Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation

Denis Gojak The Battle for Harbour

I was much surprised at the fortifications of Sydney Harbour. Fortifi- cations, unless specially inspected, escape even a vigilant seer of sights, but I, luckily for myself, was enabled specially to inspect them. I had previously no idea that the people of were either so suspicious of enemies, or so pugnacious in their nature.... But in view- ing these fortifications, I was most especially struck by the loveliness of the sites chosen. One would almost wish to be a gunner for the sake of being at one of those forts. —Anthony Trollope, , 1873

he 2000 Olympics will bring unprecedented international attention to Sydney, the largest and oldest city in Australia. A key feature of the proposed creation and selling of Sydney’s media image is an Temphasis upon the harbour, even though it will only be a venue for yachting and the main Olympic venue will be some kilometres away. In pre- paring for this new level of scrutiny, great effort has been made by public ag- encies, state and local government, and corporations to present the best pos- sible picture for visitors and international media viewers. By doing so they are making choices regarding what image they emphasise and what characteristics they downplay. This is not new, as the process of selection and emphasis has been going on for more than a century and remains a strong structuring prin- ciple for park management in its social and political context in Australia. Former defence lands around quisition, the National Parks and Sydney have been taken into public Wildlife Service of New South Wales ownership, notably incorporation (NPWS) has managed the land pri- into Sydney Harbour National Park. marily for its natural values, but has The defence lands form a significant been far more tentative in deciding proportion of the land surrounding how the major cultural sites within the harbour and, because they have the park should be managed. This escaped development, are generally paper focuses upon one area within well-vegetated with native and exotic Sydney Harbour National Park, the vegetation, standing out from subur- headlands known as Middle and ban sprawl and industry. Since ac- Georges Heads, and examines the

28 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation management history of its cultural drives and picnic spots. There was heritage, especially the defence heri- no apparent ambiguity or uncertainty tage of the area. in presenting nature in both its un- This paper contends that, al- touched and completely artificial though the bulk of Sydney Harbour forms and representing that under National Park is made up of former the single heading of a “park.” The defence reserves and contains na- creation and promotion of national tionally significant historic coastal parks in Australia at the end of the defences, this fact has been under- nineteenth century can best be played in the debates and decisions understood as part of a Victorian about the long-term management of ideology which held that nature ex- the land at the expense of its natural isted both as a backdrop against heritage significance. The solution which civilisation operated and de- remains to be offered, but the role of veloped and as a contrast to the deg- NPWS in drawing attention to the radation of city living which pro- greater significance of cultural heri- vided renewal and revitalisation tage of the park through interpreta- (Ashley et al. 1991). tion and education needs to be en- Around Sydney there were a hanced. Initial steps in that direction number of similar parks established have been taken, but whether they to provide an escape from the per- are effective will only be revealed ceived congestion and pollution of with time. the city. Trains and ferries allowed cheap and regular access to these Natiiionalll Parks iiin Australlliiia sites. Formal recreation favoured and Parks Around Sydney picnics, fishing, boating, walks, and National parks have a history in rides, while informal recreation in- Australia almost equal to that of cluded the establishment of artists’ North America. In each continent, camps, surf and river bathing, and early national parks sought to achieve camping. The archaeology of early two goals: reserving outstanding park planning consists of large scenic landscapes from development, “flats”—terraces defined by substan- and encouraging tourism and recrea- tial retaining walls next to rivers tion as a social good. The first where picnics and festivities could be Australian national park was the held—kiosks and shelters, rockeries Royal, to the south of Sydney, dedi- and gardens, pavilions and lookouts. cated in 1879. It combined what was Most tracks built were so robust they then undeveloped coastal forest and are still in regular use decades later river valley land with heavily modi- (Ashley et al. 1991). fied areas forming picnic grounds Within the broader ambit of rec- and artificial boating lakes, scenic reation the reserved lands were also

Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 29 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation an important setting for escape from and historic sites. The latter could the city in other ways. During eco- either be places of national historical nomic depressions many reserves significance, or places of importance were occupied by the unemployed, for Aboriginal spiritual values. While who built small shanty towns, such it was recognised that national parks as “Happy Valley” at La Perouse, were likely to contain structures and eking out a subsistence living from other evidence of historic land use, fishing or hunting rabbits and grow- they were primarily established for ing vegetables. When sea bathing nature conservation and recreation, was forbidden in daylight hours, se- reflecting the reality of the past sev- cluded coves were important for rec- enty years. reational swimmers. Along with sea bathing, many of the locations be- Sydney Harbour Natiiionalll Park came important as “beats” for homo- and iiits Defence Heriiitage sexual men to meet with less fear of Sydney Harbour National Park homophobic violence. These sorts of was developed as a result of transfers activities were only tolerated because of Commonwealth (federal) land to they took place in remote settings the New South Wales government and form one of the undercurrents of commencing in 1979. Military bases park management even today. occupied the various locations until In the twentieth century, national strategic changes in defence planning parks and nature and wildflower re- had made these uses redundant. It serves were declared throughout the consists of discrete headland reser- country, although most commonly in vations, with some interconnection the economically marginal and by narrow foreshore strips above the rugged lands bordering the main east high-water mark. coast mountain range. In 1967, The arrival of Europeans—first a NPWS was established. Its formation sail-past by Captain Cook in the En- was largely driven by politicians, deavour in 1770, and then by Cap- senior bureaucrats and envi- tain Arthur Phillip, at the head of the ronmental campaigners who had First Fleet, in 1788—marked the es- been impressed by the successes of tablishment of a major British colony the U.S. National Park Service in at the farthest reaches of Empire. developing natural areas as tourist The development of fortifications to attractions, and for the successful defend the harbour against enemy management of large land areas. The attack was rapid, the urgency legislation establishing NPWS was prompted by the commencement of strongly influenced by U.S. experi- war against France, and exacerbated ence. The main reserve categories by the presence of Irish convicts with were national parks, nature reserves, strong separatist politics.

30 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation The pattern of defence from 1788 from Home (meaning Britain, and onwards follows several general always spelled with a capital “H”). themes (NPWS 1999; Gojak 1995; While this was a satisfactory ar- Gojak, forthcoming). The first is the rangement for a growing colony that gradual spread of defences further was gradually maturing and dis- out from the main settlement. The covering independence, whenever short range of guns, requiring any Britain got into a tense diplomatic attacker to close in on the settlement situation with another imperial to pose any real threat, necessitated power, Australians always felt that this. As gun ranges increased they would be an early target for an through the nineteenth century, and attack. During the nineteenth cen- as Sydney grew, defences needed to tury, therefore, a pattern of crises in be located farther outward in order defence preparedness took place, to stop bombardment. This culmi- always in response to rising hostility nated with the development of the between Britain and another power. Sydney Fortress in the late 1920s The usual colonial response in and 1930s. This relied upon a de- such a crisis was to hurriedly seek to centralised layout of powerful gun complete previously unfinished gun batteries, supported by observation batteries and defences or build new posts and command stations, that ones without plans or much thought. allowed the entire coast around Syd- Soon enough the crisis would be ney to be protected (Fullford 1994). over and the emergency funding The consequence of the gradual would dry up. The archaeological movement of defences farther and legacy is a succession of poorly farther from the city is a pattern of planned and hastily erected defences, defence lands and fortifications of some unfinished. Each marks a par- different dates in a wide range of lo- ticular crisis and the response by the cations. While some locations have colonial authorities. An example is at been built upon again and again, Bradleys Head, where the arrival of leaving a complex archaeological two U.S. warships unannounced in palimpsest to unravel, most only rep- the Harbour in 1839 provided suffi- resent one or two phases of con- cient demonstration of the vulnera- struction, followed by abandonment bility of the town from a sneak attack for active defence. that a hurried round of gun battery The second theme of importance construction took place over the next in understanding Sydney’s defences year (NPWS 1993). These con- is the mentality of the “scare.” Many structions were unplanned and never Australians for a very long time finished, being sited more to provide thought of themselves as British reassurance for the citizens than to people on the other side of the planet intimidate attackers.

Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 31 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation A third theme that can be identi- technology, both in the form of the fied as being present throughout the defences and their patterning across entire history of the defences is the the landscape. Similarly, there is a adoption and modification of designs clear demonstration of the psyche of and principles from British exem- the colonial mind in the response to plars, and the purchase of British scares, and in the interplay between military equipment. This is itself un- growing independence from Britain surprising, but the two significant and the definite sense of being part of breaks from the pattern demonstrate Britain’s extended empire. how effectively it was enforced. The first was in the period from 1870, Management and Conservation when British garrison troops were History of Middle Head withdrawn from Australia, to 1877, Middle and Georges heads, as when British military advisers were two contiguous headlands opposite sent back in. The second instance the entrance to , and was during the Second World War. commanding the passage down Syd- At the same time as Australia’s prime ney Harbour towards the city centre, minister, John Curtin, was making had a crucial role in the defence his- his speech that Australia’s destiny lay tory of Sydney. The archaeology of with the United States of America, the two headlands spans the period the Army was for the first time buy- of Aboriginal occupation in the ing bulk equipment from the USA Holocene, subsequent significant and beginning to adopt and adapt attempts at establishing an Aborigi- American tactical doctrine in a range nal farming community, and defen- of military operations. In both of ces and military establishments these cases the archaeology reflects a spanning ca. 1800 to the 1960s. The short horizon of technology and de- defences dominate the headland, sign that runs counter to the pre- having shaped nearly all of the level vailing “Britishness” that is the norm areas with gun batteries, parade from 1788 onwards. grounds, and clear fields of fire Therefore the resulting legacy of (NPWS 1999). the military defences of Sydney is Prior to the transfer of Middle and more than a collection of interesting Georges heads to NPWS, the Army gun batteries, showing a gradual demolished a large number of change from smooth bore to rifled buildings and structures in both barrels, and increasing gun size as areas (Gojak 1985; NPWS 1997, the nineteenth century progressed. It 1999). Retained were the self-evi- represents a resource that demon- dently historic buildings and gun strates the gradual development of emplacements, i.e., those more than nineteenth- and twentieth-century seventy years old. Maintenance

32 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation wound down from the mid-1970s, tion has continued to increase as allowing the argument that the more people find out about the site buildings removed were incapable of and its scenic views. No interpreta- repair. Following transfer, NPWS tion has been installed on the site, did not undertake any substantial making it difficult to understand conservation works on any of the what the concrete bunkers and pits buildings, and only undertook mini- represent. There is a general under- mal work that was needed for public standing that these are old gun em- safety and management, including placements and previous Russian mowing of the main grassed areas, and Japanese threats are involved. As repairing those buildings to be used well as visitors seeking either the as staff residences, and fencing some harbour views, there has been a of potential danger spots. The regen- strong history of access by fishers, eration of bushland was generally not nude sunbathers, teenagers doing checked, leading to a gradual loss of teenage things, squatters in vacant open space (Bourne 1999). premises and rock shelters, and The first historical and archaeo- homosexual men at an established logical survey to investigate the area “beat.” Relatively few visitors have took place in 1985 (Gojak 1985; made the trek to see the defences, Harvey 1985; Wilson 1985). This and many of these come with others identified the complexity of the cul- who know the main access points tural remains that had been present (personal observation). and still survived. The survey sup- In the past ten years, the majority ported the claim that the defence of management work has been con- heritage was of national significance, strained by lack of resources to tackle and the themes that have been ex- the substantial amount of work re- pounded above began to be articu- quired to conserve cultural sites. The lated in support of the understanding majority of work has been bushfire of the site. From 1989, tours of the hazard reduction, continued grounds headlands—the “Tour de Forts”— maintenance, basic drainage and have been run by NPWS on a regular other maintenance work, and further basis, accessing tunnels and safety. Several large capital-intensive emplacements that are normally not projects have taken place on signifi- made accessible to the public (Cun- cant defence sites, notably the 1880s ningham 1991). armoured casemate at Georges Access to the Middle Head sec- Head, plus metals conservation tion of the park has always been diffi- (NPWS 1997; NPWS Annual Re- cult, as it required finding an un- ports 1979–present). The funding for formed track that led around an ac- these has had to be found separately tive Army base. Despite this, visita- within the agency or from external

Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 33 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation sources, as it has not been able to be prevalence of the “nature first” ar- met from the available operating gument, if it can be so termed, is a budget. concern. Education of the com- Immediately adjacent to the munity on the important values that NPWS-owned parts of Middle and are present on the existing part of the Georges heads are other recently va- park is a priority, but because of the cated defence establishments. The lack of previous development of in- eventual fate of these lands has not terpretative, recreational, and educa- been determined, but the current tional opportunities, this has had to Commonwealth position is that the be planned almost from the begin- less developed, i.e., the more “natu- ning. The guided fort tours are cur- ral,” areas will be transferred to the rently the only program offered by state for addition to the park, and the NPWS, and there are no self-guided remaining land which has defence tours or signage. housing or is developed will be made Funding was received from the available for housing. Public debate NPWS internal cultural heritage re- on this position has been vigorous, search grants program to prepare a and reveals that the land is still seen model interpretation plan for Middle as being largely natural. Recognition and Georges Heads (Bickford et al. of the importance of the cultural 1999). Consultants were engaged to sites, especially the more recent de- prepare the plan based upon recently fence heritage, is often absent or only developed best-practice guidelines developed as a minor issue (see Uren for park interpretation (DNREV 1999 as one example of many letters 1999). to newspapers and minor editorials). The model interpretation plan, At its most extreme, community ar- following the best-practice guide- guments represent the position that lines, took an integrative approach to the area should be returned to park- significance assessment (Australia land and developed into a fully natu- ICOMOS 1994, 1999). Existing re- ral area, i.e., removing cultural evi- search on natural values, Aboriginal dence that may show that the area and non-indigenous heritage signifi- has not been coastal forest since the cance, and contemporary social im- Pleistocene. portance was supplemented where necessary with new research. The Progress in Interpretation primary structure for the interpreta- and Management tion is the presentation of Middle For a park management agency and Georges Heads as representing which will eventually take over some different scales of time, with geologi- of this land and be required to man- cal time scales, Aboriginal time and a age and conserve all the values, the long recent past / present. Aboriginal

34 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation time, for example, is represented in safe and accessible to allow visitors to relation to Aboriginal cosmological see a range of different attractions. belief in the shape of the land repre- Signage, publications, Web sites, senting spiritual activities from the and guided and self-guided tours are Dreaming which still resonate in the all identified as products to meet the present, thus tying in the geological demands of different possible users time scale into a separate but parallel of the site. The interpretation plan narrative based upon a different offers the prospect of encouraging value system. The elaboration of the understanding of defence heritage in story of Aboriginal people on the site a way that gets away from a focus on after European settlement also aims guns and war to its wider context in to ensure that it is incorporated into Sydney’s history (e.g., Uzzell 1989). the historical narrative (Bickford et al. 1999, 31-34). Conclusion While the defence heritage man- Trollope’s quote at the head of agement issues will dominate future this paper indicates that right from management of the site, as the infra- the start the defence lands were ac- structure is decaying and requires cessible to the public. The imple- considerable conservation resources mentation of the interpretation plan be directed to it, the interpretation will commence soon, although it will aims to place it into context. The be too late for the Olympics. During separation of conservation effort the period of military occupation, from interpretative effort is an im- gaining access to the land was far portant principle, even in such sim- more difficult, but it remained an ple matters as making sure that when important place for many users. conservation works are being carried During the course of the late out they are explained and incorpo- nineteenth and early twentieth cen- rated into the presentation of the site tury clearing, military activity, and and what is being done to retain its construction transformed this land. heritage values. It also will reduce the When the military moved away, it disciplinary dominance of conserva- provided an opportunity for the bush tion practice, and allow community and the weeds to grow back, making values greater scope for leading fu- it superficially look like the military ture research and management (see had never been there. With its in- English and Veale 1998 for compa- corporation into Sydney Harbour rable issues in Aboriginal site man- National Park, this process of trans- agement). formation has been completed, cre- The interpretation plan, then, de- ating a justification for perceiving the velops specific themes and require- land as being primarily an important ments for making particular locations piece of bushland within the city.

Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 35 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation The problem for archaeologists, tation to alter the public’s perception heritage managers, and site managers and make them more aware how has been to begin to use the tools of many other important things there conservation planning and interpre- are on Middle and Georges heads.

References Ashley, G., D. Gojak, and C. Liston. 1991. An Outdoor Museum: Historic Places in the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service Estate. Sydney: NPWS. Australia ICOMOS. 1994. The Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (the Burra Charter); Guidelines to the Burra Charter: Conservation Policy. N.p.: Australia ICOMOS. ———. 1999. Proposed Revision of the Burra Charter. N.p.: Australia ICOMOS. Bickford, A., H. Brayshaw, and H. Proudfoot. 1999. Middle and Georges heads model interpretation plan and application. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. Bourne, J. 1999. Nature Conservation management plan—Middle and Georges heads. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. Cunningham, D. 1993. Making conservation pay. Australian Ranger 26, 22-24. DNREV. [Department of Natural Resources and Environment Victoria]. 1999. Best practice in park interpretation and education. Report prepared by Earthlines Consortium Victoria to the ANZECC Working Group on Best Practice for national parks and protected areas management. N.p.: DNREV. English, T., and S. Veale. 1998. Conserving people’s places and pasts: Working with communities in NSW parks. Pp. 57-62 in Celebrating the Parks: Proceedings of the First Australian symposium on Parks History, E. Hamilton-Smith, ed. South Carlton: Rethink Consulting. Fullford, K. 1994. We Stood and Waited: Sydney’s Anti-ship Defences 1939-1945. Manly: RAAHS. Gojak, D. 1985. Sydney Harbour fortifications study, stage II: Archaeological survey. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. ———. 1995. Defending the indefensible: An archaeological approach to Sydney’s historic coastal defences. Paper presented to the First Military Archaeology Conference of Australasia and the Pacific, Albury. ———. Forthcoming. The coastal defences of Sydney. Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology. Harvey, ___. 1985. Sydney Harbour fortifications—archival study: Final Report, Part 2. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. NPWS [National Parks and Wildlife Service of New South Wales]. 1993. Draft Bradleys Head defence heritage conservation plan. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. ———. 1997. Sydney Harbour National Park Plan of Management. Sydney: NPWS. Uren, T. 1999. Struggle on for harbour foreshore. Letter to Sydney Morning Herald, 13 September, 14. Uzzell, D. L. 1989. The hot interpretation of war and conflict. Pp. 33-47 in Heritage Interpretation, Volume 1: The Natural and Built Environment, D. Uzzell, ed. London: Belhaven Press. Wilson, ___. 1985. Sydney Harbour fortifications archival study: Part 1. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS.

Denis Gojak, National Parks and Wildlife Service of New South Wales, P.O. Box 1967, Hurstville, NSW 2220, Australia; [email protected] 1

36 The George Wright FORUM