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Neuroesthetics Neuroesthetics Marcos Nadal, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Martin Skov, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Copenhagen, Denmark; and Copenhagen Business School, Copenhagen, Denmark Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Abstract Neuroesthetics is a subfield of cognitive neuroscience that studies the biological mechanisms and psychological processes evoked in the creator or the spectator when adopting an esthetic orientation toward an artistic or nonartistic object in the course of interacting with it. These psychological processes are related to perception, cognition, emotion, evaluation, social, and contextual aspects. Here, we outline the scope of neuroesthetics and summarize its historical background. We thereafter sketch three current approaches to neuroesthetics, and examine recent developments in three areas: emotions, context, and expertise. We finish with an exploration of the potential for future inquiry in neuroesthetics. Introduction: Aims and Scope of Neuroesthetics underpinnings of the human capacity for art production and appreciation is the goal of the cognitive neuroscience of art Stated briefly, neuroesthetics is a scientific field that aims to (Seeley, 2011). Both fields overlap, but they are not identical understand the neural mechanisms that underlie esthetic (Figure 1). Neuroesthetics deals with a broader set of objects behavior. Despite possessing the virtue of conciseness, such of esthetic interest, such as utensils, commodities, or graphic a characterization is unsatisfactory because it ignores important and industrial designs. The cognitive neuroscience of art, in conceptual subtleties. First, neuroesthetics can properly be turn, sets out to understand a broader set of issues related to viewed as a subfield of cognitive neuroscience. As such, it art, beyond the purely esthetic ones, such as grasping the combines neuroscience techniques and cognitive science meaning of an artwork, or understanding its significance in methods (Gazzaniga, 1984), bringing the cognitive and neural its art-historical or art-critical contexts. Both fields overlap levels of explanation of behavior together into a single when attempting to understand how esthetic qualities are used approach (Churchland and Sejnowski, 1988). Second, rather to produce and appreciate the content and form of an artwork. than regarding esthetics as an abstract concept, neuroesthetics Neuroesthetics, thus, is not concerned with a particular class conceives it as a form of human cognition, and thus, it of objects. Rather, it focuses on a certain kind of way objects focuses on particular esthetic experiences, esthetic creation, can be experienced when people approach them with an esthetic preference, esthetic choice, and so on. Third, esthetic orientation (Cupchik, 1992). From this perspective, neuroesthetics assumes that such forms of esthetic cognition neuroesthetics can be conceived as the study of the biological arise from the interaction of perceptual, emotional, and mechanisms and psychological processes evoked in the evaluative processes with social and contextual factors. In creator or the spectator when adopting an esthetic orientation fact, understanding such interaction is one of the field’s main toward an artistic or nonartistic object in the course of goals. Fourth, the creation and appreciation of artworks are interacting with it. These psychological processes and their within the scope of neuroesthetics. However, just as the field biological underpinnings are related to perception, cognition, of esthetics is concerned with other objects in addition to emotion, evaluation, as well as to social and contextual artworks, so is neuroesthetics. To understand the biological aspects (Skov and Vartanian, 2009). Figure 1 Representation of the relation between neuroesthetics and the cognitive neuroscience of art and their research topics. 656 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 16 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.56027-9 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Second Edition, 2015, 656–663 Neuroesthetics 657 Historical Background of Neuroesthetics Approaches to Neuroesthetics The term neuroesthetics was coined at the end of the twentieth The biological underpinnings of esthetic behavior have been century (Zeki, 1999). Scientists and humanists, however, have explored using a broad variety of methods. One approach, been interested in the neurobiological substrates of esthetic which Chatterjee (2011) refers to as parallelism, aims to experience for at least 250 years. Burke (1757) argued that illustrate how artists throughout the centuries have devised such experiences did not rely on specialized biological techniques and used resources that catch the attention of mechanisms, that the beautiful and the sublime were spectators, interest them, and appeal to them by engaging mediated by the same physiological mechanisms as common certain neural processes related with reward and arousal emotions like love and fear. Objects, landscapes, and other (Zeki, 1999; Ramachandran and Hirstein, 1999). people were regarded as beautiful – he believed – because Relying on clinical cases, other researchers have described they caused the same relaxation of the nerves as the emotions the impact of brain damage and neural degeneration on the of love or tenderness. Objects and events that agitated and production and appreciation of art and on esthetic experiences. tensed the nerves, in a similar way to pain, fear, or terror, were This second approach has shown that artists are vulnerable to experienced as sublime. Two main issues became the focus of the same visual, motor, auditory, and cognitive neuro- scientists’ attention during the second half of the nineteenth psychological deficits that affect other people, despite their century. First, the relation between pleasure, pain, and proficient perceptual and motor skills, though they manifest esthetics was extensively discussed. Whereas Marshall (1893) these deficits in strikingly eloquent ways (Chatterjee, 2004). went as far as considering psychological esthetics as a branch Most artists suffering from neurological disorders continue to of hedonics, and Allen (1877) made the bodily processes be artistically motivated, productive, and expressive after the of pain and pleasure the cornerstone of his Physiological onset of their condition (Zaidel, 2005). There usually is, Aesthetics, James (1890) believed that what defined esthetic however, a noticeable change in the work of most artists feelings was precisely the absence of the physiological who have suffered a stroke. Those sufferings from component of common emotions. Second, the issue of the neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, adaptive value of art and esthetics spurred hypothetical seem to gradually loose the ability to represent the world scenarios – based on natural selection or sexual selection – with precision, but are able to make use of color and form in that hoped to explain the origin and evolution of art and esthetically appealing ways (Miller and Hou, 2004). esthetics (Darwin, 1871/1998). Neurological disorders can also affect esthetic appreciation. It was Fechner’s (1876) Vorschule der Aesthetik, however, that Depending on the nature of the disorder, people might have marked the inception of an empirical science of esthetics. difficulties perceiving objects’ particular sensory features, Fechner developed a suite of basic principles that aimed to recognizing or recollecting them, or engaging emotionally explain esthetic appreciation. His methodological with them. In most cases, however, patients are capable of innovations were, nevertheless, his most lasting and recognizing and experiencing the esthetic qualities of art and influential contributions. It was he who introduced the now other objects in a meaningful and consistent way (Halpern familiar practice of measuring the responses of samples of and O’Connor, 2013). Neurological studies suggest that participants, representative of certain populations, to large esthetic preference is surprisingly resilient in the face of numbers of objects. He devised three main methods to elicit neurological conditions, and argue against the existence his participants’ responses: the method of choice, the method of specialized brain mechanisms underlying the experience of of production, and the method of use. The first of these art (Zaidel, 2005). became dominant in the experimental psychology of The third approach to neuroesthetics noted by Chatterjee esthetics, while the use of the other two declined, to the (2011) is experimental neuroesthetics. This approach has point that most of what empirical esthetics has shown about mostly – though not exclusively – used neuroimaging people’s esthetic experience is based on participants’ choices methods to study the role of different brain regions in esthetic or ratings (Westphal-Fitch et al., 2013). experiences. When applied to neuroesthetics, such methods During the twentieth century, the incipient neuroesthetics have usually required participants to judge the beauty, the explored the effects of brain lesions and neurological illnesses attractiveness or the appeal of stimuli presented to them, or to on artistic creation. The focus of much of this work was the state how much they like or prefer them, while their brain relation between aphasia and music, painting, and literature activity is being registered. Neuroimaging studies have revealed (Alajouanine, 1948). Because
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