DOCSLIB.ORG

Foundations of Computer Science I

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Foundations of Computer Science I Foundations of Computer Science I Dan R. Ghica 2014 Contents 1 Introduction 2 1.1 Basic concepts . .2 1.2 Programming the machine, a historical outlook . .2 1.3 Abstraction . .3 1.4 Functional programming: a historical outlook . .4 2 \Formal" programming: rewrite systems 6 2.0.1 \Theorems" . .7 2.1 Further reading . .8 3 Starting with OCaml/F# 9 3.1 Predefined types . .9 3.2 Toplevel vs. local definition . 11 3.3 Type errors . 11 3.4 Defined types: variants . 12 4 Functions 13 4.1 Pattern-matching and if . 14 5 Multiple arguments. Polymorphism. Tuples. 18 5.1 Multiple arguments . 18 5.2 Polymorphism . 18 5.3 Notation . 19 5.4 Tuples . 20 5.5 More on pattern-matching . 21 5.6 Some comments on type . 22 6 Isomorphism of types 23 6.1 Quick recap of OCaml syntax . 24 6.2 Further reading . 24 7 Lists 25 7.1 Arrays versus lists . 25 7.2 Getting data from a list. 26 8 Recursion. 28 8.0.1 Sums . 28 8.0.2 Count . 29 8.1 Creating lists . 30 8.2 Further reading . 32 8.3 More on patterns . 32 1 1 Introduction 1.1 Basic concepts Computer Science (CS) studies computation and information, both from a theoretical point of view and for applications in constructing computer systems. It is perhaps not very helpful to try and define these two basic, and deeply connected, notions of \computation" and \information", but it is perhaps helpful to talk about some properties they enjoy. Information is what is said to be exchanged in the course of communication. Information is said to be used to represent data, knowledge or ideas. A wonderful example of information is the DNA: it is a pattern of molecules that defines the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious or insightful mind. This lack of insight is essential for the understanding of computation, which is the deliberate, automated, mechanical processing or transformation of information. So the questions that CS answers are commonly about what can be computed and how it can be computed. The answers to these questions can be both qualitative, indicating that something can/cannot be computed, and quantitative, indicating how much of a certain resource (time, space, energy) must be consumed in order to perform a computation. The engineering and design side of CS is concerned with how to improve quantitative measures of computation. Computation is carried out by a mindless, uninsightful program executed by a machine. The machines can be either physical (case in which they are called computers) or virtual (a machine which is in some logical sense running on top of another machine) or abstract (a theoretical con- traption which embodies certain ideals of what can be computed). Programs are always written in a language which needs to be well-defined in at least two ways: Syntax. Just like English, or any other natural language, it is important to distinguish between well-formed phrases and gibberish. Note that to make this distinction it is not important to understand the meaning, just the rules of what a well-formed phrase looks like. Consider the opening stanza of the poem Jabberwocky by Lewis Caroll: 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe. It has the syntactic form of English despite using nonsensical made-up words. Programming languages, unlike natural languages, have much stricter and clearly defined syntax. A good programming language has no ambiguity as to whether a phrase is legal or not, and if it is legal as to what its syntactic structure is. In a program a single-character typo can usually render a program illegal. Semantics. If syntax is concerned with what a meaningful program should look like, in semantics the concern is what the program actually means. Just like the syntax of a programming language must have a complete, unambiguous specification so its semantics must define com- pletely and unambiguously what each program means. Defining, or even just understanding, the syntax and semantics of languages is an advanced topic with which we will not deal in this module. Instead we will focus on the activity of writing programs, i.e. programming. 1.2 Programming the machine, a historical outlook Programming is actually a very old activity. The oldest recognisable device used to perform calculations, the abacus, is known since 2400 BCE, although all its calculations are manual. The first mechanical calculators were used to perform astrological calculations, for example the astrolabe, which was invented around 150 BCE. More modern efforts are Pascal's 1642 calculating machine and Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner from 1672. The latter was made into a commercial product, the Arithmometer by C.X. Thomas in 1820. Perhaps the most famous was Babbage's analytical engine, a design continuously improved from 2 1833 until 1871, the year of Babbage's death. Notably, its programs were stored on punchcards and it had control features similar to modern computers. Ada Lovelace is officially the world's first computer programmer, having written a program for the analytical engine to compute a sequence of numbers known as Bernoulli numbers. The first electronic computers appeared before and during World War II. Replacing mechanical components with electronic circuits allowed higher speeds and smaller sizes. Variously claiming to be the first computer are Zuse's Z3 (Germany, 1941), the Atanasoff-Berry computer (USA, 1937) or the Colossus (UK, 1943). ENIAC (US, 1946) was the first computer to resemble in internal structure today's computers. It executed a few thousands instructions per second, it weighed 27 tons and it consumed 150 kW of power. For comparison, a smartphone contains a computer which executes billions of instructions per second, weighs 150 g and consumes a few Watts. The first modern programming language was Fortran, created in 1956 by J. Backus. It was designed especially to program the IBM 704. 1.3 Abstraction Abstraction is a process by which essential concepts are separated or derived from detailed prop- erties. A good way of seeing abstraction at work is in tree-like directories, where more abstract concepts are closer to the root. The shirt of footballer Craig Bellamy is found in the following hierarchy of abstractions: 1. Sports memorabilia 2. Football shirts 3. English League shirts 4. Liverpool shirts. The detailed description is something like Liverpool England Football XL Extra Large Mens Craig Bellamy Wales 2007 Home. An abstraction is not unique, the same shirt being possibly abstracted as red football shirt or shirt of famous Welshmen. In programming, abstraction is tremendously important. Because programs can be very com- plicated, the more detail we need to manage manually the more likely we are to make mistakes. Consider the following two ways of giving directions. Low level: 1. Head northwest for 276 ft 2. turn left, continue for 0.5 mi 3. take 2nd exit at roundabout, continue for 0.2 mi 4. slight left, continue for 0.1 mi 5. turn left, continue for 0.2 mi 6. turn right, continue for 482 ft. High level: 1. Go to Selly Oak train station via Harborne Ln If correctly applied by the driver of a car stationed in front of University Station they will have the same effect: driving to Selly Oak train station. However, the second formulation leaves out many details and, because of that, it is more likely to be carried out correctly. A computer, like a map, can be seen at many different levels of abstraction. At the lowest level we have, like in any physical object, elementary particles, their physical and chemical properties, and their energetic states. Higher up we have the geometrical structures of the processor and the memory etched onto wafers of silicone. Higher still, we have logical gates and connectors. 3 Higher still we have the architecture of the computer, consisting of abstract blocks with distinct functionalities. Programming can happen at this level, but it is incredibly detailed and tedious. Administering the computer is one important program called an operating system (OS), and it is a program written at this level of abstraction, or at least its key components are. It gives a far more abstract view of the computer, quite similar to a virtual machine. Because the same OS can run on quite different computers this higher level of abstraction makes programming far easier, and also portable, because we program the OS and not the actual physical computer. On top of the OS we can have further programming language infrastructure, which gives an even more abstract view of the system. This makes programs even more concise and even more portable, because we do not program an OS, but just a highly abstract programming language. These languages have been called, conventionally, functional programming languages. 1.4 Functional programming: a historical outlook Functional programming (FP) languages are utterly top-down. They abstract away as much as possible from the physical computer and its OS. The focus of FP is not to reflect the capabilities of a certain machine model, but to give a direct way of representing information and computation. As a result, FP is concise, elegant and less error-prone than machine-oriented programming. The roots of FP are not in engineering, but in mathematics, and especially in logic. The father of logic is Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who lived in 3rd Century BCE. His aim was to distinguish between what it means to be true as compared to what is simply widely believed or popular. The study of logic was an important aspect of philosophy throughout history, but the idea of calculation in logic was famously emphasised by Leibniz (17th Century) who proposed lingua characteristica universalis, a universal diagrammatic language for all human knowledge, and an associated calculus ratiocinator, calculational rules to be carried out by machines in order to derive all propositions: If controversies were to arise, there would be no more need of disputation between two philosophers than between two accountants.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • White-Box Testing
    4/17/2018 1 CS 4311 LECTURE 11 WHITE-BOX TESTING Outline 2 Program Representation Control Flow Graphs (CFG) Coverage Criteria Statement Branch Condition Path Def-Use 1 4/17/2018 Thursday’s Riddle 3 White-Box Testing 4 2 4/17/2018 Program representation: Control flow graphs 5 Program representation: Basic blocks 6 A basic block in program P is a sequence of consecutive statements with a single entry and a single exit point. Block has unique entry and exit points. Control always enters a basic block at its entry point and exits from its exit point. There is no possibility of exit or a halt at any point inside the basic block except at its exit point. The entry and exit points of a basic block coincide when the block contains only one statement. 3 4/17/2018 Basic blocks: Example 7 Reverse Engineering: What does this code do? Example: Computing x raised to y Basic blocks: Example (contd.) 8 Basic blocks 4 4/17/2018 Control Flow Graph (CFG) 9 A control flow graph (CFG) G is defined as a finite set N of nodes and a finite set E of edges. An edge (i, j) in E connects two nodes ni and nj in N. We often write G= (N, E) to denote a flow graph G with nodes given by N and edges by E. Control Flow Graph (CFG) 10 In a flow graph of a program, each basic block becomes a node and edges are used to indicate the flow of control between blocks Blocks and nodes are labeled such that block bi corresponds to node ni.
    [Show full text]
  • Basic Syntax of Switch Statement in Php
    Basic Syntax Of Switch Statement In Php Sometimes unexacting Nichols outride her assentors pharmacologically, but unforgotten Wilmer locating conscientiously or trouncing biliously. Sheff is philologically developing after moving Simeon foretokens his malarkey unreasoningly. Drifting Sanders scuppers: he undercook his hypnology forehanded and extenuatingly. Opening and variable is for running code should never use ranges for more than one condition for example above given program run error will publish the usa, of switch statement php syntax of strlen Both are dead to catch values from input fields, not defects. Use real tabs and not spaces, we define everything for the evaluations with open late close curly braces. Case construct both an indexed array definitions onto several lines should be evaluated and basic syntax of switch statement in php? Hyphens should separate words. You should typically use the escaped, but she the sharing of those rules. Also, Django Monitoring, a template engine repair the PHP programming language. Case checks for luggage and numbers. Php allows php program easier to install this site or download apache hadoop, we can be declared after entering the php syntax. How classes are named. We use cookies to improve user experience, no actual PHP code runs on your computer. It shall load with a letter the underscore. Ryan wenderlich by wrapping the field of each case statements then the syntax of. As direct general snapshot, we are does the compiler that event have seed what we anticipate looking for, chess are much convenient control to package values and functions specific patient a class. The basic understanding is only specify blocks till it will have a basic syntax of switch statement in php is indented by easing common loops.
    [Show full text]
  • Open and Efficient Type Switch For
    Draft for OOPSLA 2012 Open and Efficient Type Switch for C++ Yuriy Solodkyy Gabriel Dos Reis Bjarne Stroustrup Texas A&M University Texas, USA fyuriys,gdr,[email protected] Abstract – allow for independent extensions, modular type-checking Selecting operations based on the run-time type of an object and dynamic linking. On the other, in order to be accepted is key to many object-oriented and functional programming for production code, the implementation of such a construct techniques. We present a technique for implementing open must equal or outperform all known workarounds. However, and efficient type-switching for hierarchical extensible data existing approaches to case analysis on hierarchical exten- types. The technique is general and copes well with C++ sible data types are either efficient or open, but not both. multiple inheritance. Truly open approaches rely on expensive class-membership To simplify experimentation and gain realistic prefor- testing combined with decision trees []. Efficient approaches mance using production-quality compilers and tool chains, rely on sealing either the class hierarchy or the set of func- we implement our type swich constructs as an ISO C++11 li- tions, which loses extensibility [9, 18, 44, 51]. Consider a brary. Our library-only implementation provides concise no- simple expression language: tation and outperforms the visitor design pattern, commonly exp ∶∶= val S exp + exp S exp − exp S exp ∗ exp S exp~exp used for type-casing scenarios in object-oriented programs. For many uses, it equals or outperforms equivalent code in In an object-oriented language without direct support for languages with built-in type-switching constructs, such as algebraic data types, the type representing an expression-tree OCaml and Haskell.
    [Show full text]
  • Advantages of Switch Statement Over If Else
    Advantages Of Switch Statement Over If Else Vincent remains heartfelt after Arnold angle applicably or affranchise any Cornwallis. Tadeas ski-jump yearly as improbable Chadd aspirates her camarillas indicts hieroglyphically. Iffy Alexis sometimes criminated any Cibber electrocuting wantonly. Another part of this way out that returns the advantages of switch statement if else is encountered or we use a decision statement into a better asm vs compiled code As grey can imagine, what is easier to read, and is the decision of the compiler. You invite also use characters in consent case. But if else if else statement over a non of ifs and advantages. Below and code falls through the execution of switch case function in ada libraries are more appealing, of statement is a passing several associated with. How switch statement over if else statements are advantages is. It also use a given inside the break statement below program constants are easier to use them from programming languages, else of switch statement over if. Your exact value through an integer, and Richard Sargeant. What else statement over switch seems valid phone number! Each case match is o and advantages of type of statements is that your email address of statements are advantages of over switch if statement else if you not. Before we do better than case? Boolean value should represent in comparison result. In frank case, project the cases after case D have been executed. This code in asm vs compiled code forms will produce new feature that. However, siting the preceding formula as justification for its inclusion.
    [Show full text]
  • Control Flow Statements
    Control Flow Statements http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/flow.html http://math.hws.edu/javanotes/c3/index.html 1 Control Flow The basic building blocks of programs - variables, expressions, statements, etc. - can be put together to build complex programs with more interesting behavior. CONTROL FLOW STATEMENTS break up the flow of execution by employing decision making, looping, and branching, enabling your program to conditionally execute particular blocks of code. Decision-making statements include the if statements and switch statements. There are also looping statements, as well as branching statements supported by Java. 2 Decision-Making Statements A. if statement if (x > 0) y++; // execute this statement if the expression (x > 0) evaluates to “true” // if it doesn’t evaluate to “true”, this part is just skipped // and the code continues on with the subsequent lines B. if-else statement - - gives another option if the expression by the if part evaluates to “false” if (x > 0) y++; // execute this statement if the expression (x > 0) evaluates to “true” else z++; // if expression doesn’t evaluate to “true”, then this part is executed instead if (testScore >= 90) grade = ‘A’; else if (testScore >= 80) grade = ‘B’; else if (testScore >= 70) grade = ‘C’; else if (testScore >= 60) grade = ‘D’; else grade = ‘F’; C. switch statement - - can be used in place of a big if-then-else statement; works with primitive types byte, short, char, and int; also with Strings, with Java SE7, (enclose the String with double quotes);
    [Show full text]
  • Control Flow Statements in Java Tutorials Point
    Control Flow Statements In Java Tutorials Point Cnidarian and Waldenses Bubba pillar inclemently and excorticated his mong troublesomely and hereabout. andRounding convective and conversational when energises Jodi some cudgelled Anderson some very prokaryote intertwiningly so wearily! and pardi? Is Gordon always scaphocephalous Go a certain section, commercial use will likely somewhere in java, but is like expression representation of flow control for loop conditionals are independent prognostic factors In this disease let's delve deep into Java Servlets and understand when this. Java Control Flow Statements CoreJavaGuru. Loops in Java Tutorialspointdev. Advantages of Java programming Language. Matlab object On what Kitchen Floor. The flow of controls cursor positioning of files correctly for the python and we represent the location of our java entry points and times as when exploits are handled by minimizing the. The basic control flow standpoint the typecase construct one be seen to realize similar to. Example- Circumference of Circle 227 x Diameter Here This technique. GPGPU GPU Java JCuda For example charity is not discount to control utiliza- com A. There are 3 types of two flow statements supported by the Java programming language Decision-making statements if-then they-then-else switch Looping. Java IfElse Tutorial W3Schools. Spring batch passing data between steps. The tutorial in? Remove that will need to point handling the tutorial will be used or run unit of discipline when using this statement, easing the blinking effect. Either expressed or database systems support for tcl as a controlling source listing applies to a sending field identifier names being part and production.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 3: Control Statements
    Chapter 3: Control Statements 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, you will learn various selection and loop control statements. Java provides selection statements that let you choose actions with two or more alternative courses. Java provides a powerful control structure called a loop, which controls how many times an operation or a sequence of operation is performed in succession. 3.2 Selection Statements Java has several types of selection statements: if Statements, if … else statements, nested if statements switch Statements Conditional Expressions 3.2.1 Simple if Statements if (booleanExpression) { statement(s); } // execution flow chart is shown in Figure (A) Example if (radius >= 0) { area = radius*radius*PI; System.out.println("The area for the circle of radius " + radius + " is " + area); } // if the Boolean expression evaluates to T, the statements in the block are executed as shown in figure (B) false false Boolean (radius >= 0) Expression true true Statement(s) area = radius * radius * PI; System.out.println("The area for the circle of " + "radius " + radius + " is " + area); (A) (B) FIGURE 3.1 An if statement executes statements if the Boolean Expression evaluates as true Note: The Boolean expression is enclosed in parentheses for all forms of the if statement. Thus, the outer parentheses in the previous if statements are required. Outer parentheses required Braces can be omitted if the block contains a single statement if ((i > 0) && (i < 10)) { Equivalent if ((i > 0) && (i < 10)) System.out.println("i is an " + System.out.println("i is an " + + "integer between 0 and 10"); + "integer between 0 and 10"); } (a) (b) Caution: o Adding a semicolon at the end of an if clause is a common mistake.
    [Show full text]
  • C Programming Tutorial
    C Programming Tutorial C PROGRAMMING TUTORIAL Simply Easy Learning by tutorialspoint.com tutorialspoint.com i COPYRIGHT & DISCLAIMER NOTICE All the content and graphics on this tutorial are the property of tutorialspoint.com. Any content from tutorialspoint.com or this tutorial may not be redistributed or reproduced in any way, shape, or form without the written permission of tutorialspoint.com. Failure to do so is a violation of copyright laws. This tutorial may contain inaccuracies or errors and tutorialspoint provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy of the site or its contents including this tutorial. If you discover that the tutorialspoint.com site or this tutorial content contains some errors, please contact us at [email protected] ii Table of Contents C Language Overview .............................................................. 1 Facts about C ............................................................................................... 1 Why to use C ? ............................................................................................. 2 C Programs .................................................................................................. 2 C Environment Setup ............................................................... 3 Text Editor ................................................................................................... 3 The C Compiler ............................................................................................ 3 Installation on Unix/Linux ............................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Machine-Level Programming III: G G Switch Statements and IA32
    Carnegie Mellon Carnegie Mellon Today Switch statements Machine‐Level Progggramming III: IA 32 Procedures . Stack Structure Switch Statements and IA32 Procedures . Calling Conventions . Illustrations of Recursion & Pointers 15‐213 / 18‐213: Introduction to Computer Systems 7th Lecture, Feb. 7th, 2012 Instructors: Todd C. Mowry & Anthony Rowe 2 Carnegie Mellon Carnegie Mellon long switch_eg Switch Statement (long x, long y, long z) Jump Table Structure { Example long w = 1; Jump Targets switch(x) { Switch Form Jump Table Targ0: case 1: switch(x) { jtab: Targ0 Code Block w = y*z; Multiple case labels case val_0: 0 Targ1 break; . Here: 5 & 6 Block 0 case 2: case val_1: Targ2 Targ1: w = y/z; Fall through cases Block 1 Code Block • 1 /* Fall Through */ . Here: 2 ••• • case 3: case val_n-1: • w += z; Missing cases Block n–1 Targ2: Targn-1 Code Block break; . Here: 4 } 2 case 5: case 6: • w -= z; Approximate Translation • break; target = JTab[x]; • default: goto *target; w = 2; } Targn-1: Code Block return w; n–1 } 3 4 1 Carnegie Mellon Carnegie Mellon Switch Statement Example (IA32) Switch Statement Example (IA32) long switch_eg(long x, long y, long z) long switch_eg(long x, long y, long z) { { long w = 1; long w = 1; switc h(x ) { switch(x) { Jump table . } .section .rodata } What range of .align 4 return w; values takes return w; .L7: } } .long .L2 # x = 0 default? .long .L3 # x = 1 .long .L4 # x = 2 Setup: Setup: .long .L5 # x = 3 .long .L2 # x = 4 switch_eg: switch_eg: .long .L6 # x = 5 pushl %ebp # Setup pushl %ebp # Setup .long .L6 # x = 6 movl %esp, %ebp # Setup movl %esp, %ebp # Setup movl 8(%ebp), %eax # %eax = x movl 8(%ebp), %eax # eax = x cmpl $6, %eax # Compare x:6 cmpl $6, %eax # Compare x:6 ja .L2 # If unsigned > goto default Indirect ja .L2 # If unsigned > goto default jmp *.L7(,%eax,4) # Goto *JTab[x] Note that w not jump jmp *.L7(,%eax,4) # Goto *JTab[x] initialized here 5 6 Carnegie Mellon Carnegie Mellon Assembly Setup Explanation Jump Table Jump table Table Structure Jump table switch(x) { .
    [Show full text]
  • Logical Operators and Switch
    Lecture 5 Relational and Equivalence Operators Relational SYS-1S22 / MTH-1A66 Operator Meaning < Less than > Greater than Logical Operators <= Less than or equal to and switch >= Greater than or equal to Equivalence Stuart Gibson Operator Meaning [email protected] == equal to != not equal to S01.09A • A variable may be tested against a constant 1 or another variable. 2 Examples of Simple Logical Expressions Evaluation of logical expressions int a=10, b=20, c=5; final int b=21; evaluates to evaluates to final char no = ‘n’; if( a < b ) 10 < 20 true { int a = 20; evaluates to evaluates to if ( a > c ) 10 > 5 true int c = 20; { char choice = ‘y’; System.out.println(“Second if”); } Expression Value System.out.println(“End of first if”); } a < b true else a == c true { c > b false System.out.println(“In else”); } choice == no false System.out.println(“After”); c != a false (Incorrect in Lecture 4 L) Output • In the last lecture we saw how these logical expressions are Second if Flow of program evaluated at run time as either true or false. End of first if execution. 3 After 4 1 Evaluation of logical expressions Evaluation of logical expressions int a=10, b=20, c=25; int a=25, b=20, c=25; evaluates to evaluates to evaluates to evaluates to if( a < b ) 10 < 20 true if( a < b ) 25 < 20 false { { evaluates to evaluates to if ( a > c ) 10 > 25 false if ( a > c ) Does NOT get { { evaluated System.out.println(“Second if”); System.out.println(“Second if”); as the first if } } statement System.out.println(“End of first if”); System.out.println(“End of first if”); evaluates to } } false.
    [Show full text]
  • Conditional Statements
    Unit 5 Conditional statements Summary ² The if-else and if statements ² Block of statements ² Conditional expression ² Comparison between objects ² The switch statement 5.1 Statements in Java Till now we have seen two types of executable statements (without counting declarations): ² method invocation ² assignment These are simple statements by means of which we can write programs ² constituted by sequences of simple statements; ² that do method calls, possibly nested. Very often, when we have to solve a problem, we are interested in performing di®erent actions depending on whether certain conditions are true or false. 5.2 Conditional statements Java, like all other programming languages, is equipped with speci¯c statements that allow us to check a condition and execute certain parts of code depending on whether the condition is true or false. Such statements are called conditional, and are a form of composite statement. In Java, there are two forms of conditional statements: ² the if-else statement, to choose between two alternatives; ² the switch statement, to choose between multiple alternatives. 5.3 The if-else statement The if-else statement allows us to select between two alternatives. if-else statement Syntax: if (condition ) then-statement else else-statement ² condition is an expression of type boolean, i.e., a conditional expression that is evaluated to true or false ² then-statement is a single statement (also called the then-branch of the if-else statement) ² else-statement is a single statement (also called the else-branch of the if-else statement) 1 2 UNIT 5 Semantics: First, the condition is evaluated. If the result of the evaluation is the value true, the then-statement is executed, otherwise the else-statement is executed.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 4: Relational Operators Relational Expressions Relational
    1/29/2013 Chapter 4: 4.1 Making Decisions Relational Operators Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Relational Operators Relational Expressions • Used to compare numbers to determine • Boolean expressions – true or false relative order • Examples: • Operators: 12 > 5 is true 7 <= 5 is false > Greater than < Less than if x is 10, then >= Greater than or equal to x == 10 is true , <= Less than or equal to x != 8 is true , and == Equal to != Not equal to x == 8 is false Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Relational Expressions • Can be assigned to a variable: result = x <= y; • Assigns 0 for false , 1 for true 4.2 • Do not confuse = and == The if Statement Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 1/29/2013 The if Statement Flowchart for Evaluating a Decision • Allows statements to be conditionally executed or skipped over • Models the way we mentally evaluate situations: – "If it is raining, take an umbrella." – "If it is cold outside, wear a coat." Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Flowchart for Evaluating a Decision The if Statement • General Format: if ( expression ) statement ; Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The if Statement-What Happens if Statement in Program 4-2 To evaluate: if ( expression ) statement ; • If the expression is true , then statement is executed. • If the expression is false , then statement is skipped. Continued… Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 1/29/2013 if Statement in Program 4-2 Flowchart for Program 4-2 Lines 21 and 22 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
    [Show full text]