Secondary Metabolites 1

What are the ingredients of Plants?

A was wrong to 99.9 % biomass Conclusion from Helmont’s experiment Î most of the mass of plants is made up by water! 90 % What are the ingredients of Plants? How do plants and animals differ as food for humans?

Î Î

The role of plants changed with time from emphasis shifting from minerals to vitamins to fiber to necessary supplements of our intake. Why are plants the masters in biosynthesis? The major reason is that plants have chloroplasts. CHLOROPLASTS: -are domesticated former cyanobacteria that have been swallowed and accommodated inside the cells of the ancestors of green alga and plants -Photosynthesis allows algae and plants to produce a nearly limitless supply of sugars and other organic compounds that they use to bribe or repel other organism, e.g. bacteria around their root, insects for protection & pollination -retained their own DNA and also ribosomes to synthetize amino acids and proteins/enzymes that add to the biochemical potential of the host cell. Their biochemical abilities make plants the primary producers of biomass on the planet. They also give them the ability to attract (sugar, smells, pheromones) or repel (poison) other forms of life. Plants are masters in symbioses and networking. The endosymbiont Theory of Evolution (1) 1883 Botanist Andreas Schimper observed that the division of chloroplasts in plants closely resembled that of free-living cyanobacteria, (2) 1905 endosymbiotic theory was first articulated by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowsky (3) 1920s Ivan Wallin extended the idea of an endosymbiotic origin to mitochondria coming from aerobic bacteria or Ricketsia (4) 1960 Chloroplasts & mitochondria have their own particular DNA and ribosomes (smaller size than nucleus) (5) 1981 Lynn Margulis popularized these ideas in her book “ Symbiosis in cell evolution” Examples of metabolites that plants produce but humans cannot (must import with food!) (1) A vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital or essential part of its diet because it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by the organism. The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins, nor does it encompass the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.[2] Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present. (2) Nine amino acids are essential for humans: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, leucine, and lysine. Arginine is required by infants and growing kids, it is an important supplement in producing nitric oxide. (3) Essential Fatty Acids or EFAs, are those required for biological processes, and not those that only act as fuel. Two EFAs are known for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) & linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid. When the two EFAs were first discovered in 1923, they were designated Vitamin F. In 1930, work showed that the two EFAs are better classified as fats than vitamins. Guess why? Other essential acids Essential substances are such that humans & other animals must ingest because their body requires them for functioning although they cannot synthesize them on their own. Nine amino acids are essential for humans: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, leucine, and lysine.

Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are those fatty acids that are required for biological processes, and not those that only act as fuel. Two EFAs are known for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) & linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid. When the two EFAs were first discovered in 1923, they were designated Vitamin F. In 1930, work showed that the two EFAs are better classified as fats than vitamins

By convention, the term vitamin refers to essential organic substances that are needed in small quantity and does not include other essentials such as minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids needed in larger amounts . Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, vital amines Î Vitamines are not amines

A vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital or essential part of its diet because it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by the organism. The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids (which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins), nor does it encompass the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.[2] Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. 1747 British Navy doctor James Lind examined 12 sailors with scurvy Î treatment of 2 each with (1) cider, (2) vinegar, (3) sea water (4) nutmeg, (5) a medicinal powder and (6) lemons & oranges. The limeys recovered.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals. Essential for health of connective tissue. Vit.C. and tocopherol (vitamin E) are antixoidants. 1897 Dutch scientist found that the Beriberi disease (lethargy due to ailment of nervous system) came from eating polished white rice rather than whole grains..

The ailment was caused by a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency in the diet. 1913 Vit A was discovered in egg yolk and cod liver oil as a remedy for Night blindness as one of the first signs of vitamin A deficiency. Ancient Egyptians fed raw liver. "vitamin A", which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, & 4 carotenoids. It is not an amine. Why are plants the masters in biosynthesis? Primary metabolism is that of nucleic acids, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. It is all the same from archaebacteria to plants. Primary metabolism is different in plants & animals: plants are N-starved animals too much Î urine Î hairs in plants cellulose in animals protein = keratin plants have plenty of CH (phot) animals need to eat to get it plant produce all essential AAs animals need to eat AAs plants produce all vitamins animals produce only a few plants produce 10 ooo alkaloids animals 30 to 50 alkaloids plants do not need only light animals need to eat ! Secondary metabolites 1. often excluded from metabolism (nicotine carotene biosynthesis inh.) (a) external excretion into the cell walls (b) internal excretion into vacoles (trash cans; Paech) 2. Have specific action (atropine toxinf or humans not for rabbits & pigs) 3. Have ecological significance for survival of species 4. Are characteristic for certain families (brassica mustard oil. Inulin in Asters) Secondary metabolites have ecological meaning – ahh in plants

Primary vs secondary metabolites are defined by function. When non- proteinogenic AA canavanine mimicks biochemistry of arginine it is a secondary Toxin leading to malfunctioning enzymes. Citric acid is a central molecule in primary metabolism (citrate cycle). However, when stored in vacuoles, it serves as an antibiotic protectant for the plant cells. Meaning: Why do Plants produce a Latex Polymer? 1905 H Kniep carried out classical experiment on chemical defense in plants. By repeated poking the midvein of Euphorbias he drained/milked them & found them now being eaten by snails. Kniep did not know that some insects have practiced his method regularly to avoid being poisoned or muzzled alive!

Drain the lacticifer defense chemicals or suffer the consequences!1 R: Thomas Eisner “ For love of insects” Harvard University Press, 2003 Primary & Secondary metabolites Primary Metabolites: Secondary Metabolites: Sugar, starch, citric acid, Vitamines Pectins & algins (food additives) Phenolic compounds (coffee, vine, incense, perfumes) protein (seeds of Fabaeceae) Terpenoid compounds plant fatty oils (nuts, corn, (lemon scent, anis taste, bitter sesame, peanuts, sunflower, rape) taste of hops, tonic water, color cellulose (cotton, fiber, wood) Amines (smell of fish, algae, ) Alkaloids (coffeine etc.) Glycosides (Sinigrin from mustard, allicin from garlic, PEA in chocolate) What are primary metabolites made of? Primary metabolites have no less medical effects than secondary metabolites We eat plant foods because of 1. Vitamins 2. Roughage or fiber 3. Necessity for a balanced diet since our ancestors were fruit eaters. 4. Carnivory was only a short period associated with the primate-hominid transition and self-recognition of humans - the only killer primates known to us animals What are Primary metabolites made of? Mono- and disaccharides – the primary products of photosynthesis

galactose Dietary fiber Mechanical Fiber

Cellulose is the major ingredient of cell walls in the kingdom of Plantae. Chitin – a N-containing polymer is characteristic for the walls of fungus cells and the skeleton of insects. Lignin is a phenolic plant polymer Î to this! From this …

Ligninis a polyphenolic polymer resin that forms stiff wood with cellulose in secondary cell walls of plants and algae. The monomers are ferulic, gallic & coumaric acids + syringyl alcohol What is wood?

Cellulose is the major ingredient of cell walls in the kingdom of Plantae. Chitin – a N-containing polymer is characteristic for the walls of fungus cells and the skeleton of insects. Wood is a composite of two ingredients: fiber + resin

The two ingredients: fiber is cellulose imbedded in a resin called lignin. Ferulic acid Ferulic acid is phenolic phytochemical found in plant cell walls. It iscomponent of lignocellulose, crosslinking lignin & polysaccharides, thereby conferring rigidity to the cell walls of beets, red beets, water chestnuts. A good amount is found in oats, brown rice, whole wheat, peanuts, apples, and pineapples as well as in coffee, apple, artichoke, peanut, oranges. Name derives from Ferula, giant fennel. Tumeric Cucurma Chemical structure resembles that of cucurmin – longa & its rhizome Unlignified primary cell walls containing ester-linked ferulic acid fluoresce blue in ultraviolet radiation which changes to green on treatment with ammonium hydroxide. Using this fluorescence test, we detected ester-linked ferulic acid in the primary cell walls of all 41 species of gymnosperms. Ferulic acid ester-linked to primary cell walls has previously been found in the commelinoid monocotyledons and in the Caryophyllales including well-known plants like cacti, carnations, spinach, beet, rhubarb, and bougainvillea The age of Wood in human history!

Cellulose is the major ingredient of cell walls in the kingdom of Plantae. Chitin – a N-containing polymer is characteristic for the walls of fungus cells and the skeleton of insects. Wood and vascular elements stiffen stem of higher plants

Vascular bundles are made of phloem and xylem tubes and fibers. In the dicot stem the phloem is always on the outer periphery of the stem – i.e. in the bark. Therefore we can girdle a plant without killing it instantly. Fiber

The walls of tracheary (= xylem) cells are reinforced with wood with various degrees of composite deposition to stabilize the tubes under negative pressures inside. Liquid conduction in plants Around 1900 science recognized that water is not pumped to tree crown & canopies but sucked up there by transpiration of stomates in leaves Plants transpire multiples of their own weight, sunflower 1.5 l, beach 50 l only water-storing succulents can replace this water, others have deficit & close stomata after some time, hydro-labile p. have visible deficit Î wilting

Pumpkins, Aristolochia, clematis & other climbers have macro pores in cross sections of stem: 0.3-0.6 mm is their vessel diam. B. Huber: Die Saftstrome der Pflanzen, Springer-Verlag Berlin 1956 Cotton – an Asian or American Plant? Cotton is a soft, fluffy fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa, Asia (Wikipedia) REALLY? 50% truth is the best lie! Cotton was first cultivated in the Old World 7,000 years ago (5th–4th millennia BC), by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley . Other sources date the domestication of cotton in Mexico to approximately 5000 to 3000 BCE

The cotton in the new world AA and that in the old world ADAD are genetically different species.The new world species are crosses? Oh no, this is politically soooo incorrect!!! Wild & cultivated cottons of the old world are diploids of the AA type. Wild cottons of the Americas are DD and cultivated species are tetraploid AADD crosses. How could that happen? Where were cultural contacts across the Pacific ocean as early as 5000 BC? The Blue Jeans German immigrant Levi Strauss came to San Francisco in 1853 to run a store supplying the California Gold Rush miners. 1. He sold pants made from brown canvas - a stiff product made from hemp fibers. First Levi’s were “waist-high overalls” for 22 c. 2. Replaced canvas with French “denim cotton” (de Nimes - the French city) cotton twill material more flexible & durable than canvas. Kept blue color of dark indigo. “jeans” comes from Genoa - the Italian city 3. Pants often ripped at the seams - especially at the fully stuffed pockets 1872 tailor Jacob Davis put copper rivets at the corners of of pockets & … the fly!

This was a mixed birth of the All-American “Blue Jeans” or denims. Before the invention of paper there was writing Secret Plants of China: Rice Paper 1842 Treaty of Nanking opened China’s interior to Western explorers Robert Fortune 1812-1880 job to find plant of “rice paper”, orange CumQuat, tea pl, “Peaches of Peking” dressed as Chinese. the boughs are boiled and freed from bark. cylindrical core of pith is rolled on a hard flat surface against a knife, by which it is cut into thin sheets of a fine ivory-like texture. Dyed, this paper is used for artificial flowers, while the white sheets are employed for watercolor drawings. It is not suited for writing. Tetrapanax papyriferus (Tung-tsau or Rice- paper Plant) is an evergreen shrub in the Araliaceae from the swampy forests of Taiwan, often planted for a tropical effect against walls. The thick stem pith was used to make Chinese rice paper. In Europe, around Rice paper usually refers the 1900s, a paperlike substance was originally to paper made from parts known as rice paper, due to the mistaken of the rice plant, like rice notion that it is made from rice. straw or rice flour What are Primary metabolites made of? Sugar cane Î 350 AD humans finally learn to make crystal & rock sugar Originally, people chewed sugarcane Saccharum bengalensis raw just like fruits (peaches, dates, cherries, berries) to extract its sweetness. Then they made a honey- like syrup. Finally around 350 AD Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar Î sweet salt Arabs set up the first sugar mills, refineries, factories and plantations & spread the cultivation of sugar cane throughout the Arab Empire. Crusaders brought sugar home to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land Î sweet salt was medicine.

Later sugar cane was grown in Sicily, Cyprus and finally the Caribbean islands. By 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade. In 1390 Columbus took sugar cane from the Canary islands to America ( a gift of his lover – the governor) The search for sweets is the driving force of (my) live All plants produce sugars, it is just that some keep large amounts available rather than storing them as starch starch, fat, or inulin.

Oldest source of sugar was honey. Bees form nectar into honey by a regurgitation, concentration and additives. Honey gets its sweetness from the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, and has approx. the same relative sweetness as that of granulated sugar. Humans were just steeling the honey from bees.

Oldest sugar-producing plant was perhaps sugar maple Acer saccharum. It can be tapped in very early spring. The people figured this out very soon. The role of sugar for secondary compounds Glycosides are a form secondary compounds where an active ingredient is bound to one or more sugar molecules. The substance called is only released as the active aglycone after it is freed by glycolytic enzymes (e.g in human gut).

Cardiac glycoside, e.g. from Digitalis, shows the two principal parts of glycosides: Sugar + Aglycone

A cyanogenic glycoside is stored in the vacuole but released upon vacuole destruction resulting in the release of toxic hydrogen cyanide (respiratory inhibitor used for suicide). Here we see prunasin from cherries showing the typical glycoside structure. Sugar thieves Aphids know where to find the phloem tubes but they need only AAs. So, the pressure in the phloem presses the solution through their guts until it exits as sugary drops at their buds. Literally they have “friends” that lick their rear.

While ants are guarding the aphids like cows, lady bugs consider them a “box of sweeties” & eat them. If your plants are infested by aphids or larvae of white flies you find the lower leaves coated with a sugary layer that makes a nice breeding ground for fungi and bacteria. CH Polymers: Starch Starch occurs in granules which can be stained with K Iodide and will disrupt upon higher temperatures. The secret of boiling starch is to disrupt the granules so that the starch exudes and will thicken the solution. Cooking starchy meals gave humans a much higher share of digestion and energy. Starch is broken down by amylase enzymes (saliva). Glucose syrup is a food syrup, made from the hydrolysis of starch. Maize in the USA Î "corn syrup", but also made from other crops, including potatoes, wheat, barley, rice,cassava. Exp. Trick: the largest starch granules occur in potato starch (sorry for the corn crowd), it has up to 100 um large granules. Starch granules can identify a food source Cooking starchy plants

1Î

2Î 3Î

4Î 5Î Acorn flower – food from wild oaks

Starch was used long before cereals became the narrowed road of agriculture-based nutrition. This applied to the rhizomes of Typha (reed club, horsetails), wapato (Alisma plantago-aquatica) and also Acorn. Starch –producing plants

With agriculture Homo (1. Fruit eaters, than 2. Gatherers with enormous variety of foods, than 3. Carnivors) adopted a very narrow base of nutrition (vitamin shortage, lack of essential AAs). Starch –producing plants

With agriculture came new methods like leaching to get rid of disturbing secondary metabolites like saponins and phenols. Starch –producing plants

Root crops like Potato (Solanum tub.), Taro (Colocasia esculenta) and Cassawa (Manihot esculenta). With agriculture came new methods like leaching to get rid of disturbing secondary metabolites like saponins in potatoes and cyanogenic glycosides in Cassawa. Plants as human food Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the human body. It contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy and maintain life.Historically, people secured food through three methods: hunting, gathering, and agriculture.

The history of human food is the history of population growth and new diseases. Storage of Inulin: secondary C. in Asteraceae

Inulins are fructose-based polysaccharides produced by many plants, especially Asteraeceae. The fibers are known as fructans and are found in roots or rhizomes. Most plants that synthesize and store inulin do not store starch. Inula is a large genus of Asteraceae

Flavor ranges from bland to sweet (10% sweetness of sugar/sucrose). It is used to replace sugar, fat, and flour since inulin contains only 30 % of the energy of sugar. Exp. Trick: Inulin is soluble in hot water to be extracted from Helianthus tuberosum, burdock and dandelion roots Inulin – a primary or secondary metabolite? Inulin is a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides They belong to a class of fibers known as fructans. water- soluble carbohydrate polymer that consists primarily of fructose units & is therefore indigestible to humans featuring only amylase to break down polyglucose starch. consuming large quantities can lead to gas & bloating. Inulin has a minimal impact on blood sugar levels – diabetic safe sweetener Inulins are polymers mainly Good source are leaves and storage comprised of fructose units roots of the Compositae: Dahlia, typically have a terminal glucose. Jerusalem artichoke Helianthus The addition of ethanol to tuberosus, Chicory & dandelion tuber slices leads to Taraxacum sphaero crystals Other Polymers: Pectins – primary or secondary?

Pectin is contained in the primary cell walls of all plants. Commercial pectin is a white to brown powder, extracted from citrus fruits and apples. Together with sugar and acid it becomes a gelling agent for jams and jellies. It is also used as a stabilizer in fruit juices and milk drinks and as a source of liquid dietary fiber. Pectines are linear chains of α-(1-4)- linked D-galacturonic acid. Consumption of pectin has been shown to reduce blood cholesterol levels

Typical levels of pectin in plants are (fresh weight): apples, 1–1.5%, apricot, 1%, cherries, 0.4%, oranges 0.5–3.5%, carrots 1.4% and Î citrus peels, 30%. Pectin is extracted with hot dilute acid at pH 1.5 – 3.5. During several hours of extraction, the protopectin loses some of its branching & goes into solution. The extract is concentrated in vacuum and then precipitated by adding ethanol Other CH Polymers: Mucilage

Mucilage or plant slimes are polymers of polar glycoprotein nature. Medicinally mucilage is known to coat sensitive membranes in the throat and to stimulate gut movement (Metamucil). Mucilage is used by plants; (1) as Carbohydrous reserve (2) To fix seeds to ground like in Plantago (plantain) & Linum (flax) & Psyllium plantago (source of mucimel) (3) as a coating that contains antibacterial/ antifungal compounds to protect germinating seed 4. As glue to trap insects like in sundew Drosera, Pinguicula and other plants 5. Water-storing compound in Cactus & Aloe species

Exp. Trick: mucilage is water-soluble and can easily be extracted from Plantago & Flax seeds as well as Metamucil Mucilage-producing plants

Exp. Trick: Inulin is soluble in hot water to be extracted from Helianthus tuberosum, burdock and dandelion roots Mucilage-producing plants Mucilage is located in sacs & canals that bind large amounts of water that build colloid suspensions that do not gel. M occurs in roots and flowers of hollyhock Althea rosea In leaves of succulents Aloe & Cactus In fruits of okra & mistletoe In tubers of orchids In seeds of Linum usit. , Plantago afra, basil Ocimum basilicum, and most of all in the the seeds of Scaphium or Poon Tai Lai or Pang Da Hai boa Gums Gums are widely distributed among plants, esp. among trees. Most are soluble giving sticky, viscous solutions. Their hydrolysis shows constituents as sugars (araban, xylan, galactan). Gum Arabic fronm Acacia senegal in Chewing gum is made from Sudan; salts of arabic acid + araban, rubber instead of chicle (trad.) galactan = a combination of a water- insoluble phase gum base, & a Gum tragacanth from tragacanth water-soluble sweeteners, shrubs – Astralagus gummifer, cut the flavoring & coloring. stem & collect gum which hardens, hydrol. Î arabinose, Gal, Xyl + acids Chicle is the Chicle tree natural latex from Cherry gum in the wod of cherry (Pr. Manilkara chicle - Cerasus) plums Pr. Domestica, almond a tropical Pr. Amygdalus + other Rosaeceae. It evergreen tree exudes from fissures of the bark, native to Cam. hydrolysis gives only arabinose known to Aztecs Other CH Polymers: Gums Natural gums are polysaccharides capable of causing a large viscosity increase in solutions, even at small concentrations. They are used as gelling agents, emulsifiers, & stabilizers, adhesives, binding agents. Gums are found in the lactifers (specialized milk vessels of plants) or in seed coatings Examples are Gum arabic (E414), from sap of Acacia trees Gum ghatti from the sap of Anogeissus trees Gum tragacanth (E413), from sap of Astragalus shrubs Karaya gum (E416), from sap of Sterculia trees Chicle gum a chewing gum obtained from the chicle tree Mastic gum, a chewing gum from ancient Greece obtained from the mastic tree Pistacia The origin of plants: South America

Charles de La-Condamine 1735 length of a degree of the meridian arc in the neighborhood of the equator; the first Westerner to encounter rubber in the process. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. first descriptions by a European the curare arrow poison. sent back Spice bushLindera Cinchona trees (discovered by Jesuits),, rubber tree Hevea braziliensis. Joseph de Jussieu Jussieu was mesmerized by jungle & returned to civilization Paris after 30 years in the Amazone Aimee Bonpland & Alex von Humboldt 1799-1804 enriched flora of known plants by astonishing 5 %, Bonpland returned with Simon Bolivar to Argentina, Epiphyllum succul. Victoria amazonica (named by R. Schomburgk), succulents like Epiphyllum (epiphytic cactus), orchids

David Stuart (2002) The plants that shaped our gardens. Harvard Univ Press, Cambridg Gum-producing plants Gums from Grindelia hirsuta – the hairy gumweed Flowering year-round in an enormous variety of habitats, hairy gum-weed is native to the west coast of North America from California to Alaska, where it is a resident of coastal plant communities such as those in marshes and beaches. For unknown reasons the head produces copious white sticky exudate, especially in the early stages of blooming.

Little is known about the health effects of this exudate –alas a wide-open field for researcha nd experimentation Chewing Gum The original chewing gum was an invention of native Americans – the Mayans and them Northern tribes. Native American habits easily mislead the innocent White and Black invaders/ newcomers (Indian magic). (1) smoking tobacco (2) chewing tobacco and now (3) chewing gum.

•The ancient Greeks chewed mastiche - a chewing gum made from the resin of the mastic tree. •The ancient Mayans chewed chicle which is the sap from the sapodilla tree. •North American Indians chewed the sap from spruce trees and passed the habit along to the settlers. Olmecs invented games with rubber balls

Visitors to the Amazon describe how Indians coated their feet with latex to be protected from … One of the most mystique nations of Central America were the Olmecs which invented ball games -a most important invention in the history of (wo)mankind. vulcanized latex Rubber in the Americas has been around for centuries. 1. Olmecs invented the rubber ball from latex of Hevea bras. trees. 2. Peruvian Indians made boots by dipping feet in white latex called than “gum elastic” 3. English chemist Joseph Priestley found gum elastic ideal to rub out pencil marks ==> creating the name “rubber” 4. First rubber products suffered from changing temperatures. On hot days it melted & cold days it was hard, brittle & broke. 5. Charles Goodyear mixed latex with anything he could find, e.g cream cheese. 1839 mixing with lime (CaO) + magnesia made latex rubber6. Finally smooth he added & subtle sulfur but to disintegrated. the mix & spilled it over the hot stove. The product lost it stickiness & was not sensitive to temperature. After the god of fire he called it ==> vulcanized rubber. G. remained a pauper. Desirable plant Compounds Primary Metabolites: plant fatty oils (glycerides, Olea europea, Brassica rapa, Cocos nucifera, nuts, corn, sesame, peanuts, sunflower,) waxes (caranauba wax palm Copernicia cerifera, candellila plant Euphorbia antisyphilitica, Myrrhus ssp. Wax myrtle cellulose (cotton, fiber, wood), pectins (apples Malus.lemon peels Citrus starches Solanum tuberosum, wheat Triticum sativum, corn Zea mays, Manihot esculenta (tapioca), sago palms, quinoa, amaranthus Secondary Metabolites: Tannins (acacia spp., Quercus oak, vine Vitis vinifera, Camilla sinensis Terpenoid Resins (Thuja plicata, Commiphora myrrha myrrh, Cedrus ssp . , Draceana draco, eucalyptus spp. Pigments (madder, anthocyanins, betyacyanins, Bixa anatto dye, ) Gums (chicle or chewing gum tree, gum Arabic from Acacia senegal.) Latex (para rubber Hevea brasiliensis, ceara rubber Manihot glaziovii) Volatile oils ( mints Lamiaceae; Myrtaceae, laurels Lauraceae Laurus nobili Plant steroids (precursors from tropical yam Dioscorea for contraceptives) Secondary compounds – a taxonomic feature! Secondary compounds are giving plant families & species their character. Molisch H. (1933) Plant chemistry & plant relations,Fischer Jena Examples: Kingdoms Planta and fungi: differ in the the characteristic compound of their cell walls Î Plants have cellulose, fungi have chitin. Crucifer or mustard family have mustard oils like sinigrin and the enzyme myrosin to break it down into biting thiocyanins. Asteraceae or sunflower family has energy storage in not in starch but inulin (polyfructan) in their roots. Blue-absorbing red pigment of red algae called phycoerythrin allows them to live deep (> 200 m) under the see where no other autotrophic life form can exist. Secondary compounds are features of taxonomic keys Secondary compounds are features of taxonomic keys What are secondary metabolites made of? Secondary metabolites are profitable; more so than the primary ones Cancer treatment between natural & manufactured drugs

We know that a leading pharmaceutical manufacturer did 20 years of secret research on extracts from the soursop or Graviola tree

…that attacks 12 types of malignant cancer (colon, breast, prostate, lung & pancreatic) safely w/o causing extreme nausea, weight & hair loss while not effecting the immune system (as radiation therapy does). Extract proved to be 104 x times as effective cytostatic than adriamycin – a common drug used in chemotherapy.

"The Annonaceous acetogenins discovered in graviola thus far include: annocatalin, annohexocin, annomonicin, annomontacin, annomuricatin A & B, annomuricin A thru E, annomutacin, annonacin, annonacinone, annopentocin A thru C, cis-annonacin, cis- corossolone,……………. \http://www.naturalpharmacy.com/learn- more/graviola

Pawpaw (Asimina) & Graviola are genera of small understory trees with large leaves and fruit. They are in the family Annonaceae like custard-apple, cherimoya, sweetsop & ylang-ylang native to the American tropics. Both Pawpaw) & Graviola contain effective cancerostatics that reduce blood ATP to a level non-sufficient for tumor cells Medically active substances in Plants Although medical action of plants like Aloe was known already to Cleopatra. However, the reduction of the effect to one or a few substances adds to our understanding of larger connection Anthraquinones: contract gut muscle Rheum, Cassia senna, also important red pigments Aloe, Rhamnus Mucilage: protect sensitive mucous Ulmus, Linum usit., membranes in throat, stomach & guts Verbascum, Tussilago Anthocyanins: important pigments, Rubus, Vaccinium, UV protectants & antioxidants Vitus vinifera Flavonoids: antioxidants, UV protect, Fagopyrum (rutin), antioxidants anti-inflamm, capillaries Vacc. leaves, lemon p Tannins: antibacterial, antifeedants, Quercus, Vitus vin., bind with proteins & alkaloids Rhus, Acacia catechu Coumarins: Blood thinner (anticoag.), Apium grav., Gallium relaxant, furanoco are photosensitizers Mellilotus off., Ammi Glucosinolates: skin inflammants, Rhaphanus (reddish), increase cap. Blood flow, red. Thymus Sinapis a, Brassica ni Medically active substances in Plants Plants are the biochemically most versatile & advanced kingdom of life, followed by fungi …. Vitamines: Compound (also ess AA Nasturtium off (Vit E) & FA) that cannot be prod. by humans Rosa can hips (Vit C) Essential oils/ Terpenes/Resins:olfact Melaleuca tee tree, perception coupled with emot memory Draceana, Thymus Cardiac Glycosides: off toxin Digitalis Maianthenu Cyanogenic Glycosides: in low doses Prunus serotina relaxant (cough), higher cyanide Sambucus, Linum usi Alkaloids: multiple inc narcotic action Solanaceae, Asterace Bitters: Di- & triterpenes, alkaloids Artemisia, Achillea, stimulate digestion Gentium, Humulus Fiber: polymeric substances that Avena, Platanum, accelerate passage through GI tract Malus, Saponins: Triterpene sapogenines + Glycyrrhiza,Solanum steroid s., hormonal, hemolytic action tubers, Saponaria Secondary metabolites have ecological meaning – ahh in plants Contact with new cultures changed the drinking, eating, recreational habits of Europeans From Asia came tea, from Africa (Arabia) coffee and from America (Holland) cacao While beer is the unrefined drink of primitive, happy people, distillation was learned from the Moors ( Al Cohol). With it came alcoholism, addiction; then smoking, tobacco, gold and syphilis from America. Crusading is a bad idea, isolationism is good ?? Origin of our plants: The turks are coming

1520 Suleiman I started a major onslaught on “ the Western World”. siege of Constantinople The 2000 a old Byzantium (Rome) fell on May 29,1453) control over all trade routes to Europe Î 1529 Hungary, Romania & Greece 1683 siege of Vienna the capital of the Holy Roman Empire The Ottomans, under Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa began a siege of Vienna in July. The siege was lifted in September by a combined German Polish army surprising everybody.

David Stuart (2002) The plants that shaped our gardens. Harvard Univ Press, Cambridg The Turks left but the coffee staid! Coffea arabica is a species of Coffea indigenous to the mountains of Yemen and also from the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia & Sudan. According to legend, human cultivation of coffee began after goats in Ethiopia were seen becoming active after eating the leaves and fruits of the coffee tree. In Ethiopia there are still people that make a drink from the leaves of the coffee tree.

After the Turkish siege of Vienna in July 1683 the Turks left behind plenty of coffee bags and POW that ran the now so famous Vienna Cafes. The healing power of Coffee Brewed drip coffee has caffeine content with 150 mg /cup (= 8 ounces), coffee contains many polyphenolic antioxidants inhibiting free radicals & inflammation. Adding milk/ sugar does not affect anti-oxidant levels! Although caffee increases blood pressure temporarily (approx. 60 min) , it decreases free radical levels & inflammation – a primary cause of heart disease. Filtered coffee keeps coffee oils out of consumption (but not French pressed coffee). These coffee oils raise cholesterol levels! Coffee is strong diuretic helping people with edemic ankles. Coffee slows rate of cognitive decline in older people, reduces age-related brain damage!

C. reduces risk of cirrhosis (liver scars) & gallstones Caffeinol –protects against stroke Brain damage Dr. James Grotta: a mixture of 2strong cups of coffea + the amount of alcohol found in one cocktail reduced brain damage in rats by 80 %. Secret Plants of China: the Tea Thief Robert Fortune 1812-1880 job to find tea pl, By 1840 the West had become enchanted with a new brew, tea. But, China held the monopoly on its trade and manufacture, which it had fiercely guarded for more than 5,000 years.

Camellia sinensis is an evergreen shrub whose leaves are used to produce Chinese tea. genus Camellia in the family Theaceae. White tea, green tea, oolong, pu-erh tea and black tea are all harvested from this species, but are processed differently. Kukicha (twig tea) uses twigs and stems rather than leaves. Tea plants are propagated from seed or by cutting; it takes approx 4 to 15 years before a new plant can be harvested

Two principal varieties are used: the China plant (C. sinensis sinensis), used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas (but not Pu-erh); and the clonal Assam plant (C. sinensis assamica), used in most Indian and other teas (but not Darjeeling). Dental care with chewing sticks from trees African Muthala: Chewing sticks -- used for oral hygiene for thousands of years in the Middle East, Africa and Asia -- clean teeth and prevent plaque as effectively as toothbrushes. Twigs from the plant Diospyros lycioides, commonly known as "muthala." The scientists isolated six chemical compounds that demonstrated antimicrobial activity. These compounds kill the oral pathogens responsible for periodontal disease. Arabian Miswak: The most common type of chewing stick is the miswak from the Saudi Arabian Arak tree Salvadora persica. It is very effective in plaque removal Spices & scents – driving forces of human history

Modern people consume 1 kg of spices per year, spices were coveted from the very beginnings of mankind. Geopolitical events like the Mongol expansion led to a gigantic search for new trade routes that resulted in the discovery of America, Australia and Antarctica

Got it? Nobody looked for jobs or a democratic society in the new world. They wanted spices & gold but got more than they bargained for: potatoes, corn, beans, tobacco, cocaine, syphilis. Potato beetle and the US of A Spices & scents – driving forces of human history

There was an ancient network of spice trade from the producer countries India and China towards Europe; Greece and Rome. It was mediated by the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, and later the Roman fleet. With their appearance at the Mediterranean coast the Arabs became the ultimate spice traders to The West. They had trade posts and colonies in Indonesia (= Spice Islands), Africa, Persia, India and China but also in Egypt, Somalia, Yeamen and Spain. The Silk Road was started in 200 BC and encompaased 6500 km (4000 miles) involving India, China, Persia, Arabia and Europe. This was the dangerous land route for spice trade. But then there was the sea routes. Arab trade ships reached India in 700 AC and Indonesia in 800 AC, i.e. 500 years before first Europeans. The Arabs were more than “spice traders”. The classical writing of Dioscorides, Galen and Pliny the Older were translated and they went far ahead of the rest of the world! They perfected glass melting, distillation, soap making & perfumery! Yakub-al-Kindi (803-870) wrote: “The book of Perfume Chemistry and Distillation”. Describes early distillation device called the “Moor’s head” Ibn-Sina (980-1034) became known in Europe as Avicenna or the “Prince of Pharmacists” Abdullah ibn-al Baytar (1248 Spain) Materia medica listing the interesting properties of over 1400 plants. Silphion –extinct aphrodisiac & contraceptive The Town of Cyrene in the N African Cut in upper part of province of Cyrenaica obtained its wealth perennial root releases from selling this tall member of the latex which concentrates Apiaeceae , now extinct & perhaps related in 3 days to resin-like to recent Ferula asa-foetida (Persia, lumps. These are used Afgh.) – the stinking asant or the devil’s dirt as spicy food add., aphrodisiacs & also pop. contraceptive The shape of the silphion seeds was like shown on this ancient coin. Surprisingly, we do not find anything like that in nature, but in the ancient myths – a symbol of the heart Arrow poison making is one aspect of ethnobotany

Plastic coating keeps arrow heads sharp in wet climate The origin of plants: South America

David Stuart (2002) The plants that shaped our gardens. Harvard Univ Press, Cambridg Phantastic Mushrooms Georg Heinrich von Langsdorf arrived with Krusenstern expedition & became early explorer of Kamchatka after Steller/Bering. 1809 he published his account on Amanita muscaria var. Camschatica. Fly agaric is harvested in birch forests in the hottest months July/August where they dry fast & this producing a more potent mushroom (muscimol accumulates) than the fresh ones, which were often added to soups etc. Sometimes agarics were soaked in cherry juice and the drink was used like vine. They prefer smaller ones with bright red caps & white warts. The effects: muscimol rather than muscarine intoxicated people feel extraordinarily light on their feet, agile and skillful. Some see objects larger than before & make huge jumps over small sticks. Mushroom does not change but amplifies peoples behavior: gregarious become more talkative, music lovers will sing at the top of his lungs. People are stronger under intoxication & carry heavy loads with ease. A Shaman’s View Shamanic medicine is an alternative system to Chinese medicine or ayurvedic techniques. It takes any disease as a misalignment of the spiritual aspects of a human due to an external influence of a negative energy. The corrective action by the shaman is a realignment of the patient with the spiritual world. The diagnose the disturbance by smoke, aura, slime, insects & Gkw. To heal, a shaman has to enter the spiritual world = a different plane of consciousness = trance. He does this by (1) drums (rhythmic sounds), (2) dancing (rhythmic movement), (3) fasting (realignment of blood flow), (4) sweat lodge (hot humid environment that induces increased capillary skin flow), (5) hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms The wounded healer is an archetypical path for a shamanic apprentice. S/he undergoes a type of sickness that pushes her or him to the brink of death. This is for two reasons 1.The shaman crosses over to another world to bring back vital information for the sick, and the tribe. 2. The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. Sorgoleone – a red terpene pigment from Sorghum roots – and a strong natural inhibitor of photosynthesis