THE MOVING IMAGE SOCIETY An Illustrated History of Colour Film Grant Lobban looks at the historical background and the technologies of colour film

Hand-crafted - the A previous article in thi s slides was soon extended versions of Georges series looked at over a to moving pictures, using Melies' trick and fantasy making of a masterwork century of making 'black fine brushes to apply films [2], and the hand­ Grant Lobban spent the best part of and white' movies. Thi s transparent colour dyes to coloured gun flashes in two years compiling this 'masterwork'. time, it's the turn of each frame. The earliest The Great Train Robbery Eschewing the 'modern' tools of colour, the various ways surviving example is (1903). computer and scanner, and rightly that colour films have probably the Kinetoscope concentrating on acquiring the content been photographed, 1896 subject, Th e Stencil Colouring and not its eventual form, the results processed and printed Serpentine Dance by To speed up the process, of Grant's labours and diligent archive over the years, and the Annabelle-the-Dancer. stencils were sometimes searches were eventually presented to type of original material [Frame 1- facing page. cut to colour areas which the Editor as some 60 pages of closely remained the same shape type-written (yes, not wordprocessed!) which may still be Other numbers in square pages, heavily annotated with second available for making new brackets refer to and size over a large thoughts and reference numbers, plus copies and if necessary subsequent frames]. number of frames. Thi s a couple of dozen A4 pages onto may be restored to ensure Some of the black and sk illed, but laborious task, which 'millions' of precious film clips its future survival. was later fully had been stuck, together with a mechanised, with up to sizeable collection of mounted 35mm Historical six different colour tints sl ides, quite a few of which Grant had Background and applied through 'moving ' carefully assembled from two halves to Technology stenci ls . Each of these was provide side by side comparisons. From the birth of motion cut by an electrically pictures, colour films have powered stylus guided by Putting the article together, working existed alongside those in an operator tracing with all this precious material, left me black and white, although Hand coloured 'Butterfly around the chosen area feeling like those who worked on the the earliest would be Dance' (1907) on an enlarged image of 'Dead Sea Scrolls' must have done. better described as each frame. A single set Some of the images are, not 'coloured'. white prints were coloured of stencils could then be surprisingly, less than perfect and by the wife of one of used to colour a large betray traces of their 'cut and paste' Hand Pa inting Edison's associates, who (literally) origins, but I do hope that The established method hand painted all 800 Image Technology has managed to do of hand-painting lantern frames of the 50 foot reasonable justice to Grant's 35mm films . Other films remarkable work. We are expecting from the early l 900s, that some of the material, published in which can still be seen several parts in Image Technology, will today, include coloured also eventually find its way onto a new BKS.TS wallchart. Grant's piece is one of those unique articles that only a An early method o f Society-supported magazine like adding colour is shown in Image Technology could publish - a this tiny clip of a cartoon real benefit of belonging to the · loop for a toy proiector Moving Image Society. Our thanks are that was printed in colour by lithography, a method due to Kodak for funding the From a hand coloured Hand cut stencil used to that wasn't suitable for publication of this booklet. Jim Slater print of 'The Great Train speed up the colouring longer cinema films Robbery' ( J 903) process

2 the film was used as a source to make the matrix. The areas chosen to receive the colour were painted out 1 w ith opaque ink and a duplicate negative printed. This was developed in such a 2 way to produce an image Colour sequence from 'Elstree made up of differentially Calling'. One of the last hardened gelatin. The examples of stencil colouring blocked out unexposed areas by Gaumont ( 1930) were softer than the rest of printed films for sale or loan the emulsion and able to to the home cinema absorb the dye which was showman. Stencil colour then transferred in register survived just into the start of 3 onto the final print. Up to 40 the sound era. prints could be coloured with The British all-star revue, the same set of matrices. Elstree Calling (1930), had some of its musical numbers Pathecolor remained the coloured by Gaumont, in an most successful method and attempt to rival the many many films were stencil Hollywood musicals of the 4 coloured up to the end of the Stencil colour (top) and time which included (above) its modern equivalent, 1920s. A regular user was Technicolor sequences. colorisation Pathe themselves, who added colour to many of their The practice of colouring number of prints, with the dramatic films, together with local areas of black and dyes applied through the cut white films has been revived outs using dye soaked from time to time since then, ribbons. Pathecolor [3] often for its shock effect. Red 5 (known as Pathechrome in has proved to be the most the U.S.A.) was the best popular colour, as in Jack known system of this type, The Ripper (1958 ), used when with Gaumont [4] offering a the villain is crushed under a similar service. lift, complete with a spurt of red blood. The Tingler 6 Mechanical Colouring ( 1959), went one better w ith Mechanical colouring began a whole bath full. around 1907, making the Also memorable, was the process more practical as gun shot flash in Hitchcock's films were becoming longer. Spellbound (1945) and, more A different approach to recently, the little girl's red adding the colour was the coat in Schindler's Li st Handschiegl system, (1993). For most of these 7 introduced in 1915, which Stencil colour fashion item later films, the effect was transferred the dyes via a from a Pathecolor short topical usually created on modern separate 'matrix' film, acting film ( 1920s) colour stock and joined into like a printing plate. For each its Pathe Revue, a the black and white print. In colour, up to four, a print of supplement to its newsreel. the cose of the British 8 Popular subjects included feature, Jack The Ripper, fashion and travel items and some colour short-ends left they are available again in over from a previous colour from the present Pathe t , . I• production were used to give News library. the film its oozing red blood .'·, (~~ : finale. Unfortunately, it was Back in the 1920s, Pathe all too gory for the British 9 I!!'\ • also managed to stencil censor, so only appeared in colour some of their 9.5mm the American prints. When Clip using Handscheil process

3 shown on TV over here, there either wholly or partly supplies used up printing is no sign of the colour coloured in one way or adverts, announcements and ending. If it still exists, tracing another. During the heyday trailers, in usually arbitrary and reinstating it would of tinting, chemical chosen colours. The fact that make an interesting project companies satisfied the high a trailer was tinted didn't for a film restoration student. demand from the film mean that the actual feature industry by supplying special was too. Those that were had Tinting a nd Toning 'cine' dyes w ith exotic names fewer changes of colour, or Hand and mechanically like fireglow, azure, nocturn, were tinted the same colour coloured prints cost between Dye -toning peachglow and inferno. The throughout, which could be two and five times that of the practice rapidly declined done in a continuous equivalent black and white after the introduction of processing machine. Among Dye-toning first bleaches the copies. A simpler and the few examples of its silver image, which will not cheaper alternative to put continued use were the sepia accept a dye, and converts it colour up on the screen was toned or amber tinted B­ to a new form which can tinting and toning, with the westerns from the 1930s and then be coloured using any colours chosen to match the 1940s. MGM's exclusive of a wide range of basic mood of the subject e.g. blue 'Sepia Platinum' process was dyes. Tinting and toning for night scenes and red for used to tone the entire The could be combined, fire. Tinting [5] produces an producing a two tone effect, Sonochrome tinted stock for overall uniform veil of colour, w ith the overall tinted colour sound films being more apparent in the sound, as many of the highlights [7]. A popular methods which were combination was a blue employed interfered with the toned image, together with a optical sound track. Tinting pink tint, ideal for the 'we was still occasionally used for say farewell to .. . ' sunsets at sound films, some printed on the end of many travelogues. Interesting method of adding special pre-tinted stock, such Other techniques which colour at the proiector. 'Colour a Ea stman 'Sonochrome', extended the art, included your own' with an in front of which offered a range of 16 dissolving back and forth the lens multi-colour filter tints, chosen not to upset the from one colour to another, attachment. sound reproduction . for example to simulate Other solutions included Good Earth (1937), and just changing stage lighting having coloured lacquer the opening and closing during a variety act. Th e coated on the film's base, Kansas sequences in The section of the print to be avoiding the track area [9]. Wizard Of Oz (1939) with, in treated was wound around a By the mid- l 930s, the original prints, the Tinting (top ) and combined rack or drum and was only tinting and toning (bottom) Sonochrome and most other transitional frames hand­ partially immersed in the first pre-tinted stock had been coloured to smooth the bath of dye, before being similar to placing a coloured discontinued, any remaining change to the wonderful turned to tint the rest of the filter in front of the Technicolor land of Oz. film in another colour. projector's lens. Toning [ 6] Another variation was converts the actual black and Colour via the pro jector double-toning, in which the white image into a coloured For those who liked to see process was started to one, retaining its tonal values their films tinted, it could still produce one colour, then e.g. clear highlights remain be done at the time of interrupted and completed in uncoloured. projection. Multi-colour filter another. The dominant Tinting was achieved by wheels and holders were colour depended on the dyeing the final prints, or Sepia toned sound film available for both amateur image density, and when making them on previously combined with an additional The old tradition of adding artificial colour to black and white tinted stock. Toning methods overall tint in a third colour, films continues with today's 'colorisation' include chemical toning, a skilled lab worker could which converts the silver 0 o l produce a result to rival 0 --- . 0 0 0 image into a coloured 0 ' > 0 stencil colour. 0 D j metallic compound, such as o0 ·.':' > • ·o0 0 0 iron for blue, or uranium It has been estimated that up Original B&W Electronically 'Now in colour' and copper for red. to 80% of silent films were version generated colour version

4 and professional projectors the three frames at once, the for use in front of the lens. film ran at normal speed As late as l 961, yellow filters with each frame shown three were provided along with the times, the filters changing to black and white prints of The the correct colour as each Day The Earth Caught Fire to passed behind the three tint the opening and closing lenses in turn. 'it ain't half hot' scenes. Chronochrome Of course, all the efforts to Lee and Turner three-colour The later Gaumont add colour to films described additive projector of 790 7 with Chronochrome process [l OJ three 'sawn-off' lenses for so far only produced used a similar triple lens simultaneous projection of its 'artificial' colour, and projector, but the pull-down triple black and white filtered although the art lives on in images on special 3Bmm film. distance was increased to the form of today's electronic The combined shutter and advance all three frames at colourisation, the ultimate stepped colour filters shown once, which were reduced in goal was to perfect a followed their appropriate height to lessen the strain ' natural' colour process, frames as they passed in turn imposed on the film. which could record and behind each of the triple Demonstrated in 1912, it reproduce the actual colours lenses. was to have only limited of the subject. However it showings up to around 1920 was to be a slow and difficult with the added attraction of task, with more money spent sound coming from a disc on and lost trying to come up a synchronised phonograph. with a workable perfected colour process, than in any I There was still difficulty other technical aspect of film registering the images making. coming from three separate lenses. One great obstacle Capturing The Hues of for those working on the first Nature I colour processes was that Colour photography was cine film stock at the time made possible by the Although unsuccessful, the Lee was only sensitive to blue discovery that, like the and Turner process led on to the and a little green light. To development of the much simpler receptors in the eye, any I make it sensitive equally to and commercially successful colour of the spectrum can Kinemacolor all colours, it had first to be be created by mixing bathed in special sensitising proportions of only the three dyes before being exposed in primary colours of red, green the camera. If a green and blue. The practical ways sensitising dye is added, it is of using this principle fall 'excited' by green light and into two categories, additive the released energy is able to and subtractive. 'expose' the otherwise only blue sensitive emulsion, The first 'natural' colour extending its range to include processes for motion pictures green (orthochromatic). were additive. If three Similarly, if a red sensitising separate black and white dye is also included, the film images are taken of the All the colours of the visible spectrum can be synthesised by becomes ' panchromatic' and scene through red, green recording only 3 regions, using red, green and blue filters. can now record all colours. Using only the 2 compromise filters, red-orange and blue-green, and blue filters and then (A very-simplified explanation an adequate but limited range of colours can be reproduced. projected back through the of the theory. ) At first, it was same filters and and blue produce white and shown above. The three difficult to achieve a superimposed in register on shades of grey. 'separation' images were consistent and predictable the screen, a full colour recorded in sequence along result. It was not until l 912 image is reproduced. No Lee and Turner the length of the film and that Kodak could supply a light represents black and An early example was the shown using a triple lens ready sensitised equal amounts of red, green Lee and Turner system from projector equipped with panchromatic negative stock. 1902, whose details are filters. Although it projected

5 History of Colour Film

Initially available on an World The Flesh And The experimental basis for colour Devil, shown in 1914, processes, it was first used followed by the first 'natural' for ordinary black and white colour versions of Robin films in 1922, becoming Hood and Dr Jekyll And Mr universal by l 927. Hyde.

With attempts to produce full The projection of three-colour additive systems Kinemacolor at double the proving difficult, the task was usual speed (32 frames per simplified when it was second) was an extra strain realised that a limited, but on both man and machine. adequate range of colours If the film broke, care was could be reproduced using needed during the repair to only two filters, red and ensure that the colour 1 1 blue/ green. This was records remained in particularly so if viewed in a sequence. Although credited darkened cinema when as a British invention, unable to see the true Kinemacolor was equally colours of nature for successful around the world. Kinemacolor 'black and To help avoid breakdow ns , comparison. wh ite' print showing the subject's colour represented special heavy duty motor Kinemacolor as a the different tones driven projectors had to be The first successful process to recorded on alternative hired for the performance. exploit this was Kinemacolor frames along the film In America, many states had 12 0 [l l], in which the film was at double the normal speed banned the use of electric photographed and projected through alternating red and motors on projectors to blue/ green filters, relying on prevent the operator from persistence of vision to fuse wandering off and not being the images together on the able to deal with a fire or screen. other emergency. For them, 13 Although the colour a hand turned version was reproduction would not available, specially geared impress today's audiences, to reduce the fatigue, but 0 0 even so the projectionist still Kinemacolor was a big hit 0 0 when first shown in 1910. needed a strong right arm. 0 Most of the films were All this extra trouble and 14° 0 0 outdoor non-fiction expense for exhibitors, newsreels and travel together with the novelty subjects, including their wearing off, led to the greatest success, the 2 Y2 - closure of the Kinemacolor hour coverage of the 1911 Company in 1916. 15 Delhi Durbar. Kinemacolor camera and Biocolor projector showing the This was an ideal subject for British pioneer William alternating red and green filters Kinemacolor, with lots of Friese-Green tried to brightly coloured pageantry compete with Kinemacolor, shot under the sun in India. using a similar process, but There were a few dramatic staining the alternate frames productions, such as The on the print the appropriate 16

The result of the subject moving too rapidly in front of a Kinemacolor camera

6 colour, to eliminate the need dressed in a rainbow horizontal series of very fine for making subtractive colour for filters on the projector. coloured suit juggling red, (22 to the millimetre) parallel prints, and experimental Fox Unsuccessful when first green and blue balls. lenticular lens elements was Lenticular release prints proposed in 1911 , as embossed into the film's made from separation Biocolor [12] it was later re­ Raycol and Rouxcolor base. These (facing the lens), negatives or colour negatives launched in the mid- 1920s Additive systems continued to combined with a tri-colour ( 1952). Thomson Color was by his son Claude. Some be promoted, most placing banded filter placed over the used for an unsuccessful travel films were mode in the the two or three separation camera lens, split the image attempt to film a colour process and footage showing black and white images up into three narrow version of Jacques Tati's Jour everyday life in Britain reduced in size within the interlaced strips behind each De Fete in 1948. At the time, between the two world wars space of a normal 35mm lenticle representing the red , the printing method failed to has been restored in colour frame and projected through green and blue components produce satisfactory colour and seen again in recent TV special multiple lens of the picture. After reversal prints, so the film only documentaries. attachments incorporating processing, the positive print appeared in black and white. filters . Examples, which had was projected through a Fortunately, the lenticular Although both Kinemacolor some commercial matching filter on the camera original survived and Biocolor were application, include the projector's lens, with the and, after a means to copy it photographed and projected British Raycol (two-colour) lenticles directing each of the was worked out, the film can using a single lens, colour system, used for The School image strips back through now be seen in colour, over fringing was often noticeable For Scandal (1930) and the their correct colour band in 50 years late. due to the subject moving short, Skipper Of The Osprey the filter, creating a full­ between exposures. Other (1933). Realita [14] (three­ colour picture on the screen. MAKE YOUR MOVIES systems tried to reduce the colour) was the British The need for reversal IN effect by cutting the time version of the French processing, and the difficulty NATURAL interval between the taking Franchita process. A number in making lenticular copies, COLOURS . . .

"- ...... -y ..... ,...... '" ·- of the successive red and of short films were made made the process more 11 ...... ,,...... _ _,, obit, h<.... _ ,, ...... _ • .., •• &""'~~ ...... , .• ~. "-.i ..i.... 1.. 1...... " '<•-, ""'" OUF.\H"OWR Cl:<""'1 ..... _ ---_..._... ~ , blue/ green records, or using it, including a colour suitable for amateurs, who , ..., ...... ou.-A\'COLO« _ ,.... __ ..- ''' ...... _ .. ..w..-. ....,...... -~ ,_ ,...._.,.__ , photographing them record of George Vl 's only needed one print. ;;~;',~ ::::4~-:r;;:;-,.;:~Ql h ...... a ...... __. ... __ _ simultaneously using a Coronation procession in DllJJfA\l'(OlOIR double lens camera, but 1937. One of the last Kodacolor and Thomson 16 mm. Safety fringing was still evident, attempts to introduce an Color CINE FILM · .. :·;;.;·,-:.. _-:_·.· particularly at closer additive process was another Kodak' s Kodacolor [15] distances, due to parallax French system , Rouxcolor, l 6mm lenticular process was between the two lenses. For used for The Millers introduced in 1928, the first Dufaycolor simultaneous images with Daughter (1948). All the colour film available for The most successful additive identical geometry a single­ systems suffered from poorer home movie makers. When system from the 1930s was lens beam-splitting optical definition due to the reduced found today, it looks like an Dufaycolor [16]. It was an system was preferred, but sized images, together with ordinary black and white integrated colour screen more difficult to construct. the inevitable colour fringes print. To reveal the hidden process with the colour filters Before parting with any becoming too apparent. colour, it has to be shown built into the film's base, money, a prospective investor through the ' magic' filter. which was coated with a in early additive colour Lenticular Systems Examples of attempted regular pattern of processes was advised to ask One solution, without professional use include the microscopic red, green and the inventor or promoter to inherent fringing problems, French Thomson Color, blue filter elements in the give a demonstration was the lenticular additive which used a lenticular form of a grid. Th e base featuring a performer process. A vertical or camera original as a source faced the lens and the black and white emulsion was exposed through the colour 13 screen (reseau). After t1]:j~~=====:::::::~~~ ~ reversal processing, the

The lenticular process records three B&W filtered images as narrow interlaced stripes, Enlarged portion of a using a combination of a tri-colour banded Du fayco lor frame with the fi lter with lenticular lens elements (22 to the minute grid of tri- colour filters on mm) embossed the film 's base. on its base removed

7 History of Colour Film

The greatest disadvantage of fully developed field using traditional tri-colour sequential system was filters as part of a light­ officially adopted in America splitting optical system is by the FCC but, within three their high absorption, years, their decision was resulting in severe loss of revoked in favour of the light. Most modern methods compatible (with B&W) all employ a combination of electronic NTSC system, made low-loss dichroic even more practical by the fi lter/ reflectors to divide the arrival of RCA's shadow-mask light into its primary colours picture tube. The principle of a spinning Polaroid Instant Movies filter wheel lived on to help The integral colour screen transmit the first colour TY principle returned in the pictures from the moon, and l 970s as the basis of today is employed in single Polaroid's instant movies. chip OLP domestic video The loss of light was even projectors. An increase in the positive image was projected showing in cinemas the next greater as the final positive frequency rate has all but back through the filter day. In 1937, Dufaycolor in Super-8 image also included eliminated any sign of colour elements which, viewed from its 35mm form became the the remains of a weak fringing except for the most a distance, blend together in negative. The film was so first ever colour rapid movement of the the eye to form the colour dense it stayed in its cassette negative/positive process picture on the screen . The and could only be viewed [17] and went on to be used using a small-screen back for over 80 short films. One projection unit equipped with of the most successful was a very bright light. the Pathe News coverage of King George Vl's Kinemacolor Revisited Coronation. Among the last 18 The old Kinemacolor idea, Dufaycolor films was the only which we described earlier, of full-length feature shot The most common additive sequential black and white entirely in the process, Sons display device seen today is colour records shown through the shadow mask colour of the Sea [18] (1939). Both changing filters, never died, cathode ray tube. This uses lenticular Kodacolor and but actually reappeared as the same principle as Dufaycolor had fixed principle is still exploited part of the first proposed Dufaycolor, with the pattern registration, so were free today, in the form of colour colour television systems. of dots or lines on the screen from fringing problems. TY picture tubes and other Both Logie Baird's original blending together when Dufaycolor was a fully viewed from a distance, to types of video displays. At 'Telechrome' (two-colour), and integrated additive system, form a full-colour image first (1932), Dufaycolor was the American Columbia with all the elements of the only a direct to positive Broadcasting (3-colour) camera subject or the viewer's process built into the film reversal process, so again systems were demonstrated at head. Even so, for some of itself, which could be viewed best suited to amateurs, and the end of the 1930s. Later, at the more critical home cinema in colour by the naked eye or was available in both 16mm the beginning of the 1950s, a enthusiasts, the 'rainbow projected normally like black and 9.5mm sizes . However, effect', once noticed, can and white films, although a 35mm professional version become annoying. Largely much more light was was also introduced, after a abandoned for colour film required to maintain the way was worked out to make projection by the end of the same screen brightness. Even satisfactory reversal prints, 1930s, the additive method is if the colour picture was not without too much loss of fighting back and returning to marred by fringes, the saturation, and avoiding cinemas in the guise of digital greatest disadvantage interference patterns between projectors. The old remained that of all the early the two reseaus. It was used disadvantage of light loss has additive processes, being the to add colour sequences to been largely overcome with high absorption factor of the the British Radio Parade of Early proposed sequential the use of dichroic colour filters, with only about 1935, and King George V's frame colour TV system with filter/ reflectors which can both a quarter of the total spinning Silver Jubilee celebrations red, green and blue transmit and reflect different available light ever reaching fil ters in front of a black and filmed by Movietone News, portions of the spectrum the screen. white CR T Best viewed from without absorption. who ordered 150 prints for a safe distance!

8 Subtractive techniques records, the printing was panchromatic film to expose bleach, which hardened the It was always appreciated done using a skipping step­ the red negative. To make emulsion where development that subtractive colour prints printer. the final colour prints, the had taken place. Each side would be the most Later, the most popular pair of separation negatives was then dyed the convenient for exhibitors, but means of providing the two were usually printed onto appropriate red -orange and the technology proved to be negatives was a bi-pack either side of double-coated blue-green, with the more daunting. Th e prints camera, which ran two black (duplitized) stock. This had a 'negative' images turning to have to have the red, green and white films emulsion to black and white blue­ a positive as the dyes were and blue components of the sensitive emulsion on both absorbed into the softer scene reproduced as three sides of the film, with a unexposed areas. Two-colour superimposed transparent yellow filter layer in between Kodachrome was only used images coloured in their to allow each negative to be for short films including one complementary colours of printed separately without the featuring the world of haute respectively, cyan, magenta printer' s light passing couture fashion [20], which and yellow. These act as through the base. could exploit the colour. filters subtracting proportions Later, in 1929, the process of the white light passing After processing, the two was briefly adopted by the through them, resulting in a positive black and white Fox studio, who re-named it colour image which can be images were subtractively Fox Nature Color, and viewed directly by transmitted coloured using various among the few examples light, or projected without the methods depending on the was The London Revue of need for additional optical individual process. The ways 1930. attachments, or extra light. chosen to treat each side On the print, white is separately also varied. The Prizma Colar represented as clear film, film could be run over rollers Another early two-colour and black by maximum which picked up the dye and process, which achieved density of all three colours. transferred it to one side commercially acceptable To make things easier, only. It could also be wound results, was Prizma Color. the first subtractive processes tightly around a rubber Like many others which were also only two-colour, faced drum to prevent the followed, it coloured each using the compromise chemicals reaching the rear side of the film using the colours of red/ orange and emulsion. Among the other established methods of blue/ green. Not all the methods employed was to toning black and white films. actual colours could be either float the strands of film Metallic toning with uranium reproduced accurately, but emulsion together through on the surface of the was available to produce the fortunately flesh tones could the gate. Examples are solutions, or protecting one red-orange side, often also be quite pleasing. To help shown above. side by varnishing before dyed to add brilliance to the compensate for the immersion and then image, and iron-toning for shortcomings, the pair of The front film nearest the removing the varnish for the the blue-green. The silver colours could be adjusted to lens (exposed through its second treatment. images could also be match the subject matter, base) was orthochromatic bleached and dye-toned with although they must remain and recorded the blue/ green The first Kodachrome a basic dye, which gave a complementary to maintain image. On its surface was a An early process from l 915 greater control over the final the proper grey sca le. The red filter layer which stopped was the first to be called colour than metal-toning. pair of separation negatives all but red light passing Kodachrome (19]. An Prizma Color was launched was obtained using various through to the rear adjacent pair of separation in 1919 with a short methods, from a simple red and green filtered travelogue Everywhere With Kinemacolor type camera, to images were photographed Prizma. It was impressive more elaborate twin-lens or simultaneously using a twin­ enough to encourage beam-splitting optics. For lens camera. An intermediate producers to eventually cartoons or other static Pair of bi-pack negatives for positive print was made, and produce over l 00 short subjects, a normal camera making two-colour prints. using a special optical subjects in Prizma Color, could be used to photograph Produced in a normal 35mm printer, the pair of images together with a number of the filtered images camera adapted to run two was printed at the same time features including The successively along the film. films together through the onto opposite sides of Glorious Adventure in 1922 Like negatives from other gate, and special magazines double-coated stock. This [21], followed in 1923 by to accommodate the two single-film colour cameras, was then processed in a Vanity Fair and The Virgin rolls of film, either side by with adjacent pairs of colour special developer and Queen. In 1928, Prizma was side or over and under.

9 acquired by Consolidated From Arizona, in 1940. After the 1930s. They were Labs and returned to the this, it was used extensively similar, using double-coated screen later as Magnacolor. by many Hollywood studios prints carrying various for their lower budget colour combinations of dye or 19 westerns and costume metal-toned images. There dramas. At its peak, was the choice of Cinecolor labs were turning Polychromide [24], Brewster out 120 million feet of two­ Color and Dunningcolor, 20 colour prints a year. the latter used to make Britain's first colour cartoon, Cinecolor used a red-orange Sam and his Musket in dye-toned image on one 1935. 21 Magnacolor & Multicolor side of the film, and a blue­ Magnacolor was used first green iron-toned image, Also on offer, was 0 0 for the series of shorts, plus the sound track, on the Chemicolor [25], used for 0 0 Unusual Occupations and other. This arrangement part of Pagliacci starring the 22 0 0 Popular Science, and then produced the best possible opera singer Richard Tauber. 0 0 track, as it had a high The process was a version of some of Republic's westerns, 0 0 including the suitably titled density to infra-red light, to the German Ufacolor, 0 Man From Rainbow Valley, w hich photocells of the time employing Agfa bi-pack 23 0 0 although not all the colours were most sensitive. A pure negative and duplitised print 0 0 of the rainbow were present. dye track would have been stock. Magnacolor films of the 1940s were shot using bi­ The same process was called 24 pack cameras, but this Spectracolor when it was method of obtaining the pair used to film Faust [26] and of negatives was first used Railroad Rhythm, both in back in 1928 by another 1936. The prints had dye­ descendant of Prizma Color, only images, so to solve the 25 Multicolor [22]. sound track problem, the original silver track was It appeared as sequences in retained by coating it with a a few early sound films, ribbon of varnish to prevent 26 including The Fox Movietone lCinecolor two-colour prints it from being bleached and Follies Of l 929 and The used a blue-green image and dyed along with the picture. Great Gobbo (1929). It was sound track on one side of the also used for the cartoon film 's base, and a red-orange All this activity in British two­ image on the other 27 Goofy Goat, claimed to be colour during the 1930s has the first colour cartoon, in almost transparent to IR, only left us a relatively few 1931. resulting in low level and colour films, mostly shorts distorted sound. If an old and cartoons, usually Multicolor seemed to have a colour print is found today sponsored by advertisers. In 28 great future when it was with a bright blue sound an attempt to make them taken over by Howard track it is likely to be in a more attractive, efforts were Hughes, but, despite this, it two-colour process. Having made to add the third colour was little used and sold off emulsion on both sides of to the basic two-colour 29 in 1932 to Cinecolor Inc. As the base is also a good clue. prints, but were held back by Cinecolor [23] it was to This also made them more the lack of three-colour become the most popular vulnerable to damage, so a cameras. The third colour and well known two-colour worn copy may now have record could readily be system. brilliant red or blue scratches added to the single-film appearing on the screen. sequential frame negatives Cinecolor used for cartoons and other After a modest start in the UK 2-Colour Versions 'static' subjects, but live- 30 1930s with shorts and As well as the American two- action remained a problem. cartoons, including Ub colour prints shown in lwerks Comicolor series, Britain, there were a few For a three-colour version of Cinecolor was used for its home-grown processes Brewster Color [27], an first feature, The Gentleman available in Britain during elaborate 3-strip beam-

10 splitting camera was images with one inverted, constructed using a pair of placed toe-to-toe along the spinning mirror shutters to single film . At first, these divide and direct the image were printed as two rows of coming from the single lens positive images on specially to three separate films. The perforated double-width film double-coated prints had a which was folded over and JI: ., Gaspacolor cyan dyed image on one glued with the images on the ....,.,&1_.. .,.. '· .. high-speed side of the film. and a ' ·- j · .. :.A,. - . outside. Later, the printing ... :. ; sequential magenta image on the other. frame was onto two separate films The third, yellow image was negative, which were cemented back added to the magenta side " run at 72 to back in register. The silver as a separate operation ..·. fps images now on both sides of using a matrix. Other - the film were first bleached, methods included re-coating . which also hardened the one side of the film with a gelatin where the original . new layer of emulsion, exposure and development before printing and colouring had taken place. Then relief the third image, or re­ images were formed by sensitising one of the existing During the processing, the washing away the softer already printed and dyes were destroyed in the unexposed areas in hot water processed sides to receive exposed areas and replaced The Technicolor two-colour to leave the various tones the third colour, as in Super by the negative silver system showing beam splitting reproduced as varying prism and the resultant pair Cinecolor [28]. images, which after being thicknesses of hardened of negatives removed, left the remaining gelatin. These could then be The Triumph of dye to form a highly dyed in the appropriate Techn icolor saturated positive colour subtractive colours, blue­ Technicolor began in the USA print. green from the red negative back in 1916 as a short-lived and red from the blue-green. additive process. A single­ Unfortunately, this dye­ The first feature made in the lens camera with a beam­ A frame of Super Cinecolor, a destruction principle was not new 'cemented-positive' spl itting prism simultaneously three-colour version made by sensitive enough to be used process was The Toll of The one produced an interlaced pair re-sensitising side before as an original camera film, Sea in 1922. Other films, printing and toning the third of red and blue-green so most Gaspacolor prints wholly or partly in this early colour as a separate separation full-size images were of animation. These Technicolor included The Ten operation. spaced two frames apart. included Len Lye 's Rainbow Commandments (1923), Ben This arrangement allowed Gaspacolor Dance and George Pal 's Hur (1924) and, the most the resulting print to be Another printing process, Puppetoons. A few li ve-action successful of all, Douglas proiected through two which had some success films were photographed Fa irbanks' The Black Pirate separate normal aperture during the 1930s, was using a conventional camera (1926) [31]. Although made lenses without any restriction Gaspacolor [29]. It was running at three times the to their diameter. Both the conceived as a full three­ normal speed and recording camera and the projector colour system, having the the separations in sequence still only advanced the film dyes already included in the on a single film, avoiding two frames at a time, so no emulsion layers during subiects with rapid stock was wasted. Only one manufacture. The print stock movement. feature The Gulf Between had a blue-sensitive was shown using the first magenta-dyed layer and a An example was the slow­ additive system in 1 91 7, but red-sensitive yellow-dyed moving river craft in Colour registering the images from layer coated on one side of On The Thames [30], a the widely spaced lenses the film's base, and a blue­ Gaspacolor short from the proved almost impossible, so sens itive cyan-dyed layer on 1930s. No features were it was abandoned in favour the other. It was a direct released using Gaspacolor, of a second subtractive positive process requiring and like the other British process. Again only two­ three separation positives, systems on offer during the colour, a new camera with a which were printed on their 1 930s, it was swept away by more compact beam­ correct layer using red or the arrival of the all­ splitting, optical system blue light. conquering Technicolor. Examples of two-colour produced a pair of adiacent Technicolor

11 using thinner based stock the cemented prints were 'still thicker than normal and, like other colour prints with emulsion on both sides tended to get scratched' more easily. They were also prone to buckle during the heat of Two-colour print from the projection and to going out Mystery of the Wax Museum of focus. To literally iron out (7933) the problem, the prints had 32 normal black and white films to be regularly returned to [33]. This wasn't needed for Technicolor to be flattened the first all-talking, all­ out before being reused. To singing, all-Technicolor put an end to all this Technicolor three-strip feature On With The Show aggravation the process was camera, introduced in J 932 shown in 1929 with the ' changed in 1928 to a dye­ considered to be the best sound coming from transfer system. The same that could be achieved, with 33 Vitaphone synchronised camera negative was again the not quite real colour discs. Its success was the start used to print the two films range more suited to horror of a mini-boom for colour with their relief images, but films. with Technicolor being used now they were kept separate 34 for many complete films and and used like printing blocks Three-colour Technicolor inserts, mostly musicals. to first absorb the To revive interest. Technicolor Although over 60 million feet appropriate dyes and then finally added the third of release prints were made transfer them in turn on top component to the system and in 1930, interest in colour of each other in register onto could now provide a true both by producers and ' the same side of a third clear 'full-colour' process. The audiences, waned due to the gelatin-coated blank film to dye-transfer method of added cost and often create the final colour print. making the prints continued indifferent colour, resulting the conversion to three- ' from both technical and The same pair of transfer colour made possible by the artistic shortcomings. Even 36 films, known as matrices construction in 1932 of the the best examples couldn't could be re-dyed and th~ renowned three-strip camera. overcome the inherent transfer process repeated to This exposed the three restrictions when using only a produce multiple copies [32]. black and white separation two-colour system. The last With the arrival of sound, the negatives simultaneously via two Technicolor two-colour blank receiving film could a beam-splitting prism. The features, Doctor X (1932) first be printed with a silver film recording the green and The Mystery of The Wax optical sound track giving the record ran through a gate Museum (1933) were same quality as those on facing the lens, with the blue

Dye-Transfer Colour Printing Blank film with sound track

First transfer MAGENTA 38

Second transfer CYA N on magenta

Third transfer Individual dyed matrices are held YELLOW on cyan and together in register on the blank magenta, giving the during the transfer using an finished colour print endless metal pin belt

12 and red negatives exposed Operation of the was a success, and after as a bi-pack running through Technicolor three- strip Mickey Mouse appeared in a second gate positioned at camera colour in 1935, all Disney's 90°. Three matrices were output turned into now used to transfer in turn Technicolor, beginning a long ye llow, cyan and magenta association with the dye images onto the blank company. film, which had already been The three-strip camera printed with a silver sound was rather cumbersome for track, frame lines and, in the animation so was replaced early years, a faint black and by the successive-frame white 'key' image (made method in time for the start from the green negative) io of production of the first improve the results, including feature-length cartoon Snow the maximum blocks. White and the Seven Dwarfs At the beginning, the (1937). dyes took several minutes to transfer, during which time Two-colour Technichrome the matrix and blank hod to Replaced by single film Th e two-colour process be held in close contact and colour negative 1955 continued to be on offer for perfect register. This was a couple more years, used achieved by using a 205 foot mostly by animators having endless moving metal belt to wait to use the new three­ fitted with register pins. At strip version. The lost two­ first, this operated at around colour live-action film was a 20 feet per minute but by tale filmed on Bali, Le Gong: applying greater heat and The Dance of the Virgins, in chemically treating the blank 1935. Technicolor later (with a mordant) to make it. revived an improved version more receptive to the dyes, it of its old two-colour system was possible to progressively for a special one-off job in speed up the process. 1948. Given the name By the 1970s, the belts Technichrome, it was devised were running at 330 feet per to help make a Technicolor minute, reducing the transfer film of the London Olympic time to about 20 seconds for Games. Th ere were not each dye. The matrices were enough three-strip cameras made on tougher thicker available to cover all the stock and each set could be various events, so most were washed and re-dyed to shot using two-color bi-pack repeat the transfer process cameras, with only the over and over again onto opening and closing­ Early Technicolor three-strip 'Gone with the Wind' in new blanks. From the 1960s, 'The Garden of Allah' 1936 Technicolor (1939) ceremonies known to hove polyester-based matrices been filmed in proper three­ after around 500. All this were capable of producing­ colour another chance and strip, to ovoid giving the hod only become possible up to l OOO prints, although that the dramatic game away with the when, back in 1932, to maintain the best quality improvement offered by the inaccurate colour Technicolor was able to they were usually replaced 'new' Technicolor would be reproduction of the national convince producers to give more acceptable to the eyes flags and banners. Th e of the public and pay off at completed film, XIVth the box office. OLYMPIAD - The Glory of One of the first three­ Sport, was printed using the strip cameras was given to normal transfer machines Walt Disney, together with with, for the two-colour the exclusive use of the footage, both the magenta three-colour process in the and yellow matrices made First Technicolor three-strip field of animation for three from the some blue/ green film , Disney's 'Becky Sharp' (1932) years. His first colour cartoon bi-pock negative. 'Flowers and Trees' 1932 First feature-length 3-strip film. Flowers and Trees (1932)

13 The first examples of live handled, their limited range action photographed with the of colours wasn't noticed by three-strip camera appeared most of the audience, with as a Technicolour insert in many thinking the film was the black and white feature also in Technicolor. In fact, to The House of Rothschild and cut the cost, a few original the all-colour short La Techn icolor features were Cucaracha, both released in later re-issued using cheaper 1934. The continued success Cinecolor prints derived from of three-colour Technicolor only the red and green was assured after the first full-length feature Becky Sharp was shown in 1935 to Red-tinted monochrome insert in the colour film great acclaim, both 'The Angry Red Planet' ( 7 959) artistically and for its use of surprise the audience. To scenes only seemed to be in colour. ensure their maximum red-tinted monochrome with By the end of the 1930s, impact, colour inserts in a solarisation effect added, many of the films which were black and white films usually producing a surreal cartoon to become reg arded as appeared unannounced, but look. classic examples of three­ in the case of The Angry Red It is interesting to reflect strip Technicolor had already Planet (1959), the film's that today, when practically reached the screen, including trailer hyped 'Cinemagic', all films are in colour, it is The Garden Of Allah (1936), which, in the feature itself, now black and white The Adventures Of Robin would give the audience the sequences that are used in Hood [35] (1938), The experience of actually being order to indicate events Wizard Of Oz [36] (1939) Cinecolor re-issue of 'Becky on Mars. For those tempted which may have happened and Gone With The Wind Sharp' ( 7944) - originally to see it, the film was in in 'the old black and white shown [37] (1939). in three-strip colour, but the Martian days'. Technicolor set up a lab Technicolor in 7935 in Britain which started negatives. Films mistreated in operations during 1937. This this way included Becky was not in time to service the Sharp, Dancing Pi rate, first British Technicolor Nothing Sacred and the feature, the horse racing 1937 version of A Star Is drama, Wings Of The Born. In the case of the Morning (1937), which had historically significant Becky to be processed in America . Sharp, more Cinecolor Over here, Alexander copies have been found to The 'Hypergonar'. From Henri Chretien's original patent, showing the cylindrical lens elements arranged to Korda's London Films was an exist on archive shelves compress and expand the image vertically. early user giving us the stil l around the world than popular Th e Four Feathers original Technicolor dye­ Two-colour cameras, like after, the flurry of activity by ( 1939) and The Thief of transfer prints sti ll in Technicolor's, which placed the Hollywood studios to Bagdad (1940). complete and good a pair of full-sized colour introduce widescreen condition. The Cinecolor records along a single film, processes led Chretien to used twice the amount of turn his lens through 90 Reducing costs prints can be identified by stock. One interesting idea degrees, to squeeze a - and quality? their blue coloured sound came from a French panoramic image into a During the 1930s and track and up on the screen professor of optics called normal frame without the 1940s, the credit 'Colour by by the removal of Henri Chretien. In 1927 he need to use wider film. Technicolor' became Technicolor's credit, the films patented an anamorphic Again there were no synonymous with colour now being just lens, and one of the uses he takers, but thirty years later motion pictures [38]. The 'Photographed in Color'. described was to vertically his ' Hypergonar' lens only competition came from Another way to cut the cost squeeze the two frames into helped to get CinemaScope the surviving two-colour of colour was to use it for the space of one, and then going in 1953. The original expand them back again 'two frames into one' processes like Magnacalor, only part of the film, and the during additive projection compression factor of times Trucolor and Cinecalor, early idea of inserting or when making subtractive two was retained, to which were used for lower Technicolor sequences into colour prints. become the cinema's budget productions, mostly black and white films was No interest was shown anamorphic print and lens westerns. If carefully again used occasionally to for this purpose, but shortly standard.

14 We saw previously that from colour travelling mattes. needing greater the late 1930s onwards the Although Technicolor was magnification of the image. industry tried different ways among the first labs to install The 'new improved of reducing the cost of facilities for processing Technicolor' could now be providing colour to the colour negatives and printing shown on screens over 50 audience. One way was to rush prints in Eastman Color, feet wide and could also use colour for only part of they decided to stick with exploit the benefit of using a the film, and Technicolor dye-transfer for their release larger area camera negative, sequences were occasionally prints. like VistaVision's 35mm inserted into otherwise black double-frame horizontal 8- and white films, to provide a ' New Improved' versions perf. format [39]. The surprise for the audience. At first, three separation resulting optically reduced A popular excuse was to positives had to be made standard 4-perf. vertical highlight paintings, such as from the colour negative release prints, together with those included in The Moon which in turn were used to reductions from the various And Sixpence (1942), The make the equivalent of the 65mm processes which Private Affairs Of Bel Ami original 3-strip camera followed, were some of the (1947) and, perhaps the negatives. Later, the old blue finest dye-transfer colour most famous of all, the sensitive matrix film was prints ever produced. The glimpses of The Picture Of replaced with a new higher richer grain-free images fully Dorian Grey (1945) as it Not a faulty print, but a clip definition panchromatic stock justified VistaVision's credit slowly changes to show the from 'The Picture of Dorian to allow the matrices to be byline, 'Motion Picture High horrific results of his dissolute Gray', which appeared as a made directly in one step Fidelity'. life. Te chnicolor insert in the from the colour negative by Technicolor went on to oth erwise black and white Technicolor finales were printing through the introduce its own Technirama feature film (7945) another added novelty from appropriate red, green or large-area negative broken by the appearance of Kid Millions, and The Little blue filters. The increased widescreen process, which its first serious competitor, Colonel in the 1930s, sharpness enabled the final added an anamorphic lens Eastman Color. followed by others including dye-transfer prints to to the VistaVision format, Victoria the Great (1937), Its introduction was the successfully compete with the making it more suitable for Shine On Harvest moon culmination of all the efforts initially higher resolution of providing-higher quality (1944), Solid Gold Cadillac made to provide Eastman Color print film. CinemaScope-type prints professionals with a (1956) and into the 1960s This was important as the [40]. Technicolor was to perfected single-strip with Is Paris Burning? (1966). introduction of the easier to specialise in the optical negative/ positive colour film Sometimes, the sudden burst use colour negative had also conversion between all the process, which could be into Technicolor at the end of helped to start the cinema's various widescreen formats, exposed in a normal camera the film only made you wish widescreen revolution with done without any loss of and then processed and that the whole thing had the associated larger screens picture quality as the been in colour. A Matter Of printed by any laboratory matrices were printed. These with no more difficulty than Life And Death (1946) had always needed to be black and white. In the event, alternated from colour to optically printed through the the only casualty at black and white, with the film's support, to keep the Technicolor was to be its down to earth part of the exposed areas adjacent to complex 3-strip camera, story in full Technicolor and the base, rather than at the which was phased out during the heavenly but rather dull surface of the emulsion 1955. Its last outing in the afterlife in 'dye­ which was dissolved away USA was for Foxfire (1955) monochrome'. As one of the during the formation of the and in Britain at Ealing characters on a visit to the relief image. Studios for The Ladykillers land of the living laments, All these developments, (1955). 'we are starved of together with the increased Some of the cameras Technicolor up there'. use of colour during the were given a new lease of 1950s, secured the use of life by being converted to run Real Competition dye-transfer prints which colour negative in the One of the last outings for the At the beginning of the were now being ordered in horizontal 8-perf. Vistavision Technicolor 3-strip camera in 1950s, there was a risk that Britain was for 'Tou ch and even greater numbers than and Technirama formats. everybody would be starved Go' (7955). The cat on top before the challenge from Others kept the beam­ of Technicolor for good. Its of the camera's huge blimp Eastman Color. Given the splitting optics to make virtual monopoly was at last was a member of the cast. choice, many in the industry,

15 History of Colour Film

and colour conscious movie­ another lab, with the dye­ improvements made to goers, still preferred the transfer release prints colour negative and print 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 more saturated and manufactured by Technicolor. film. As grain size reduced, consistent colours of However, on occasions, only so did the advantage of Technicolor, compared to its the other lab or process reduction printing. Marlon often pale imitators, whose name was given the whole Brando's One Eyed Jacks prints didn't always look their credit, helping to enhance its [43] was the last chance to best, as laboratories new to reputation with the viewer, appreciate the largely colour gained experience who was led to think it was underrated VistaVision handling the new colour just as good as Technicolor. process. Unfortunately, from stocks. One of the first features shot its introduction back in 1954, 0 on Eastman Colar in the with White Christmas, its 0 Expansion USA, Warner Bros, The Lion advantages were never fully 0 Technicolor expanded by And The Horse (1952), was understood by the average opening a new laboratory in printed by Technicolor but cinema-goer, who preferred 0 Rome and another, albeit only carried the studio's own the more obvious attraction short-lived, in Pari s. Extra sets WarnerColor logo on the of the CinemaScope format. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 of matrices were made and credits. When Eastman Colar exchanged between arrived at the doors of Farewell Technirama Technicolor's plants, ensuring Technicolor in London, Technirama bowed out in that audiences around the London Films was again first 1967 after leaving us w ith 40 world enjoyed the same high in the queue for their The beautiful dye-transfer prints quality images as the Constant Husband (1954) of around 50 films, including domestic prints. Th e only and A Kid For Two Farthings El Cid, Spartacus, Zulu, and (1954), both finishing with Custer of the 0 being early West. Still on offer was the 0 British more economical 0 0 productions Techniscope 2-perf 'half­ 0 0 shot on frame' camera negative 0 Eastman Colar widescreen system [41 ]. 0 0 and serviced by Introduced in 1963 to Technicolor encourage film makers on a difference was the addition providing dye-transfer prints tighter budget to use of subtitles or a foreign complete with a Technicolor Technicolor, the smaller, but 41 language track pre-printed credit. In the years to come, wider aspect ratio image, onto the local blank. As an un-credited dye-transfer was vertically stretched example, Snow White and prints would often come out during the optical printing of The Seven Dwarfs could be of the London and Rome the matrices to end up with a transferred with a choice of plants as a result of standard anamorphic print. l 0 alternative soundtracks. accepting contracts to make In terms of the number of 0 0 the British and European films produced, it was even Technicolor In Disguise more successful, with nearly 0 0 copies of Hollywood features I Fa' ·- During the 3-strip camera printed by rival labs on 150 being re leased well into 43 0 \.) era, productions were Eastman Colar in the USA. the 1970s. exclusively serviced by For another 20 years or Technicolor keeping control so, dye-transfer print making The admittedly rather grainy of the process from the co-existed alongside colour image suited the many gritty 42 original photography print film. Further and dusty 'spaghetti through to the final release developments included westerns' shot in the process, prints. With the change to changing the mixed formula such as A Fistful Of Do llars the origination on colour dyes for purer single (1964) and Once Upon A 44 negative, there was to be component versions which Time In The West (1969) greater co-operation with were transferred at ever [42]. Here in Britain, Michael other laboratories, leading to greater speed and precision Caine's The lpcress File confused credits. ' Print by from more stable polyester (1965) and Alfie (1966) Technicolor' was meant to matrices. Th e increased helped showcase the system. indicate that the negative output of sharper prints more had been processed by than kept pace with

16 Release prints Godfather Part II and a re The Wonders of prints, they allow the colour The bulk of Technicolor's issue of Disney's Swiss. Modern Colour Film dye images to be created in output was always 35mm Family Robinson using Ea stman Color, which was to each of the emulsion layers cinema release prints, but previously made matrices. have such an impact in the as they are being developed. the transfer machines also The transfer machines kept field of professional colour Couplers are substances turned out many millions of going for another two years motion pictures, belongs to which react with the chemical feet of l 6mm prints together at the London and Rome the category of so called changes and by-products with 8mm, Super-8 and even plants, with Star Wars [44] 'modern' colour film. The produced as the silver black some 35mm still educational being one of the last big basic principles and ways of and white image is being film strips. The only major orders. Francis Ford producing a single multi developed to generate format not catered for was Coppola, one of the many layer film with the colour another corresponding dye 70mm, with all the copies admirers of dye transfer chemically created in the film image along with it. After having to be made on prints, hoped to have the itself as it is being processed helping to form the dye, the Eastman Colar print film, European copies of his (chromogenic development) silver image is removed, including those from Apocalypse Now printed this had been described and leaving only the coloured Technirama negatives (Super way at Technicolor's Rome even patented long before version made up of pure Technirama 70). Technicolor lab, but production delays breakthroughs in coating transparent dye. Different could if necessary print other meant the film missed the techniques and film couplers are available to gauges onto ordinary print closing date. Twenty years chemistry made it all produce dyes complementary film, usually for smaller later, he had better luck for feasible. Modern colour films in colour to the original batches which didn't justify the film's most recent re are based on the use of sensitivity of the emulsion the making of matrices. issue, which coincided with a integral tri-pack stock with layers, cyan in the red­ Although in Hollywood a few trial re-introduction of the three thin emulsion layers sensitive layer, magenta in early colour television process in Hollywood during coated one on top of the the green, and ye llow in the programmes made on film, the late 1990s. It was among other on the same side of a blue. They can either be like Disney's Wonderful others printed again in dye single film. Each layer is dissolved in the processing World of Color, used dye transfer, including old sensitive to either red, green solutions, which requires transfer prints, it wos more Technicolor classics like or blue light. The most each layer to be treated usual to distribute them on Gone With The Wind and common arrangement is to separately, or included in the Eastman Color, often with the The Wizard Of Oz, before have a blue-sensitive individual emulsion layers, contrast and colour the experiment was emulsion on top. Below this allowing them to be saturation reduced to make suspended again in 2002. is a yellow filter layer (which processed together. them more suitable for The process had already is removed during telecines. been given a second chance processing) to prevent any Kodachrome again Although continually when, back in 1978, blue light reaching the next Kodak revived the name updated, the photo Technicolor equipment from orthochromatic layer, which Kodachrome [45] for the first mechanical ' lithographic' dye London was shipped off to now only records the green. process to adopt these transfer process remained as China where the large The final bottom layer has a principles. It was a direct to much an art as a science, number of prints required blue- and red-sensitive positive colour reversal film operated by skilled craftsmen continued to make it viable emulsion, but with no blue introduced in 1935 and still who, for example, judged the until the mid 1990s. In present, it is exposed just to in use today. The processing colour balance and density practice, from 1978, the red. Tri pack film can be was complex, using the by eye as the film passed Technicolor had ceased to be used in a normal camera couplers in the solutions through the transfer a unique individual process, and one short li ved idea method. The film was fi rst machine, making any but the name remains was, after the exposure, to processed in a normal black corrections by washing off familiar to today's peel the layers apart and and white developer, some of the dye from the audiences, as well as taking treat them as separation producing negative silver matrix before it came into its place in cinema history. It negatives. Only one feature, images in each layer. At this contact with the receiving will never be forgotten, as the 3D The Stranger Wore A stage, the film was not fixed , film. Efforts were made to Technicolor has become part Gun, gave 'stripping the unexposed and avoid having to print and of the language, found in negative' a try, and was undeveloped emulsion being process the sound track as a many dictionaries, quoted released in 1953 as a pair of retained to help form the separate operation and not only as a trade name for left and right eye Technicolor final positive image. This was include it along with the colour motion pictures, but dye transfer prints. fogged with an overall picture transfer, but time ran as a colloquial term to The other important exposure to light and the film out for dye transfer with describe anything brightly innovation, which made processed again with a economics finally leading to coloured, not least, Joseph's modern colour film possible colour developer containing its demise. Amazing Dreamcoat. was the use of 'colour a cyan-forming coupler, The process was withdrawn couplers'. First proposed as resulting in cyan images in in the USA during 1975, an alternative means of all three layers. As this was after making copies of The toning black and white only required in the bottom

17 History of Colour Film

red-sensitive layer, the others but it was occasionally used A micrograph of the edge of a in the layers above were as more convenient and less removed using a slow processed Kodachrome film bulky source in sometimes controlled penetrating showing the yellow, magenta difficult situations. Monopack bleach. The bleached silver and cyan layers with a total was first used for location images are capable of being thickness of only 75 microns. work on Lassie Come Home re developed and this was A later type ff version, (1943) and the complete done again, this time in a introduced in the early 7 960s, Thunderhead - Son Of Flicka magenta-forming developer. reduced this to 9 microns. (1945). The special reversal This left magenta images in A micron is one-thousandth of a millimetre, and at this camera original could only the upper two layers with the magnification the other side of the base with its anti-halation be processed in Hollywood, cyan below unaffected. As so the inevitable delays layer would be near the bottom of this page. the magenta image was only discouraged its use in needed in the middle green­ Britain. In spite of this, sensitive layer, the top blue­ monopack sequences sensitive layer was bleached appeared in the Technicolor and re-developed in the third blue WWII drama documentary yellow-forming developer. Western Approaches (1944) Finally, the film was fixed Yellow filter when, unlike the cast and and all the silver images Green crew, the Technicolor 3 strip bleached away, leaving only Clear layer camera was far too valuable the positive full colour image to risk venturing into enemy Red in pure dye. In 1938, the waters. Monopack film was procedure was changed to a Base discontinued by Kodak and slightly less involved method, Technicolor during 1952 which is still used today. after being used to make a Each layer is still treated few 3-D features, including separately in turn using its RKO's Second Chance. own colour developer Kodachrome was the first integral tri-pack colour film with The couplers in the layers containing the appropriate three thin layers coated on top of each other on the same approach was pioneered by coupler, but now turned side of a single film. Each layer is individually sensitive to Agfa in Germany, and first directly to its correct colour either red, green or blue light and their total thickness is little introduced as Agfacolor after being individually more than that of a single black & white emulsi on layer. Neu [47] reversal colour film fogged with coloured light. in 1936. (The 'New' suitable for amateurs, with These were among the many First red through the base for designation was to the original camera film printed by Technicolor in the red-sensitive layer, then distinguish it from a then still being processed directly to a dye-transfer with the blue to the front for the blue­ available Agfacolor lenticular positive ready for projection. matrices produced from a set sensitive layer and finally additive colour film, which If necessary, copies could be of enlarged separation white light to give the was abandoned soon after.) made on reversal colour negatives made from the remaining and now only un­ This arrangement allowed film, but it was difficult to 16mm positive colour exposed and un-developed the second colour match the quality of the original. middle green-sensitive layer development of the layers to original. Although initially A 35mm. version, known its second 'reversal' be achieved simultaneously launched as a home movie as 'monopack', was also exposure. in a single step. To this end, film, Kodachrome rapidly adopted for a while by Kodachrome, with its Agfa split the constituents of gained acceptance for Technicolor [46]. The quality bright faithful colours soon the coupler substances up making 16mm non theatrical could never equal the 'taken become the first choice for and dissolved the common educational, scientific and from life' negatives from amateur film making in parts into a special industrial colour films. To their normal 3 strip camera, colour with the earlier developer and placed the make it more suitable for additive Kodacolor and colour-dependent professional use, a Dufaycolor falling out of components in their 'commercial' type was favour. Lenticular Kodacolor appropriate layers. During introduced with lower was withdrawn in 1937, but the development, this contrast to provide the best Dufaycolor refused to give in combination produces the possible copies. Many until the 1950s, particularly insoluble dyes wherever the documentaries shot on 16mm for 9 .5mm enthusiasts, who silver image is being Kodachrome were blown-up had to wait until 1951 for developed in each layer, to 35mm for cinema release, British use o f Technicolor Kodachrome to arrive in their which after being removed, including Disney's True Life 'Monopack' (35mm gauge. Like all reversal leaves only the yellow, cyan Adventure series and Kodachrome). 'English processes it remained more and magenta dye versions of Conquest of Everest (1953). Village' 7943

18 delayed' news items and company introduced a full unwanted yellow component 45 47 topical programmes. three colour print film in which stops some blue as Agfa's American associate 1949, for making colour well. The cyan dye is even Ansco introduced their copies from black and white worse, as it has unwanted version of Agfacolor in 1938. separations [49]. The multi portions of both ye ll ow and During World War II, the layer stock incorporated magenta. Th is degrades the company was put under couplers in layers made of purity of the colours, guard by the US Government synthetic polymer instead of particularly when printing 46 and all its output was used gelatine to protect them from onto other multi layer dye by the military. After the war diffusion. It was also adopted coupling stock. At the when the film was again also for Trucolor to expand the beginning, to prevent the available to civilians, a process into three colour. As build up of errors in the 35mm colour reversal system the means of producing the colour reproduction to a 48 was offered to the cinema three colour negatives was minimum, all the prints had industry. It consisted of a limited, the first film released to be first-generation copies lower contrast camera and on DuPont's colour print film made from the original 0 0 intermediate duplicating was a cartoon Beyond negative, despite the risk of 0 multi-layer stock, and a Civilisation To Te xas (1949), damage. As a precaution, projection contrast print film . which was skip printed from more than one original 49 °0 0 They could be used together a sequential frame negative. negative was shot, w ith one 0 ______o or individually. The camera The credit line for 3 colour left untouched and the others the images to build up the film could be used like prints was 'Trucolor by used to make the release final colour picture. All this monopack for printing using Consolidated'. prints. Also revive d from the was only made possible after other processes. Some films early days of the cinema was a way was found (using shot on reversal Ansco Color, A Negative Move to the practice of creating the larger molecules than the like The Man on the Eiffel More Colour fades, dissolves and special gelatine emulsion) to make Tower [48] (1948), were also Like traditional black and effects in the camera. Also, the normally soluble couplers printed by Technicolor in dye white film making, a 'chemical' fades could be stay put in their respective transfer. At the end of the negative-positive system is added to the processed layers without wandering into l 940s, a couple of coupler­ preferred when a large negative by progressively the others or being washed containing print stocks were number of prints are bleaching away the image at out into the solutions during marketed for printing from required. By the end of the the start or end of the chosen the process ing. In essence, black and white separation l 930s, a negative-positive scenes, again with extra Kodachrome uses a relatively negatives. For two colour version of Agfacolor was takes provided in case of simple multi-layer film in the processes, Kodak could being used in Germany for mishaps. camera, but requires supply a duplitised stock with feature films. The film One of the most famous complex processing by the a cyan coupler in the exposed in the camera was of Germany 's wartime manufacturer, whereas emulsion on one side of the basically the same as the colour features was the Agfacolor's film is more base, and a mixture of reversal stock but now fantastic adventures of Baron complicated, with its magenta and yellow in the processed with only one Munchausen (1943), with its incorporated couplers, but layer on the other. This development step in the remarkable special effects the more straightforward combination gave the colour-forming developer to achieved despite the processing can be required red-orange and produce a colour negative, restrictions of early undertaken by any blue-green images which with both the tones and Agfacolor. independent laboratory or could be produced colours reversed. This could After WWII, the technical even the user. In time, Kodak simultaneously using a single then be printed onto similar details of Agfacolor were came up with Ektachrome, its colour development step in multi-layer film to produce disclosed to other film own alternative reversal conventional processing the positive colour manufacturers, who colour film with the couplers machines. It was adopted by prints.[50]. eventually introduced their in the layers (kept in place Consolidated Film One early snag was that own versions. The first was using resin binders) for Laboratories for Republic although the yellow, cyan Belgian Gevacolor in 1947, simpler user-friendly Studios first Trucolor process, and magenta dyes generated not widely seen in Britain processing. The lower printed from bi-pack by the couplers appear until it was chosen to film contrast 'Commercial' negatives. It supplemented satisfactory visually, they do British Movietone News version replaced the previous their much more true to life not act as perfect tri-colour coverage of the Coronation equivalent type of Technicolor output and was filters, absorbing light of in 1953, although its colour Kodachrome as a camera chosen mostly for B-westerns, other colours. In practice, the was put in the shade by the master for professional users. including the few from the yellow dye is fairly good at competing 3 strip It was to prove popular with Roy Rogers series which were stopping only blue light, but Technicolour 'A Queen is TV companies for in-house made in colour. the magenta, which should Crowned' from Gaumont processing of 'useless if The American DuPont only stop green light, has an British News.

19 From Italy come Ferrania colour mask became Color, its first feature, Toto A noticeably less orange­ Colori, appeared in 1952, as looking w ith the introduction did pre-Hollywood Sophia of an additional colour­ Loren in Africa Sotto I Mari correcting technique. Dye {Africa Under the Seas), forming inhibitors are now followed by Aida in 1953, produced along w ith the dye both shot on early Ferrania images which are able to Color negative. Out of move between the layers to Japan, came Fujicolor, with reduce an amount of dye its first full length film produced in one colour layer Adventure Of Natsuko to compensate for the judged a successful debut in unwanted absorption in 1954. In the coming years, another. Known as the inter­ Japanese film makers were Early appearance of both Sophia Loren and Ferraniacolor, image effect, it was also to gain a high reputation for A fr ica Sooto I Mari' ( 7952) - Africa Under the Seas. incorporated into colour their artistic use of colour. Making a longer lasting yellowish and the cyan, reversal films to improve the impact behind the screen reddish. They lose their own fidelity of the colours. Agfa itself had ended the was Kodak's contribution to colour when generating the Kodak's coloured correcting war with its main the new negative-positive negative dye image, leaving mask was a patented manufacturing plant at colour processes, Eastman the unused and still coloured feature, so was denied to Wolfen, then in the Russian­ Color [51 ]. Although having coupler to form a other manufacturers. Some controlled zone. It continued much in common with all the corresponding positive colour of these made limited use of to produce its colour stocks other Agfacolor type films, it correcting mask. The a separately printed, o r an with a new name included further innovations negative image combined internally generated black ORWOcolor (Original which allowed the colour with the mask produces an and white silver positive Wolfen), which was to negative to match the quality overall uniform density in the mask. When combined with become the principal colour of 3-strip photography. unwanted colour which is the colour negative image, it process used in Russia and filtered out during printing. could not counterbalance the Eastern Europe. The original It's Eastman Color that The satisfactory yellow­ absorption failings of the Agfa company re organised finally catches up with forming coupler is colourless, dyes, but reduced the in the West and Agfacolor Technicolor. so the counterbalancing contrast in some or all of the was back on the market Eastman Color was still a effect of the other two layers layers which, when restored again in 1949. Prints of multi-layer coupler­ gives the negative its familiar during the printing, also Agfacolor and ORWOcolor incorporated film, but Kodak orange-red appearance. This films from the Soviet Union was able to use their smaller is of no consequence in a were sometimes given the resin protected coupler negative, which is only a tag line Sovcolor when structure, which gave a finer means to an end, but the show n in the West. grain looking image than the print film has to have Ansco, no longer linked to larger long-chain molecules colourless couplers to enable 50 Agfa, went on to introduce its in the layers of its Agfacolor­ it to reproduce natural own negative-positive version type competitors. However, looking colours. The same of Anscocolor. An early use the most important advance integral masking system was was to supplement the was the exclusive integral also included in the Technicolor 3-strip camera colour masking system, intermediate colour for shooting some of the which automatically corrects duplicating films needed to scenes in Plymouth the absorption deficiencies of make duplicate negatives for Adventure ( 1952). It was also the dyes, to improve the protection, and to create the used for a low budget jungle fidelity of the final printed opticals and special effects. 51 drama called Bwana Devil, colour. The coupler Later, by the 1970s, the which is only remembered substances in the least today because it was also satisfactory magenta and shot in 'a lion in your lap' cyan layers were themselves 3D, and was such a box coloured to match the 0 office hit that it sparked off unwanted absorption of the 0 Hollywood's stereoscopic dyes they produced. In its 0 52 craze of 1952/ 3. raw undeveloped state, the 0 magenta-forming coupler is ...... -----=- ......

20 seized upon as a convenient Bras for their new The world's FIRST FEATURE LENGTH source for making black and WarnerColor process, first white separations and for used for Carson City (1952) release printing using the and others including their 3D established processes which movies House Of Wax already used them as part of (1953) and Dial M For their systems. The Sword of Murder (1954). Not all the Monte Christo and When the prints were on Ea stman Redskins Rode were released Color. Like other early users, in 1951 using 3-colour still gearing up to produce Super Cinecolor, together large numbers of colour with Honeychile and This is prints, they did the initial Korea in the 3-colour version negative developing and of Trucolor. Eastman Co/or rush printing, but handed negative rapidly replaced over the cut negative or Technicolor's monopack duplicate to Technicolor to (3 5mm Kodachrome) as an manufacture the release alternative to its three-strip prints in dye transfer without camera, and in a few years an additional credit. replaced it altogether. This duo lab co-operation After about a year, a special was to remain a common multi-layered duplicating arrangement up to the colour negative stock present day. Finally in 1953, became available for making Eastman Co/or became a in THRILLING COLOR duplicate negatives. These complete all-colour stock starring ROBERT STACK · BARBARABR ITION:i NIGEL BRUCE... :f:~ t° still had to be produced via single strip process with the three separation positives introduction of an additional made in turn by printing colour intermediate film through tri-colour filters from which could be used as a the original colour negative. master positive as well as th e These were combined back duplicate negative. In theory l>.... ,.. through the appropriate there was no longer any ... .. filters onto the duplicating need for the black and white film, adding any opticals that se parations, but it was still might be required. For these recommended that they be it was usual to keep the made of the completed fil m, Poster and film frames from 'Bwana Devil' (7 952) visible loss of quality to a with their more stable si lver shot in dual-film 3-D and 'Thrilling Colour', which was in fact minimum by only duplicating images guarding against the Ansco Co/or with the US domestic prints being struck on DuPont the length of the actual possible futu re fading of the colour print film. optical effect and then dyes in the original colour increased the colour images in modern colour joining it into the original. negative. Although not fully saturation, which helped to film are formed in pure dye, The cut negative could then appreciated at the time, this obscure the deficiencies. For they st ill have a grain be used to produce all the threat would lie in wait to maximum sharpness, it was structure. This is because the re lease prints on the cause problems in the years the common practice to re dye is generated in the form companion Eastman Color to come. arrange the order of the of clumps or spots adjacent print stock. A safer route, layers on colour print film. to and in proportion to the although sacrificing some of Now, any studio or Th e yellow dye-forming layer developing silver grains, the potential quality, was to laboratory had the means to was placed next to the base, which, although later make the prints from a full launch their 'own brand' with the cyan in the middle removed, still show their length duplicate negative. colour systems. The new and the visually most effect. Sometimes, the domestic Eastman Co/or and other important magenta on the prints were produced from colour negative/ positive films top. In the final image, this When introduced in 1950 the the original negative with a could he handled with little contributes 60% of the Eastman Colour system duplicate sent to foreign labs more difficulty than black apparent sharpness, with the didn't include any colour for world wide distribution. and white, differing only in cyan 30% and the yellow duplicating film, so at first One of the first adopters of the need for printers which only l 0%. Although the the negative alone was Eastman Color was Warner could vary the colour of the

21 History of Colo~r Film _ ___ _

Schematic showing the colour and chemical changes which take place durin g th e development of the three basic sensitive layers of Eastman Color and similar colour negative and positive film

Before After After Development Development Fixing Yellow dye negative Blue-sensitive emulsion with a image plus a colourless colourless yellow dye-forming coupler positive in unused coupler. Yellow Layer Although the final images are 1 Magenta dye negative made up of pure dye, they still Blue and green sensitive emulsion with ~O QC) image plus a yellow h a yellow coloured magenta dye- O " corrective positive in have a grain structure. T is is forming coupler. u unused coupler. because the dye is generated Blue and red sensitive emulsion with Cyan dye negative image in the form of clumps or spots an orange coloured cyan dye-forming fJlus an orange positwe adiacent to and in proportion coupler. formed by the unused h d I . . . coupler. to t e eve oping s1 1ver grains, which, although later Base removed, still show their effect.

Magenta positive Green-sensitive emulsion with a dye image with colourless magenta dye-forming colourless unused coupler coupler. Cycrn positiv_e dye Red-sensitive emulsion with a image with colourless cyan dye-forming coupler. colourless unused coupler. Cyan positiv.ehdye Blue-sensitive emulsion with a 1mqqe wit colourless yellow dye-forming coupler. colourless unused coup1 er. For maximum sharpness, the order of the layers on colour-print film is re­ arranged, with the yellow layer next to All the layers are dyed purple to the base, the cyan in the middle, and reduce light scatter the visually most-important magenta on the top. This contributes 60% of the apparent sharpness, with the cyan 30% and the yellow only 10%. light to control the colour Eastman Color throughout. competition to Eastman Table (1953) and Bad Day At balance and processing The barrage of new colour Color in the USA was Black Rock ( 1954). After machines with the extra processes included a few Ansco's new colour negative. making its last Ansco Color baths required for colour. which were only inventions of It seemed to have a bright film, Lust For Life, in 1 956, The once ubiquitous 'Color the studios' advertising future when it was adopted MGM was to use the by Technicolor' was now departments and poster by MGM, being in the Eastman Color system joined by, not only designers. Audiences were to camera for films like Escape exclusively under the WarnerColor, but by Color be treated to subject related, From Fort Bravo ( 1953), Kiss Metrocolor banner. After this, by Deluxe, Movielab and ' LunaColor', 'Blushing Me Kate (1953) [52] and Ansco largely abandoned the Metrocolor. Pathe's Color', 'Monster Color' and Seven Brides For Seven theatrical market to laboratory revived the name 'TerrorColor' . Brothers (1954). concentrate on supplying its Pathecolor from the old traditional best customer, the stencil colour days, but later Although its days were The prints were mostly made US Government. Th eir gave its true origin away with numbered, Technicolor's 3- by Technicolor in dye transfer Anscochrame reversal films a new credit ' Ea stman Color strip camera was still busy or on Eastman Color print were some of the fostest by Pathe'. Trucolor by around the world until 1955, film. MGM also used available, and chosen by Consolidated also after which time it was re- Eastman Color negative for NASA for the first 16mm abandoned printing on deployed or became a some of their other colour space flight films. Kodak DuPont colour print film, va lued museum exhibit. The features, including the British could also provide a special switching to the use of only other serious shot Knights of the Round version of its Ektachrome

22 least, until the arrival of Dolby SVA in the mid 1970s. Normal Printing Route from camera negative Even filming in black and through to the release print, which helps to white made a comeback for protect the original many A grade features during the late 1950s and 1960s, before colour became virtually universal by the 1970s.

Although Kodak's Eastman Color has dominated colour filming since the mid 1950s, Intermediate there was to be more positive competition in the print film market until the other stock At the beginning of the manufacturers could use the 1950s the names of many same integral colour new colour processes began masking and compatible to appear on the credits, Duplicate processing. After being used almost all of them being re­ negative to produce over 200 branded Eastmancolor. features, Ferrania gave up without the need for 70mm, supplying Ferraniacolor which is now only to be camera negative in 1966, Release print found running in lmax and but continued making colour other special venue theatres. print film. They were Extra duplicate negatives can be eventually taken over by the Modern colour film is very used to increase output and be 3M company in America complex. Advances in sent to other labs for making during 1974. Agfa and locally produced prints coating techniques allow up Gevaert joined forces in to nineteen separate layers to 1964, producing masked be applied to the film's base stock on a thinner base to London of the early colour films in 1968, which in one go. The original red-, save weight and bulk in WarnerColor and Trucolor became fully oompatible with green- and blue-sensitive space craft, with 600 feet of productions. Cinecolor's Eastman Color in 197 4. layers are now sub divided film fitting into a 400 ft British lab at Slough also Agfa Gevaert has since left into separate fast and slow magazine. played its part by making the field of professional emulsions to increase the both two colour and three colour motion picture exposure latitude and colour Before Eastman Color print colour copies via separations comera films, but Agfa is still saturation. Making the stock became generally made from the Eastman a major supplier of colour individual layers thinner has available in sufficient Colar negatives. The release print stock. quantities outside Hollywood, resulting double sided prints reduced light scatter and improved the definition. The the first Eastman Color shot included Jack And The Currently, both Kodak and actual light sensitive grains films were printed in Britain Beanstalk (1952) [28] in Fuji continue to offer the film are now speciall y shaped and Europe using the more three-colour Super Cinecolor, industry a full range of and orientated in the readily available Gevacolor, and Invaders From Mars colour camera, intermediate emulsion to capture the Agfacolor or Ferraniacolor. (1953) in only the cheaper and print stocks which are all maximum amount of li ght for The first full length Eastman two colour version. compatible and a given grain size. Color film, Royal Journey, a interchangeable when documentary about Princess At the beginning of the printing and processing. The Perhaps the most welcome Elizabeth's tour of Canada in 1950s, movie goers were introduction of ever advance for those concerned 1951, was printed on seeing more colour than improving films has resulted with colour film restoration Gevacolor here in Britain. ever, with it being used to in a dramatic gain in image and preservation was the MGM's first Ansco Color back up other anti-TV quality with finer grain, inclusion, from the 1980s, of feature, The Wild North innovations. Of these, the higher resolution and colour improved color-forming (1952), was released here shape of the screen changed fidelity. Today's 16mm now couplers which generate dyes with both Gevacolor and to wider formats for good, looks like a typical 35mm with a greater degree of Ferraniacolor prints. but 30 soon went flat and production from the 1960s, stabil ity and permanence. Technicolor was contracted to stereo sound wasn't generally and 35mm is able to fill the Grant Lobban FBKS make dye transfer prints in accepted, by exhibitors at largest cinema screen,

23