://www. 2012: Gender Equality and Development 27. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural who.int/hiv/fullreport_en_highres.pdf) (WDR). p. 112. Washington DC. (http:// Employment Policy Brief #1. Gender-equitable 45. UNAIDS, UNFPA, UNIFEM. 2004. Women and siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/ rural work to reduce poverty and boost economic HIV/AIDS: Confronting the Crisis. (http://www. Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210- growth. (http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/ unfpa.org/hiv/women/docs/women_aids.pdf) 1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf) i2008e/i2008e01.pdf) 46. FAO. 2005. Assessment of the world food security 18. World Bank. Ibid. p. 112. 28. World Bank. 2012. Op.cit. p. 83. situation. Rome. (http://www.fao.org/docrep/ 29. UNDP. 2010. The 2010 Women in meeting/009/J4968e/j4968e00.htm) Local Government Status Report. p.20. 47. http://www.fao.org/hivaids/ (http://www.undp.mn/publications/ 48. Philipose, Anadita. 2007. HIV/AIDS, Gender WomenInLocalGovernmentStatusReport2010. and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cornell pdf) University. 30. WHO. 2005. WHO Multi-Country study on 49. UNDP. 2011. Op. cit. p. 75. women’s health and domestic violence against 50. UNDP. 2011. Ibid. pp. 63-65. women. Statistical appendix, Tables 2(a) and 51. UNDP. 2011. Ibid. p. 65 (Box 3.4). 17. Geneva. (http://www.who.int/gender/ 52. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p. 54 violence/who_multicountry_study/en/) 53. United Nations. 2011. Ibid. p. 54. 31. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p.28. 54. The 11 productive sectors are: public finance 32. WHO Global Health Observatory Data management; employment policy; transport Repository. (http://apps.who.int/ghodata/). and storage; communications; energy; Available WHO data on under-five mortality for banking and business; agriculture and rural rural and urban areas exist for 46 developing development; industry; mining, construction, countries from various years between 1999 tourism; trade, urban development. and 2007. 55. OECD. 2011. Aid in Support of Women’s 33. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p. 25. Economic Empowerment. p.7. (http://www. 34. United Nations. 2011. Ibid. p. 26 .org/dataoecd/19/8/46864237.pdf) 35. United Nations. 2010. Op. cit. p. 32. 56. OECD. 2011. Ibid. p.9. 36. United Nations. 2010. Ibid. p. 33. 57. Note: These suggested areas for indicators 37. WHO Global Health Observatory Data were derived during the interactive research Repository. Complete data set: 25 countries. undertaken with the participating UN agencies Countries selected for the graph above are during the preparation of this fact sheet. those that are predominantly rural (60 percent Further examination and formal discussion by and over). UN member organizations is required before 38. UNAIDS, UNICEF, WHO. 2011. Global HIV/ finalizing a list of proposed indicators. AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health

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