Sabiduría

Spring 2015 Table of Contents

The Applications of Calculus in Pharmaceutical Sciences Susan Daniels– Page 2

The Effects of Antidepressant Drugs on the Brain Maria Valdez Palomino – Page 7

The Eugenics Movement and its Modern Day Counterpart Rebecca Seide – Page 10

Lake Worth Campus Insanity: A Discussion of the Use and the Success Rates of the Insanity Plea Dear Readers, Jessica Ondrizek – Page 17

We are pleased to present the Spring 2015 edition of Sabiduría: Hey Baby! Come Read my Paper: The Dr. Floyd F. Koch Honors College Peer-Reviewed Journal. The Street Harassment on College selection process was rigorous, and the standard was high, but after Campuses a long process, we selected six manuscripts worthy of publication. Olivia Lowrey – Page 21 We congratulate Susan Daniels, Maria Valdez Palomino, Rebecca Seide, Jessica Ondrizek, Olivia Lowrey and Neysa Blay on being Substance Abuse: Understanding the selected authors. Addiction as a Disease

We thank the writers who submitted their work and the peer- Neysa Blay – Page 25 reviewers for their tireless work in reviewing the submissions. It is the Honors College students who make Sabiduría possible by getting Sabiduría Staff – Page 30 involved in the peer-review process. In keeping with the mission of Palm Beach State College, the purpose of Our gratitude is also extended to Marcella Montesinos, and Dr. the Dr. Floyd F. Koch Honors College is to provide a challenging and Matthew Klauza, for their dedication and support. supportive academic environment in

which students are encouraged to As each issue of Sabiduría is published, we hope the publication think critically, demonstrate continues to grow, improve, and represent the best that the Honors leadership, and develop ethical College has to offer. More importantly, we hope more students standards. The Honors College take advantage of this opportunity in the future. pursues an interactive learning experience where students acquire a Sincerely, creative and comprehensive understanding of concepts in an Paul Lovelady, Editor interdisciplinary and global context. Patricia Medina, Editor Palm Beach State Honors students and faculty share a commitment and civic responsibility that extends www.palmbeachstate.edu/honors beyond the classroom to local, national, and international communities.

Palm Beach State College The Applications of Calculus in the focus and goals are to develop drugs that only affect certain areas of the body, rather than Pharmaceutical Sciences killing helpful body cells with the treatment, and there is math behind all of this (Baleanu, 2010). Susan Daniels As described by Wartak (1983), calculus is used to determine rates of drug processes in the body, to determine what medications can be taken with In clinical research and development, others, and to be certain of what doses (strength academic studies, and business realms, calculus levels and regimens of dosages) will be most is a key part of pharmacy (pharmaceutical drug effective, whilst causing the least harm (also medicine) science. Pharmacokinetics is the known as minimizing side effects). intense and detailed study of the course of time events for drug absorption, distribution, Pharmacokinetics - the study of the time metabolism, and excretion. Pharmacodynamics course of drug absorption, distribution, refers to the relationship between drug metabolism, and excretion – is key and utilizes concentration at the site of action and the calculus in its determinations. For example, the resulting effect, including the time course and instantaneous rates of these above measures can intensity of therapeutic and adverse events be determined by the graphing of functions. (“side effects”). The thesis of this research More specifically, the area under the curve and paper is that both pharmacokinetics and critical points, the relative and absolute pharmacodynamics are key components of maximums, and the relative and absolute pharmaceutical sciences; they are relatively minimums can be calculated via the math of y= predictable and determinable by the use of equations. Then, utilizing derivative calculus accurately applied calculus. applications or by simply inputting the According to Rowland (1995), some key information into a graphing device results with applications for utilizing calculus in pharmacy tables with the generation of useful data for include the determinations of: clinical relevance (Patkar, 2009). Yet, scientists  rates of drug absorption, metabolism, must comprehend the rationales, before properly distribution, and elimination in the body, utilizing the calculators.  making determinations based upon an individual's height and weight, As reviewed by Argenio (1991),  contraindications (what medications can pharmacokinetics leads to pharmacodynamics be, or can not be, taken with others), where the relationship between an effect or  safe doses of each drug to be result and the drug’s concentration at the site of administered while considering other action. This would include the course of time drugs taken, and the intensity (peaks) of therapeutic and  expectations and estimated limits of adverse effects. For example, an integral can be results over various time intervals, and used to calculate the total drug concentration in  when establishing forensic and toxicology the blood by integrating an equation for blood reports. plasma concentration versus time. A calculus graph can be used to find such an integral. Data Additionally, biostatistics are used to analyze can be used to calculate the expected or actual pharmaceutical research data to further assist in total drug concentration in the blood by the determination of whether drugs are safe or integrating an equation for blood plasma have excessive adverse effects. Statistical tests concentration on the y axis (range) and time on are performed that concentrate on certain the x axis (domain). variables of the medication, then calculus is applied as appropriate (Anders, 2008). Pharmacy doctoral students (both PhD and In pharmacokinetics, calculus equations describe PharmD students alike) must have a working the rate of elimination where k is the rate knowledge of math concepts, particularly constant, x equals the amount of drug remaining, calculus and statistics. Those who continue into and differentiation means finding the actual rate academic or research careers must absolutely of instantaneous processes and effects. Calculus understand and continue to utilize these calculus in and of itself is the study of instantaneous rates applications in the understanding, instructive of change (Kahn, 2008). communication (teaching), and furthering of pharmaceutical science. Another area of pharmacy science where Rescigno (2004, pp 2) stated the following: calculus is applied is nanoscience. In this arena,

Sabiduría Page 2 Palm Beach State College This book has its origin in my experience as a For a specific example from the above list, teacher of pharmacokinetics in many universities let’s focus on insurance companies. These are in four different continents. It was not my typically for-profit businesses. They hire intention to write a popular book; what personnel - often medical doctors and distinguishes this one from many others on the pharmaceutical doctors – to strategically evaluate same subject is its large use of algebra and pharmaceutical medications on many factors calculus. For this I make no apologies; in fact a including cost effectiveness and patient health serious study of pharmacokinetics without the effectiveness - which are also both co-related in help of mathematics is, in my opinion, a business perspective. With regard to the latter impossible. factor being evaluated (efficacy for patient health improvement and efficiency of patient According to Rescigno, pharmacy professionals health maintenance), there is extremely working in research and development and/or important and heavy reliance on the scientific academia utilize the following mathematical data that was achieved via calculus for drug concepts of calculus: pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. In  Functions and graphing, short, applications of calculus are used for  Linear and non-linear models, discerning the science. Then, that scientific data  Limits, including limits at infinity, infinite is used for determining cost effectiveness by limits, insurance companies. This helps the personnel  Derivatives of first and higher order, analyze and evaluate their medical drug options differentiation formulas, rates of for their clients and subscribers (end-users such change, the chain rule and implicit as patients), then present their clinical findings differentiation, related rates, and conclusions to financial managers within the differentials, insurance organizations. Then, formulary and  The definite integral, substitution in coverage decisions are made and policies are put integration, related equations, into place. Similar practices are done by Health  Applications of integration to finding Management Organizations (H.M.O.s) and hospital area, volume, and average values, networks. As Bluman (2006) explained, the  Turnover, the dilution factor, and accurate, precise use of mathematics helps to clearance, run a business efficiently and successfully.

 Inverse functions, exponential and According to Frompovich (2014), however, the logarithmic functions, and applications of calculus of pharmaceuticals can sometimes be big these functions, time parameters, business in “Big Pharma” and with more than  Matrix equations and vectors, and patient safety always at the forefront. These  Bioavailability and bioequivalence. large pharmaceutical manufacturers are also, in majority, for-profit businesses with shareholder According to Kallen (2011), biostatisticians, obligations to meet. It is a fact that there are pharmaceutical research scientists and business and sales models in most any industry pharmaceutical analysts can evaluate the and trade. This is not a problem; capitalism and pharmacokinetics such as absorption, PK curve, fair enterprise are beneficial to our economy and and elimination in order to determine whether society. However, pharmaceutical drugs are not drugs are safe or have adverse effects. widgets or simply units of “x” miscellaneous Statistical tests are performed that concentrate goods product. When it is in the field of on certain variables of the medication. medicine - human healthcare and life Many parties are interested in these results, sustainability – then that end-using patient including – but not limited to – the F.D.A., health welfare should ideally come before profits and care practitioners who will be prescribing the shareholders. The mission statement of a big drugs, medical science liaisons (whom are hired pharmaceutical company may include ethical to disseminate this information to medical notions such as patient and human health doctors, clinical trial leaders, pharmacists, sales beneficiaries being of utmost important to them, team trainees in the pharmaceutical industry, but this does not always appear to be held as and insurance and formulary evaluators), priority when considering the underlying calculus insurance company management and evaluation behind their company annual reports and desire executives, health management organizations to profit. (HMOs and PPOs), lead scientists and chief executive officers (CEOs) of pharmaceutical and When profits and shareholders are in the mix, biotech companies, and financially interested unfortunate cases of human greed, kickbacks, shareholders.

Sabiduría Page 3 Palm Beach State College sales quotas, and even fraud can become quietly sciences, and should normally be accurate, but, intertwined into the mix of managing scientific as elaborated on by Zink (2014), it has not always data on various levels. This is not nearly always been clinically submitted and/or marketed with the case but it has been known to happen complete and accurate data. (Borrell, 2009). This may include the cherry- picking of clinical data, pressuring and even Many pharmaceutical companies, such as Eli indirectly terminating relationships with medical Lilly, Pfizer, and Proctor and Gamble, have faced doctors involved in clinical trials where the data legal reprimand in the aftermath. being submitted is not of preference to corporate For example, in late 2004, Merck Pharmaceuticals goals, incentivizing physicians to submit was forced to recall Vioxx because of the heart favorable data with continued work (grant money attack and stroke risks that eventually became and professional speaker payments), and deciding tremendously apparent after over 20 million which studies and data sets are concealed (left as Americans had been taking it long term. In fact, private data or on file only within the company) per Reinberg (2011): versus which ones are actually submitted to the The U.S. Justice Department said F.D.A. to be reviewed and released to the public Tuesday that the drug company Merck in a timing strategy to be favorable for profits. will pay $950 million to resolve Eventually, additional adverse effects are investigations into its marketing of the typically discovered in extended patient blockbuster painkiller Vioxx, which was populations and longer durations of drug pulled from the market in 2004 after administration to patient population sets. The studies revealed the drug increased users' side effects may range from trivial risks of heart attack and stroke. Merck inconveniences to life threatening reactions or will pay $321.6 million in criminal fines significant health complications such as new co- and $628.4 million as a civil settlement. morbidities. There are however methods in place The company will also plead guilty to a for healthcare professionals to try to detect and charge of marketing Vioxx as a treatment prevent any misrepresentation or for rheumatoid arthritis before the U.S. misunderstandings of clinical trial data (Zink, Food and Drug Administration granted 2014). There is a nonprofit group called the such approval, the Associated Press Association for the Accreditation of Human reported. (para 1-2) Research Protection Programs (A.A.H.R.P.P.) in Additionally, as detailed by Consumers United Washington, D.C., which provides an independent (2004): evaluation of an organization's ethical standards The Food and Drug Administration and oversight (Borrell, 2009). Yet, to date, not estimates that Vioxx may have all research centers and contributing physicians contributed to 27,785 heart attacks and have applied for accreditation with this service. sudden cardiac deaths between 1999 and Perhaps accreditations such as this will become 2003. The estimate is based on the more in demand or even a requirement for number of prescriptions issued for Vioxx preventative maintenance of medical ethics in between 1999 and 2003. David Graham, clinical studies and reviews. the associate director for science in FDA's Yet, sometimes new branded drugs may be office of drug safety, made the estimate submitted then come to market with F.D.A. based on 92.8 million U.S. prescriptions approval without absolute, full disclosure of all for Vioxx between 1999 and 2003. It's possible risks learned from each phase of clinical part of a study Graham conducted in trials. Thus, class action lawsuit activities and cooperation with Kaiser Permanente. whistle-blowing events may occur later, but the Merck pulled Vioxx, a popular pain pharmaceutical corporations and their reliever widely used by arthritis patients, shareholders have already had opportunity to off the market in September, saying it largely profit (and yield even further dollar was "putting patient safety first" but the returns by investing those profits) far above and Wall Street Journal reported earlier that beyond what they pay in damages, settlements, company officials had fought for years to et cetera. The calculus here is in the protect the highly profitable drug and to acknowledgment of the possibility and keep news of the health risks quiet. occurrence of concealments or manipulations of Vioxx was a big moneymaker for Merck, data which then skews the ultimate calculations generating about $2.5 billion in yearly in favor of their company fiscal goal endpoints. sales. In his study, Graham's team This is not pleasant, but it is interesting. examined records for 1.39 million Calculus is still applied in pharmaceutical members of Kaiser Permanente, including

Sabiduría Page 4 Palm Beach State College 26,748 who took Vioxx and 40,405 who settlement payment represents less than were on Pfizer's Celebrex, another COX-2 one year’s profits for the company, the inhibitor (para. 1-5). third-largest American drug maker. (para. The study found that high doses of Vioxx, or 13-14) rofecoxib, tripled risks of heart attacks and Later, State News Services of New York (2012) sudden cardiac death. Graham planned to published: present the findings at an epidemiology Attorney General Eric T. Schneiderman conference Aug. 25, but his supervisors said the today announced that he has secured a results were "too preliminary" and recommended settlement with Merck Sharp and Dohme that the study be submitted first to a medical Corp., resolving civil and criminal charges journal so it could undergo peer review or be that the pharmaceutical giant marketed presented at the conference with an alternative its drug Vioxx for uses not approved by FDA opinion. When the study was presented Aug. the United States Food and Drug 25, the abstract said, "[T]his and other studies Administration (FDA), and misrepresented cast serious doubt on the safety of rofecoxib ... the cardiovascular safety of the drug. As and its use by physicians and patients at doses part of the multi-state and federal exceeding 25 milligrams.” When Graham agreement, Merck will pay a total of $615 submitted a revised, final version to FDA on Sept. million in civil damages and penalties to 30, FDA's announcement of the study's release did compensate Medicaid, Medicare and not mention specific data on cardiovascular risks other governmental healthcare (para. 6-7). programs... (para. 1) And as Cockburn (2012) pointed out: Twenty million Americans had taken Vioxx by There was a fair amount of news the time Merck withdrew it. The F.D.A.’s coverage after the recall, but it was estimated number of deaths correlated to Vioxx pretty slim considering the alleged is equivalent to about half the number of 55,000 death toll. A big class-action recorded American casualties of the Vietnam lawsuit dragged its way through the War. Feeley (2011) put it bluntly: courts for years, eventually being settled Merck Sharp & Dohme will plead for $4.85 billion in 2007. Senior FDA guilty to one count of misbranding Vioxx, officials apologized for their lack of the company and U.S. prosecutors said effective oversight and promised to do yesterday. The company will pay a better in the future. The Vioxx scandal $321.6 million criminal fine and $628.3 began to sink into the vast marsh of semi- million to resolve civil claims that it sold forgotten international pharmaceutical Vioxx for unapproved uses and made false scandals (para. 3-4). statements about its cardiovascular safety (para. 2). Berenson (2007) also confirmed the 4.85 billion dollar payout from Merck over some Improper applications of calculus (data 27,000 lawsuits of wrongful death lawsuits. withheld or inaccurately represented, and Not only is calculus utilized in determining therefore not included fully in the further, future extremely important information for evaluation safety calculus data computations) can of drugs for efficacy and safety, but also is eventually lead to allegations and implications utilized in a pharmaceutical business perspective. for a giant drug company, but also for people Of course, not all individuals within corporations who may suffer in their well being or even lose act unethically, but it does happen and it boils their lives earlier than otherwise not taking the down to an end goal, for good or for bad, to product. Berenson (2007) stated: protect or increase profits. The direct ways for a The settlement does not end the company to directly raise their profit are by government investigations that Merck either reducing costs or increasing revenues, or faces, which include both civil and both. In calculus, profit equals costs subtracted criminal inquires from several states and from total revenue. So, in the corporate business the Justice Department. But for Merck, of Big Pharma, with shareholder obligations and which has already spent more than $1.2 corporate ladder opportunity or even billion on Vioxx-related legal fees, the intimidation and job retention at stake, the heat settlement will put to rest any fears that can be high. The calculus remains steadfastly Vioxx lawsuits might bankrupt the accurate, purely black and white, yet the company, or even have a significant numbers inputted into the calculus equations - if financial impact. While eye-popping, the skewed by inaccurate data collection, omissions,

Sabiduría Page 5 Palm Beach State College or derailed methodology - may suffer various gray Argenio, D. (1991). Advanced methods of areas. It could be from sheer human error or pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic motivated by selfishness trumping big-picture systems analysis. New York: Plenum ethics. The calculus in mathematics itself Press. Print. however remains accurate and reliable. Any Baleanu, D. (2010). New trends in source of error is in human input. Marketing nanotechnology and fractional calculus invokes perceptions, whereas the science of applications Dordrecht: Springer. Print. accurately inputted calculus yields realities. Berenson, A. (November 8, 2007). Merck agrees to settle Vioxx suits for $4.85 billion. On this calculus notion of “big business” in New York Times. Web. Retrieved “big pharma,” pharmaceutical and other November 20, 2015, from industries utilize the graphs and data derived via http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/09/b calculus (described prior, including usiness/09merck.html. pharmacokinetics and pharmacokinetics) to Bluman, A. (2006). Business math demystified. analyze a drug’s safety versus efficacy. Critical New York: McGraw-Hill. Print. points, area under the curve, rates of change, Borrell, B. (2009, March 10). A Medical Madoff: maximums and minimums in patient data sets: All Anesthesiologist Faked Data in 21 of these factors and more are involved in the Studies. Retrieved November 23, 2014, marketing and ultimate success or failure of a from http://www.scientificamerican.com drug as it relates to a corporation. It also relates /article-a-medical-madoff- to the perceived risk/benefit ratio for the anesthestesiologist-faked-data/. physician making the decision of prescribing the Cockburn, A. (April 27, 2012). When Half a Million drug to a patient. Some physicians are reluctant Americans Died and Nobody Noticed. to readily prescribe a new drug until long term Web. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from studies are published with more statistics to http://www.nationofchange.org/when- support the ratio of safety to efficacy. half-million-americans-died-and-nobody- Pharmacists further evaluate this ratio based on noticed-1335533445. known contraindications of poly-pharma Consumers United LLC. (November 4, 2004). (multiple, various medications) or patient- Unamed author. FDA Estimates Vioxx personal characteristics such as size, lifestyle, Caused 27,785 Deaths. Web. Retrieved and any co-morbidities such as diabetes, heart November 12, 2014, from disease, hypertension, and other human http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news0 conditions. 4/vioxx_estimates.html. Feeley, J. (November 23, 2011). Merck to pay This report concludes that the applications of $950 million: Plead guilty in U.S. Vioxx calculus in evaluating pharmacokinetics and probe. Web. Retrieved November 8, pharmacokinetics are integral in traditional 2014,from http://www.bloomberg.com pharmaceutical sciences (clinical and academic) /news/articles/2011-11-22/merck- as well as in the business spectrum of agrees-to-pay-950-million-to-settle-u-s- pharmaceutical sciences (industry and sales). government-s-vioxx-probe The study of pharmaceutical science is dynamic Frompovich, M. (May 16, 2014). Bribery, fraud and fascinating; the utilization of calculus makes and corruption charges against big the studies and results also logical and pharma. Web. Retrieved November 8, predictable given that the data sets are accurate 2014,from http://www.activistpost.com and not manipulated. The application of /2014/05/bribery-fraud-and-corruption- advanced mathematics and science helps to charges.html continue the quest for new and improved Kallen, A. (2011). Understanding biostatistics. evidence-based, ethical medicine, which is Chichester, West Sussex, United exciting not only from scientists to shareholders, Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons. Print. but - most importantly - to end-user patients’ Khan, R., & Khan, A. (2008). Pharmacy and lives and well-being. biotechnology mathematics. New Delhi: I.K. International Pub. House. Works Cited Patkar, S. (2009). Comprehensive Remedial Mathematics for B. Pharmacy. New Delhi: Anders, K. (2008). Computational PharmaMed Press. Print. pharmacokinetics. Boca Raton: Chapman Reinberg, S. (2011, November 22). Merck to pay & Hall/CRC. Print. $950M to settle probe of Vioxx marketing; controversial painkiller was

Sabiduría Page 6 Palm Beach State College pulled from the market in 2004 due to The Effects of Antidepressant heightened heart attack, stroke risk. Consumer Health News. Web. Retrieved Drugs on the Brain November 13, 2014, from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1- Maria Valdez Palomino 273159817.html Rescigno, A. (2003). Foundations of Pharmacokinetics. New York: Kluwer Depression is a common mental disorder. It Academic/Plenum Publication. Print. affects more than 350 million people worldwide Rowland, M., & Tozer, T. (1995). Clinical and is a leading cause of disability (World, 369). pharmacokinetics: Concepts and Although the most popular treatment is applications (3rd edition). Baltimore: prescribing antidepressant drugs, research has Williams & Wilkins. Print. shown that these drugs harm the brain more than State News Service, Unamed Author: A.G. they benefit it. Antidepressants regulate Schneiderman secures $61 million neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine settlement with pharmaceutical giant and norepinephrine; but in doing so the Merck for falsely promoting the safety of medication disrupts the chemical balance of the Vioxx. (2012, April 20). States News brain. Neurotransmitters are brain chemicals that Service. Web. Retrieved November 14, communicate information throughout our brain 2014, from and body. They do not function independently of http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1- one another. Current antidepressants act on 287071244.html neurotransmitter systems by affecting three Wartak, J. (1983). Clinical pharmacokinetics: A distinct processes: Neurotransmitter degradation, modern approach to individualized drug neurotransmitter reuptake, and neurotransmitter therapy. New York, N.Y.: Praeger. Print. binding (To et al. 102). One of the first Zink, R. (2014). Risk-based monitoring and fraud neurotransmitters to emerge is serotonin. Only detection in clinical trials using JMP and 5% of serotonin is found in the brain, the SAS. Cary, N.C.: SAS Institute. remaining amount is distributed throughout the body (Gilman, 635). Disrupting this chemical not only damages the brain but also other organs About the author– such as the heart, stomach, and liver. No one Susan Daniels knows what impact decades of SSRI use might have on those organs (Barber, 58). This research seeks to determine what the long term effects of Susan Daniels is presently a pre-Pharmacy student in antidepressant drugs are on the organism, and to the Palm Beach State College Honors Program where provide substantial proof that they are a she serves in several school and community leadership counterproductive therapy for a disease that and volunteer affects so many. capacities. She

will be Two types of antidepressants are often pursuing her prescribed. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Doctorate of Inhibitors (SSRIs) work by slowing down or Pharmacy, as blocking the sending neuron from taking back the well as continuing in already released serotonin. The serotonin is her passions for available in the synapse for a prolonged period of life long time and is more likely to send the message of learning and development, philosophy, intellectual and well-being to the next neuron. Examples of SSRIs emotional integrity, ethics, perseverance, evidence- include Prozac, Zoloft, and Effexor. Prozac based medicine, scientific research, and progress. Ms. (fluoxetine hydrochloride) is an oral drug used for Daniels believes that "Knowledge includes recognizing treating depression, bulimia, obsessive- what we don't know. Character is demonstrated in compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, and seeking and building knowledge. And wisdom is found premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). Prozac in understanding and applying what we do know." may cause nausea, fast uneven heartbeat, loss of coordination, headaches, anxiety, insomnia, drowsiness, trouble breathing, unusual bleeding, fever, seizures, vomiting, diarrhea, and loss of appetite. The list of adverse effects is longer than the list of the conditions it claims to treat. Another problem is the fact that antidepressant

Sabiduría Page 7 Palm Beach State College drugs are frequently prescribed in conjunction nerve cells and their associated molecules. As with another drug to attempt to subdue the side Lewis Carroll’s Alice might have phrased it: effects of the former. For example, Prozac is “You’re nothing but a pack of neurons” (Barber, almost always prescribed with a sedative such as 83). benzodiazepines because it causes anxiety. If we are nothing but a pack of neurons then Another type of antidepressant is Monoamine these drugs are affecting everything that we are. Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs). These are first Improper brain development and function have generation antidepressants. MAO is an enzyme also been proven. Clinical doses of haloperidol that breaks down neurotransmitters. The and olanzapine over 17-27 months duration in inhibitors work by blocking the enzymatic macaque monkeys have been shown to cause 8%- function so that the neurotransmitters increase in 11% shrinkage in tissue weight (indicating cell amount in the synapse, and are more likely to death) throughout the brain (Dorph-Petersen et regulate and stabilize mood. There are two types al. 1649). If these medications are given to of MAO. MAO-A promotes catabolism of children or teens to treat their depression before epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and their brains have been fully developed then the melatonin while MAO-B has an affinity for trace damage could be catastrophic. Their brains would amines and phenylethylamine. MAOIs pose a not reach maturation and cell death would inhibit threat to the organism by inhibiting the certain functions necessary for wellbeing and breakdown of tyramine proteins. High levels of survival. The death of certain cells that help tyramine may cause a hypertension crisis and in control movement and coordination can lead to turn the patient may suffer a Transient Ischemic tremors and trouble walking and moving. This is Attack (TIA) also known as a ministroke. known as Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson’s is associated with the elderly but the consumption One of the physiological manifestations of the of antidepressant drugs may lead to an onset side effects of antidepressants is serotonin case of the disease. Reports show that there are syndrome. It is a potentially life threatening drug other movement disorders caused by reaction that causes the body to have too much antidepressants such as akathisia. It is the feeling serotonin. Symptoms include shivering, diarrhea, of inner restlessness or severe agitation. Patients muscle stiffness and, in severe cases, it can be often describe it as an urging and unpleasant fatal. As previously stated, 95% of the chemical sensation that makes he or she want to jump out serotonin moves throughout the body. When of his or her skin. It is also associated with present in abundance it may cause muscle aggression and increased violent behavior. spasms, restlessness, ataxia, and confusion Akathisia is even given specific attention in the (National, 7272). A region where serotonin is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental mostly present is in the gastrointestinal lining, Disorders (DSM). where it acts as a signaling mechanism for the brain and modulates the rhythmic movements Antidepressant drugs not only affect the kneading food through the stomach and the anatomy and physiology of the brain but also the intestines. A disruption in this process may cause mind. “The bases of mental illness are chemical food to move very quickly and promote bleeding changes in the brain…There’s no longer any in the lining of the stomach. The intestines are justification for the distinction between mind and also affected because the speedy movement of body or mental and physical illnesses. Mental food inhibits the ability of intestinal cilia to illnesses are physical illnesses” (Satcher). absorb nutrients leading to malnourishment of Antidepressants cause amotivational syndrome, a the subject. In a study designed to investigate condition with symptoms that are clinically the anatomic effects of serotonergic compounds, similar to those that develop when the frontal researchers at Thomas Jefferson University found lobes of the brain are damaged. The syndrome is that high dose, short-term exposure to SSRIs in characterized by apathy, uninhibited behavior, rats was sufficient to produce swelling and lack of motivation, and a personality change kinking in the serotonin nerve fibers (Kalia et similar to the effects of lobotomy (Marangell et al.). Damaged nerve fibers affect every one of al. 1059). Part of the mind feels as if it is not the brain processes. Francis Crick, Nobel there. One does not want to do anything and the Laureate in Biochemistry stated: things that used to bring happiness and purpose “You,” your joys and your sorrows, your turn into annoyances. One merely exists. memories and your ambitions, your sense of Antidepressant drugs have blunt effects on our personal identity and free will, are in fact no emotions to some extent. They have been more than the behavior of a vast assembly of recognized to cause episodes of depression and

Sabiduría Page 8 Palm Beach State College mania. Mania is dangerous because it is Antidepressants don’t eradicate the characterized by lack of impulse control and a conditions they claim to treat. They only make feeling of indestructibility leading the patient to life bearable for the patient. It is the commit acts he or she normally would not. These responsibility of the physicians prescribing the include impulsive conduct, hyper sexuality, and antidepressants to weigh the pros and cons of the rapid speech without thinking of the medications. The symptoms of depression must repercussions of one’s words. Severe depression be proven severe enough in order for them to is also dangerous. Antidepressants such as Prozac prescribe these dangerous drugs. Psychological or Paxil raise cortisol levels in human subjects. therapy, group therapy, and other options should Cortisol in turn is associated with depression, be the first choices of treatment. Antidepressant weight gain, immune dysfunction, and memory drugs should always be the last resort because problems. These drugs may work in theory but they have been proven to be more harmful than they are counterproductive. They may increase helpful. There is a difference between depression the availability of serotonin in the synapse but in and major depression. Major depression involves turn they increase cortisol levels and upset the a chemical imbalance in the brain, not just a few delicate balance of chemicals in the brain. An symptoms. A symptom checklist should be exacerbated depression leads to suicidal completed and clinical judgment should be thoughts. The risk of suicidal behavior is practiced. As Barber states: increased in the first month after starting I can say that a highly experienced and antidepressants, especially during the first nine expert clinician can instantly identify days (Jick, 338). This is the ultimate and most major depression when they see it. It is dangerous side effect of antidepressants. immediately detectable to people who know what they are doing. It is an Patients who are willing to stop taking their advanced physiological state of despair medication after reading about the dangers of that one can see in the patient’s eyes, in antidepressants face another complication. The their slow movements, in the sense that SSRI group has withdrawal symptoms which they are in physical pain, in the fact that include vividly visual hallucinations of flashing they often have not slept or eaten for lights, inability to walk, and electric shock like days, in their lack of humor, in their sensations in the brain (Glenmullen, 10). Some proximity of death and dying in their patients may experience nausea, nervousness, conversation (that is if the patient is and insomnia upon stopping Prozac. These talking) and surrounding their very symptoms quickly disappear if the patient starts presence, in the obvious fact that they to take his or her antidepressants again, causing do not presently want to be awake, or the patient to become dependent on them if he alive. There is no covering up; they or she does not wish to have these symptoms. exude naked and pure pain, like a Most people stay on the medications because wounded animal. There is absolutely no they do not wish to fight through the discomfort pretending that everything is ok. All of withdrawal. Since antidepressants disturb the pretense of normalcy goes out the chemical levels in the brain, the body grows window (111). accustomed to the new level of neurotransmitters. Modifying these levels too fast Antidepressant drugs should only be or too often may heighten withdrawal symptoms. prescribed for patients such as the ones MAOIs also cause withdrawal discomfort. The described by Barber. They are not for the overly abrupt discontinuation of Monoamine Oxidase stressed college student who is sad because he or Inhibitors reverses any progress made from the she cannot afford a brand new car. We live in a pre-treatment state. It is as if they had never materialistic world where medication has stopped been taken. All they leave behind is the damage being a means of healing, and has taken a more but none of the benefits the patient needs. There corporate aspect. It is all about business and who is some hope for those willing to endure this can sell the most prescriptions without regard to uncomfortable period of time. Most drugs are out the lives that may be negatively affected. of the human system within the span of a week, Psychotherapy has been pushed aside to make except for Prozac. Prozac can take up to a month way for a bigger, better, and more profitable to be fully out of the system. The damage may be option - drugs. Pharmaceutical companies want done but any further deterioration of the brain to profit no matter the cost to the patient, but it and other organs can be prevented if the patient has been proven that this cost is a very high price chooses to stop. to pay for a feeling of well-being that can be achieved through other methods.

Sabiduría Page 9 Palm Beach State College Works Cited “WHO | World Health Organization." WHO | World Health Organization. Bulletin 369, Barber, Charles. Comfortably Numb: How 19 November 2014 Psychiatry Is Medicating a Nation. New York Pantheon, 2008. Print. Dorph-Petersen, Karl-Anton, Joseph N Pierri, About the Author – James M Perel, Zhuoxin Sun, Allan R Sampson, and David A Lewis. "The Maria Valdez Palomino Influence of Chronic Exposure to Antipsychotic Medications on Brain Size Maria Valdez Palomino will graduate before and after Tissue Fixation: A from the Dr. Floyd F. Koch Honors Comparison of Haloperidol and College, in spring 2015, and transfer to Olanzapine in Macaque Monkeys." the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College, at Neuropsychopharmacology (2005): 1649- Florida Atlantic University, in Jupiter. 661. Print. Maria plans to pursue a Bachelor of Arts Gilman, Alfred. "The Parmacological Basis of Therapeutics”. A Textbook of with a concentration in Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Toxicology and Behavior in preparation for medical Therapeutics for Physicians and Medical school. Her ultimate career goal is to Students." The American Journal of the become a pediatric psychiatrist and to Medical Sciences: 635. Print. help children with mental disorders lead Glenmullen, Joseph. Prozac Backlash: a normal life. Overcoming the Dangers of Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, and Other Antidepressants The Eugenics Movement and its with Safe, Effective Alternatives. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000. Print. Modern Day Counterpart Jick, H. “Antidepressants and the Risk of Suicide Behaviors” Journal of the Rebecca Seide American Medical Association, volume 292. 2004. Kalia, Madhu, James P. O'callaghan, Diane B. Anna teared up in silence. She thought to Miller, and Michael Kramer. "Comparative herself, “I don't belong here”. The door slowly Study of Fluoxetine, Sibutramine, opened and the doctor appeared, but to Anna he Sertraline and Dexfenfluramine on the was nothing more than an undertaker. “Patient Morphology of Serotonergic Nerve 1006” the doctor called out. Anna froze in fear Terminals Using Serotonin and spoke softly “patient 1006, that is I”. Anna Immunohistochemistry." Brain Research. Print. screamed, “no! I was just stressed! It was only a Marangell, Lauren B., A.john Rush, Mark S. break down due to lack of sleep. It happens to George, Danae Georges, and Harold A. everyone, please, please I don't want to die!” Sackeim. "A Review of Vagus Nerve Anna was forcibly dragged to a dark room and as Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant such became another victim lost to the pages of Depression."Epilepsy & Behavior (2001): history. Anna was found to be “unfit” by the 1059. Web. 25 Nov. 2014. state due to her recent mental break down, "National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Article 7272." U.S National which was deemed as hysteria, therefore, she Library of Medicine. U.S. National Library was deemed as “unfit” to live. of Medicine, 18 Nov. 2014. Web. 18 Nov. 2014. This sounds like a piece from a science fiction To, Stephen E., Robert A. Zepf, and Alisa G. novel, but the scenario of Anna actually has many Woods. "The Symptoms, Neurobiology, truths. To deem certain individuals lives more and Current Pharmacological Treatment valuable than others has already occurred in of Depression." Journal of Neuroscience history: the eugenics movement, which sought to Nursing: 102. Print. Satcher, David. "Mental Health: A Report Of The improve the human race. The eugenics Surgeon General--Executive Summary. movement was very popular at the turn of the "Professional Psychology: Research and century, from the late 1800s through the mid- Practice (1999): 5-13. Print. 1900s. Though discredited, many aspects of the

Sabiduría Page 10 Palm Beach State College movement still persist today. Eugenics echoes Next, eugenicists’ beliefs appealed to a great through modern times in the sense that many audience in the west especially because it common beliefs parallel those of eugenicists; and addressed many of their social concerns. Eugenics some modern practices reflect those of the at its core seeks to improve mankind, and one eugenics movement. key aspect to eugenics improvement is to deem certain traits as “fit” and “unfit”. “Armed with First of all, to fully comprehend how the charts, photographs, and even human skulls, eugenics movement has influenced modern [American eugenicists] were there to provide the society, one must first explore the history of visual and mathematical support that rendered eugenics. Eugenics is defined as the “science racism scientifically valid and politically viable” concerned with improving a species, especially (Ordover 9). They further justified their dogma the human species, by such means as influencing through the belief that almost all traits are or encouraging reproduction by persons presumed innate: '''nature, not nurture,' has been raised to to have desirable genetic traits” (The Free the rank of [their] dogma” (Boas 472). So traits Dictionary). The science of eugenics has its roots and acts that were seen as undesirable such as in Social Darwinism. Charles Darwin's theory of sexual promiscuity, alcoholism, masturbation, natural selection gained immense popularity in being handicapped, or being mentally ill were the Victorian era. Darwin's theory, also known as seen as hereditary and “unfit” for society. Also “survival of the fittest,” profoundly affected the being a racial minority and an immigrant also way of thinking in the 19th century. Darwin's meant one was “unfit.” “Those considered most theory didn't have any implications for the way worthy of rearing children were couples who humans should live; nevertheless, it was applied were middle class or upper class Nordic-Teutonic to society (Perring). One strong proponent of whites. Racial minorities and ethnic immigrant social Darwinism was the progressive psychologist groups were typically classified as unfit; also the and anthropologist Francis Galton. Galton poor and physically handicapped, whose believed that Social Darwinism should be further problems were classified as hereditary” (People applied to the human race as a whole. In 1883, & Events). With regard to the mentally ill, they Galton combined the roots of the Greek word for were afflicted by a wide range of mental illness “good” and “origin” to create the term such as “dementia praecox,” or today known as “eugenics” (People & Events). Eventually, schizophrenia, “mongolian idiocy,” now seen as eugenics became a very popular movement Down’s syndrome, and the most dangerous but worldwide. The movement expanded to areas important was “feeblemindedness” (Mental such as Canada, west and northern Europe, North Illness). The perceived danger of and South America, and England, which exported “feeblemindedness,” which was considered very its eugenics beliefs to its colonies (Perring). The low I.Q, was often linked to sexual promiscuity. movement was so popular throughout the United Criminality and social dependency was feared States that a committee on eugenics was formed because the “feebleminded” individual “could by the American Breeders Association in 1909. potentially 'pass for normal' and reproduce with The committee had many prominent societal normal people. This was the case of Martin members such as inventor Alexander Graham Kallikak, a normal man who fathered an allegedly Bell, evolutionary biologist Vernon Kellogg and corrupt line through his union with an attractive, influential psychologist Adolf Meyer. Also, the but 'feebleminded' girl” (Mental Illness). eugenics record office was funded by the powerful Harriman family, the Rockefeller family In addition, not only was mental illness seen and the Carnegie Foundation (Perring). The as purely hereditary but also contagious. In the movement was not just accepted by extremists, U.S. there was a gripping fear of immigrants. To but also moderates and others from diverse add to the fear of the average American, Harry backgrounds. Eugenics was equally embraced by Laughlin, the director of the Eugenics Record socialists and conservative traditionalists because Office, claimed through numerous records he eugenics’ core values appealed to many people's found that a large number of immigrants were beliefs at the time. insane (Mental Illness). David Starr Jordan, a

Sabiduría Page 11 Palm Beach State College biologist, pacifist and the founding president of occasion Sanger wrote, “[b]irth [c]ontrol is not Stanford University, once stated what many merely of eugenic value, but [it] is practically Americans at the time felt, which was, “ no identical in ideal, with the final aims of community was ever built up of thieves and [e]ugenics” (Sanger 5). The “final aims of imbeciles” (Perring). So the “unfits” of society eugenics” was racial purity and many still feel were ultimately seen as unwanted junk and that Sanger and other advocates targeted black burdens to mankind as a whole. But eugenicists women especially because they were seen as not only shed light on what were seen as social “undesirables.” Some African Americans believe issues, but they also had solutions to them. that Sanger's motive was not to aid black women Consequently, eugenics had a massive appeal not but to eliminate future black generations only because they voiced many racist, sexist, (pbs.org). Sanger believed also that, “As an nativist, and xenophobic concerns but more advocate of Birth Control, I wish to take importantly because it provided an explanation advantage of the present opportunity to point out to them. Eugenics is not only notorious for its that the unbalance between the birth rate of the beliefs, but also for the practices that were "unfit" and the "fit", admittedly the greatest carried out in the name of eugenics. The present menace to civilization, can never be eugenics movement was divided into two strands: rectified by the inauguration of a cradle positive and negative. Advocates of “positive” competition between these two classes” (Sanger eugenics believed in promoting the reproduction 5). Sanger's end goal with birth control was not to of those who were considered “fit,” and part of increase woman's reproductive autonomy, but the “fit” classes (pbs.org). On the other hand, instead it was a means of overall population those who supported “negative” eugenics sought control (Kuglar). Some eugenicists did not to discourage and suppress the reproduction support Sanger and birth control, and feared that among those they deemed as “unfit” or “inferior “fit” women may use it. However, some stock” (People & Events). One example of eugenicists did support her but they feared too negative eugenics was the case of Dr. Harry “that the 'unfit' would not use the methods Haiseldon. In 1915, Haiseldon sparked some properly, thus sterilization was often promoted controversy because he withheld medical as the best option to limit their numbers” treatment for a “defective newborn,” treatment (People & Events). which could have saved the infant’s life. Haiseldon, saw no need to save the infant To continue, in recent history many often because it was “unfit,” and therefore should die associate mass sterilization with Nazism, and (Shaddock 1). Haiseldon's case was controversial, rightly so, but arguably many of the Nazis' but back then he reflected the majority of public practices during World War II were inspired by opinion. While Haiseldon and other “negative” the United States (Perring). In fact, eugenicists eugenicists supported the killing of “defective” Harry Laughlin estimated that about 10% of the babies, others believed that they should have U.S population was “unfit” (Perring). Also in never been born. Another great example of 1922, Dr. B.A. Owens Adair said that sterilization “negative” eugenics was that of the early birth was “the only method by which the river of life control movement and its prominent supporter may be purified” (Ordover 133). The mentally ill Margaret Sanger. Sanger is given credit for were especially targets for sterilization: “the coining the term “birth control” and also for the mentally ill were considered 'genetically inferior' founding of the American Birth Control League, and eugenics and warped interpretations of which was an early name for today's Planned Darwin's theories suggested that mental illness Parenthood (Kuglar). Margaret Sanger allied could be eliminated through social engineering” herself with the popular eugenics movement (Hughes). A large victory for eugenicists was in perhaps to further promote birth control. Sanger the passing of the 1924 Johnson-Reed Act which once stated publicly that “birth control is nothing dealt with immigration, and Buck vs. Bell (1927), more or less than the facilitation of the process in which the supreme court upheld sterilization of weeding out the unfit [and] of preventing the as constitutional (Ordover 9). Carrie Buck, who birth of defectives'' (pbs.org). Also on another was said to be “feebleminded,” was raped and

Sabiduría Page 12 Palm Beach State College begot a child, and was ordered to be sterilized paralysis. The euthanasia started with children due to her sexual promiscuity and who were three years of age and the number “feeblemindness”. Oliver Wendell Holmes, who steadily rose to include all disabled children. It is served as an associate justice of the Supreme estimated that around 5,000 children were killed Court commented that, “[i]t is better for all the during the duration of the program. Euthanasia world, if instead of waiting to execute soon spread to adults (Perring). The T4 program degenerate offspring for crime, or to let them murdered at least 70,000 adults between 1939 starve for their imbecility, society can prevent and 1941. The Nazis used the technologies from those who are manifestly unfit from continuing the T4 program in concentration camps. “The their kind...Three generations of imbeciles are final solution,” as it was called, to the enough" (Perring). Sterilization in the U.S was “undesirable” problem was to simply kill them in legalized in 1913 and persisted until the 1950s. concentration camps (Perring). After World War Many at the time believed that to cure a mentally II, when the world learned of the Nazis’ horrific ill woman, one had to remove her ovaries crimes, such as the Holocaust, and the eugenics because it was associated with “wandering uterus movement was finally discredited. syndrome” and “hysteria” (Perring). Mentally ill males were often castrated. In 1898, Dr. F Hoyt Due to the past crimes associated with the Pilcher, who worked in an institute for eugenics movement, modern day society has “feebleminded” children in Kansas, got made progress. Many today would like to believe permission to castrate 58 boys (Perring). that modern society has transcended the California and Kansas had some of the largest ignorance of the past, but this is untrue. In fact, numbers of sterilizations. In Kansas, reportedly many of the beliefs that existed in the eugenics about 2,851 patients, including 779 movement still persist today. The terminology “feebleminded” and epileptic, were sterilized regarding people with learning disabilities or before it became illegal (Perring). significantly low I.Q has changed from terms such as “feeblemind” and “idiot” to words like In Europe, the birth place of the eugenics “special,” which has begun to take on a negative movement, methods such as sterilization were connotation like its predecessors (Perring). Plus, commonplace. The most notable country that the mentality of “survival of the fittest,” which practiced eugenics was Nazi Germany. In 1935, stems from the father of eugenics, Social the Nuremberg laws were passed to protect Darwinism, is still widely used today in society, German blood. One of these laws was to outlaw so that term and way of thinking has never quite marriage and any other extramarital affair died out. An example of this would be the between Aryans and Jews. They also passed treatment of those who are poor and mentally ill. marital health laws in which one needed a The poor and the mentally ill are often looked at marriage certificate, and the applicant could not as “growing burden[s] on society” (Mental be racially damaged, feebleminded, or have any Illness). With regard to the poor, many in a other racially contagious disease (Perring). Nazi socialistic welfare state like the U. S. view those Germany took the U.S sterilization practices to a of low income as being inherently lazy, and living new extreme. In 1933 the Nazis began off of taxpayer dollars. sterilization of general “undesirables” like the disabled, blacks/Afro Germans, alcoholics and While a few may believe that poverty is an habitual criminals (Perring). The Germans also environmental issue, quite a growing number practiced euthanasia. If an individual was echo the eugenic dogma of poverty being considered undesirable they could go into a inherently genetic. In 1994, political scientist euthanasia center and end their life voluntarily, Charles Murray commented to a reporter from or the state would do it for them. Euthanasia the New York Times, stating that: '''people were began with small children. Doctors had to report no longer poor because of social barriers, but to the state if a child suffered from idiocy, rather because of their inherent lack of Down’s syndrome, blindness, deafness, epilepsy, intellectual prowess.' This argument, appealing any deformities, or suffered from some kind of to some precisely because it obviates any societal

Sabiduría Page 13 Palm Beach State College obligation toward the disfranchised [poor], has dangerous and shadows eugenicist thinking. The strong precedent within the eugenics fact that society still deems certain people and movement...The problems of population are no traits as “undesirable,” or as “burdens” reopens longer regarded [as] essentially economic but the door for many eugenics beliefs to persist. mainly biological'' (Ordover 51). This is just one clear example of how society often views the As a consequence of many eugenics beliefs poor; the belief that poor people are poor that still fester in the human psyche, many because they are innately incompetent is a clear appalling modern day practices echo eugenics. sign of eugenics thinking. Also, Americans’ Sterilization, a very popular practice during the concern toward immigrants didn't start with the eugenics movement still exists today. In Vietnam, eugenics movement, nor did it disappear with it. at least 100 Vietnamese female rubber plantation The eugenics movement exaggerated many workers were secretly sterilized: “[they] were Americans’ fear of immigrants, but in recent told they were having their IUDs checked, and years the fear has persisted, especially after then injected with quinacrine (a drug used for 9/11. This type of xenophobic attitude includes the sterilization of women) without their more than a fear of terrorism, but racism, as it knowledge” (Ordover 202). Also, in other parts of did in the eugenics movement. Ophthalmologist the world such as China, population control is John Tanton had a confidential memo that practiced. This is implemented in China through warned against immigrants, especially those from the one child policy. Having more than one child Latin America. He believed, like a quite a few is strongly discouraged and some parents are Americans, that they would eventually take over fined if they have more than one. What is even the U.S. (Ordover 54). As in the eugenics more controversial is that it is believed they movement, many believe that more immigration implement forced sterilizations and abortions on into the U.S will hurt national pride or affect U.S repeat offenders (Moore). Closer to home, racial and cultural identity. A poll conducted in sterilization still continues in the U.S. (Stern). 2014 found that “ 70 percent of Americans — Between 2006 and 2010, at least 148 women in a including 86 percent of Republicans — say illegal California prison were sterilized illegally without immigrants threaten traditional U.S. [beliefs] and their permission (Campos). Sterilization is not the customs, as well as jeopardize the economy” only population control practiced in the United (Miller). Such as it was in the time when the States; euthanasia is still practiced. In the U.S. eugenics movement flourished, many still view euthanasia is done in small numbers and, unlike immigrants as an inherent threat to the U.S. the Nazis’ outright murder, an individual is not These negative social views also extend to those forced to take their own life. Euthanasia is still who are handicapped. Those who are controversial in the U.S. but is legal in a few handicapped argue that disability is not intrinsic; states like Oregon, and it is heavily regulated by it is extrinsic because of how people view and the government. Essentially, if a person has a treat them differently (Perring). Like those who terminal illness they seek a doctor’s help to die are poor, immigrants, or are mentally ill, a on their own terms (Perring). Euthanasia is person with a physical disability is often controversial not just because of its history, but perceived as socially dependent and just another many argue that an individual doesn't have the weight on society (Perring). Science has made right to take their own life, let alone ask a doctor great strides in recent decades, especially in the to help them do so. Furthermore, there are field of genetics, but like the eugenicists of the debates about what doctors should do in the case past many scientists who study genetics have a of unresponsive patients. Consider the case of tendency to view all aspects of human beings, Jahi Mcmath, a brain dead child whose mother such as beauty and health, from a purely genetic wants to continue treatment but the doctors point of view. For example, more money is being argue that it is a waste of money, resources, and spent on finding a gene(s) that makes an time because she is no longer alive, and the individual homosexual than on breast cancer and machines only give her the illusion that she is AIDs research (Ordover 88). Trying to place all (Perring). Jahi's case closely resembles that of aspects of a person into a genetic box is the eugenics advocate Dr. Haiseldon in 1915. A

Sabiduría Page 14 Palm Beach State College case like Jahi's raises the question of “What is the throughout generations from that offspring value of a life, and how does one decide who (Perring). This route permanently eliminates should live or die?” Eugenics tried and still tries genes that are deemed “unfit,” but with these to answer these questions. For example, many methods society would have to come to an people would like to think that they view all life agreement as to what are “good” genes and what as sacred, and each individual has a right to live; are “bad” genes (Baird 13). As of now, with but faced with the realization of having a child parents already having the power to select their that is highly likely to be born with Down’s child’s gender remains unregulated: “[t]he FDA, syndrome, about 90% of women choose to have meanwhile only regulates the potential safety an abortion (Perring). This statistic opens the and efficiency of these techniques, not their door for one of the most compelling examples of ethical implications” (Ghose). So societies in the future eugenics: the designer baby. future would have the option of finishing what the eugenics movement began many years Perhaps most disturbing is the ability to earlier. The proponents for genetically modify genetically modify future generations. Genetic children claim that, “Others see the same engineering is the process of artificially technologies as the ability to take charge of our manipulating innate characteristics (Baird 5). own evolution, to transcend human limitations, Scientists have carried out genetic engineering and to improve ourselves as a species” (Baird 3). successfully on rodents that now glow in the dark Also proponents arguments mirror eugenicists (Baird 2). Scientists can also change a child’s beliefs of “survival of the fittest” or that only the gender. It is believed that soon humans will have strong are meant to breed: “[a] great many the ability to alter numerous genes in their naturally conceived embryos are rejected from children, and this can have great ethical and the womb for defects; by screening embryos, we societal consequence as a whole. are doing what nature would normally do for us” (Baird). On the other hand, opponents see the Modern human genetic engineering entered the practices as a clear form of modern day eugenics. scientific realm in the 19th century with the “[T]here is always the looming shadow of introduction of eugenics. Although not yet eugenics. This was the motivation for some technically considered "genetic engineering," it government policies in Europe and the United represented society's first attempt to scientifically States in the first half of the twentieth century alter the human evolutionary process. The practice that included forced sterilizations, selective of human genetic engineering is considered by breeding, and "racial hygiene." Techniques that some to have had its beginnings with in vitro could be used for designing babies will give us fertilization (IVF) in 1978. IVF paved the way for dangerous new powers to express our genetic preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), also preferences” (Baird). What many proponents and referred to as preimplantation genetic selection eugenicists overlook is that fact that, (PGS). PGD is the process by which an embryo is [a]lthough these methods sound attractive, there microscopically examined for signs of genetic are serious limitations to their applicability. It is disorders. Several genetically based diseases can obvious, from a purely biological point of view, now be identified, such as Down Syndrome, Tay- that only those features that are hereditary can Sachs Disease, Sickle Cell Anemia, Cystic Fibrosis, be affected by eugenic selection. If an individual and Huntington's disease (Baird 6). possesses a desirable quality the development of The practices of IVFs and PGD seem like a which is wholly environmental causes, and that eugenicist’s day dream because technology has will not be repeated in the descendants, its finally allowed people to get rid of those selection will have no influence upon following “undesirable” genes. If PGD's are a eugenicist’s generations (Boas 471). daydream then “human germline engineering” Perhaps the origins of certain traits will remain must be a eugenicist’s fantasy. The process of forever a mysterious puzzle that man will never PGD only affects the intimate offspring, (Baird be able to solve. 10) but germline, which is a term referencing the sperm and the egg cells, is modification Sabiduría Page 15 Palm Beach State College Eugenics is a dark chapter in mankind's history U.S culture, economy:Poll.'', Washington that humans will have to overcome. The popular Times, 7Aug. 2014. Web. 2 Nov beliefs of the eugenics movement still persist 2014.http://www.washingtontimes.com/ today, such as viewing certain individuals as news/2014/aug/7/americans-fear- societal burdens, and believing that certain illegals-hurt-culture-economy-poll/ “undesirable” traits are purely inherited through Moore, Malcolm. ''What is China’s one-child policy?'' genetics. Also, many of the eugenicists’ practices Telegraph Media Group Limited , 30 Oct. still endure in modern times, such as forced 2014. Web. 13 Nov 2014.http://www. sterilization, euthanasia and genetically selecting telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/c “desirable” traits for future generations. Perhaps hina/11197594/What-is-Chinas-one-child- the reason why eugenics seems to endure policy.html throughout history is because as long as there are Ordover, Nancy. American Eugenics: Race, Queer human beings there will always be the desire to Anatomy, and the Science of Nationalism. aim for some kind of perfection, no matter how Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, warped that perfection may be. 2003. Print "People & Events: Eugenics and Birth Control." Works Cited pbs.org.PBS Online, n.d. Web. 7 Oct. 2014.http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pi Baird, Stephen L. "Designer Babies: Eugenics Repackaged or Consumer Options?" ll/peopleevents/e_eugenics.html Technology Teacher 66.7 (2007): 12-16. Perring, Christian. "Mentally Ill People as Unfit for Web. 8 Oct. 2014. http://www.iteea. Society." Online video clip. YouTube. org/Publications/TTT/apr07.pdf YouTube, 2 Apr. 2014. Web. 4 Oct. 2014. Baos, Franz. "Eugenics." The Scientific Monthly 3.5 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pm4 .(1916): 471-478 . Web. 19 Oct 2014. inQVDaMMSanger, Margaret. “The http://www.jstor.org/stable/6055?seq=1#page_s Eugenic Value of Birth Control can_tab_contents Propaganda.” Nyu.edu. Margaret Sanger Campos, Paul. "Eugenics Are Alive and Well In the United Project, 2003. Web. 26 Oct. 2014 States ." Time. Time Inc., 10 Jul. 2013. https://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/w Web. 8 Oct 2014.http://ideas.time.com/2013 ebedition/app/documents/show.php?san /07/10/eugenics-are-alive-and-well-in-the- gerDoc=238946.xml united-states/ Shaddock, Steve. "The Black Stork: Eugenics and Ghose, Tia. "The Ethics Of 'Designer Babies." Huffington The Death of “Defective” Babies in Post. Huffington Post Inc., 13 Mar. 2014. American Medecine and Motion Pictures Web. 26 Oct 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost. Since 1915." NeoAmericanist: an inter- com/2014/03/14/ethics-of-designer- disciplinary online journal for the study babies_n_4966189.html of America n.vol. (1996): n.p. Web. 8 Oct Hughes, Carrie. "Mental Illness in the 19th Century." 2014.http://neoamericanist.org/sites/de mccarter.org. n.p, n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2014. fault/files/pdfs/shaddock.pdf https://www.mccarter.org/Education/mrs- Stern, Alexandra Minna. Eugenic Nation: Faults packard/html/6.html and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Kugler, Sara. ''Day 16: Race, eugenics, and birth control.'' Modern America. California: University of MSNBC, 26 Mar. 2014. Web. 26 Oct California Press, 2005. Print. 2014.http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/day The Free Dictionary. Web. 3 Oct. 2014. -16-race-eugenics-and-birth-control http://www.thefreedictionary.com/euge "Mental Illness." eugenicsarchive.org. n.p, nics n.d. Web. 6Oct. 2014.http://www.eugenicsarchive.org /eugenics/topics_fs.pl?theme=9 Miller, S.A. ''Most Americans fear illegal immigrants hurt

Sabiduría Page 16 Palm Beach State College About the Author – Insanity, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary, is “a deranged state of the mind Rebecca Seide usually occurring as a specific disorder (as schizophrenia)” (2014). The definition of insanity Rebecca Seide will in the courtroom, however, differs greatly. graduate from the Dr. Insanity, as defined in the courtroom, is “a Floyd F. Koch Honors mental disease or defect that interferes with a College, in spring 2015, defendant’s ability to control his actions or and transfer to Florida appreciate the nature of his act so substantially Atlantic University. that the defendant is not considered to be legally Rebecca will seek a degree responsible for his criminal acts” (Bergman & in anthropology, followed Berman, 2011 p. 614). The term “insanity” is

by graduate school. used in criminal law to separate the “guilty criminal defendants for whom criminal sanctions Insanity: A Discussion of the Use are inappropriate from those for whom criminal and the Success Rates of the sanctions are appropriate” (Loewy, 2000 p. 161). Insanity Plea When a defendant pleads not guilty by reason of insanity, he does not claim to be innocent; rather, he admits his guilt and claims his behavior Jessica Ondrizek was the result of a mental illness (Grachek, 2006). On March 30, 1981, at 2:25 P.M., a man attempted to assassinate President Ronald The words “insane” or “insanity” are Reagan as Reagan left the Hilton Hotel in frequently associated with psychology. While this Washington, D.C. (Worth, 2001). The would-be association is understandable, these phrases are assassin, John Hinckley Jr., managed to fire six not psychological terms. Rather, the concept of shots into the crowd before he was brought down sanity and insanity are legal constructions. The by Secret Service agents. There was absolutely no concept of insanity is malleable, rather than question that Hinckley was the shooter, but the concrete, and it is frequently remade by jurors, defense and prosecution had differing views on judges, lawyers, the public, and the media Hinckley’s state of mind: the defense argued that (Kirwin, 1997). Even though the concept of Hinckley’s behavior was the result of profound insanity is malleable, the legal definitions have mental illness, but the prosecution believed his remained largely unchanged for years. behavior was not the result of his mental illness (Worth, 2001). The Hinckley case drastically The insanity plea may seem like a fairly impacted the public’s perception of the insanity recent addition to the court system, but various plea when he was found not guilty by reason of forms have actually existed for hundreds of insanity on June 21, 1982 (Worth, 2001). The years. An ancient Hebraic law established that public was outraged, upset, and believed that lunatics were viewed as “incapable of Hinckley had escaped punishment for his crimes. distinguishing between good and evil or right and The public’s response to the Hinckley verdict led wrong” and they “could not be held criminally to nationwide reform of the insanity defense responsible” (Worth, 2001, p. 17). A form of the (Worth, 2001). Despite the reform that took insanity defense existed in English common law in place, the inaccurate belief that the insanity plea the 1200s (Kirwin, 1975), and Henry de Bracton, a is an overused, legal loophole still persists today. 13th century scholar, wrote that madmen lacked The insanity plea, which relies on three major criminal intent and therefore “could not be rules, is rarely used by defense teams and is even considered criminally liable” (Worth, 2001, p. less likely to be successful, because the concept 17). In 1307, a criminal could be found not guilty of insanity is difficult to define. if his defenders could prove that his mental capacity was no greater than that of a wild animal (Kirwin, 1975). In the 1600s, Sir Matthew

Sabiduría Page 17 Palm Beach State College Hale, the chief justice of the Court of King’s According to the Cornell University Law School Bench, redefined insanity as the lack of free will (2014), this rule was established in 1843, after (Kirwin, 1975). Daniel M’Naghten shot and killed the secretary to the British Prime Minister. M’Naghten suffered Today, there are three main rules that are from paranoid delusions and he believed the used to determine whether a defendant is insane British Prime Minister was conspiring against him. or not: the Durham rule, the American Law He shot the secretary only because he mistook Institute standard, and the M’Naghten rule the prime minister’s secretary for the prime (Kirwin, 1997). The Durham rule is concerned minister. At his trial, nine physicians testified with “irresistible impulse” (Cornell University that had a mental illness and that he was insane Law School, 2014). This rule was decreed in 1954 (Fersch, 2005). He was acquitted of his crime by by Judge David Bazelon, the chief of the U.S. reason of insanity and was placed in a mental Court of Appeals in the District of Columbia institution for the rest of his life (Cornell (Kirwin, 1997). This rule holds that a defendant is University Law School, 2014). not responsible for his crime if it was the result of a mental defect or disease, and that he would Despite the controversy that surrounded the not have committed that crime if not for that ruling at the time, the M’Naghten rule became mental defect (Douglas & Olshaker, 1995). This the basis for various insanity pleas, including the rule was not popular with law enforcement and American Law Standard and the Durham rule judges because it gave such a broad definition of (Fersch, 2005). Approximately one-third of the insanity (Douglas & Olshaker, 1995), and it was states in America use some variation of the eventually rejected by federal courts (Cornell M’Naghten rule today, (Fersch, 2005), but University Law School, 2014). controversy still surrounds these rules and how they define insanity. The second most common insanity test is the American Law Institute standard (Fisanick, 2012), Opponents of the insanity defense claim that which was drafted in 1962 (Kirwin, 1997). This many criminals are able to escape long or harsh test seeks to determine “whether the defendant guilty verdicts by faking mental illness, but lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate research estimates that only one in four or five the criminality of his conduct or to conform his defendants who plead insanity exhibit signs of conduct to the requirements of law as a result of malingering (Fersch, 2005). Even when a a mental disease or defect” (as cited in Fisanick, defendant malingers, mental health professionals 2012). are usually able to identify them. Studies show that mental health professionals (particularly According to the American Civil Liberties forensic psychologists, who are specially trained Union, the most popular insanity test is the to apply psychology to the forensic setting) are M’Naghten test (Fisanick, 2012). The M’Naghten ninety-two to ninety-five percent accurate in rule (also commonly spelled as “McNaughton”) determining if a defendant is faking mental examines a criminals ability to tell right from illness or not (Grachek, 2006). wrong (Schecter & Everitt, 1996). For a defendant to be found insane under the Research has shown that a majority of M’Naghten test, the defense must demonstrate Americans have unfavorable opinions of the that, at the time of the crime, “the party insanity defense. One study found that eighty- accused was laboring under such a defect of seven percent of the Americans who were polled reason, from disease of the mind as not to know thought the insanity defense was a legal loophole the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or that allowed guilty criminals to escape if he did not know that he did not know he was punishment (Fersch, 2005). This perception is doing what was wrong” (as cited in Kirwin, 1997, enforced in the media, because journalists tend p. 22). to portray the insanity defense in a way that makes the public believe the defendant “is given cab fare and let out of the courtroom door to

Sabiduría Page 18 Palm Beach State College prowl the streets again” (Kirwin, 1997, p. 193). because the psychiatric expert who interviews This belief is actually inaccurate, as defendants the accused must determine the defendant’s who are found not guilty by reason of insanity are “state of mind at the split second the criminal usually confined in mental institutions (Bergman, act was performed” (Kirwin, 1997, p. 7). If the 2011). In fact, defendants who are confined in expert believes the defendant was truly mentally mental institutions are often hospitalized for ill at the exact moment of the crime, the defense many years; in some cases they are hospitalized team must prove by a “clear and convincing for a longer period of time than if they had been standard” that the defendant fits the state’s found guilty and imprisoned (Bergman, 2011). legal definition of insanity (as cited in Madsen, 2010, para. 5). Another common misconception is that the insanity defense is overused. In reality, the Even though the insanity defense is rarely insanity defense is not as commonly used as the successful, some variables make a defendant public believes. One reason that the general more likely to be found insane. One obvious public may believe that the insanity defense is factor is the defendant’s history of mental frequently used is the huge amount of attention illness. Defendants who have a history of that the media gives to high-profile insanity psychiatric issues and hospitalizations are more defense cases, particularly multiple-murder likely to be acquitted than a defendant without cases. Despite the large amount of coverage the such a history (Fisanick, 2012). A less obvious media gives to those types of cases, the insanity factor, and arguably the most influential factor in defense is not popular. In fact, fewer than four determining the success of the insanity defense, percent of multiple murderers have pleaded not is prosecutorial consent. One study found that in guilty by reason of insanity in the past century about one-third of all cases that resulted in a (Schecther & Everitt 1996). Only about one verdict of not guilty by reason of insanity, the percent of defendants who are charged with a prosecution and defense both agreed that the felony plead insanity (Finsanick, 2012), and a insanity plea was appropriate for the case similar study conducted by the National Alliance (Fersch, 2005). of Mental Health found that the insanity defense is used by less than one percent of defendants Another major factor is sex, as women are (Fersch, 2005). Another study, conducted in more likely to be acquitted by insanity than men 2001, found that only sixteen of every ten (Kirwin, 1987). One study conducted in Oregon thousand indicted used the insanity plea (Fersch, found that twenty-nine percent of women and 2005). nine percent of men charged with homicide were found not guilty by reason of insanity (Breheney, Due to the infrequent use of the insanity Galietta, & Groscup, 2007). Additionally, women defense, the rate of success is extremely low as who are found not guilty by reason of insanity well. One study reported that the plea is typically spend less time in psychiatric facilities successful only twenty-six percent of the time than men (Breheney et al., 2007). Unfortunately, (Fersch, 2005), while another study found that it the victims of a female killer are “usually infants, is successful in fifteen to twenty-five percent of children, or lovers and spouses” (Kirwin, 1997, p. cases (Fisanick, 2012). Other sources cite that 254). only one in four hundred defendants, or 0.0025% Wealthy defendants are also more likely to be of defendants, is found not guilty by reason of found not guilty by reason of insanity, possibly insanity (Fisanick, 2012). Additionally, of the because they can afford to hire more competent multiple murderers who have implemented the lawyers and experts (Kirwin, 1997). There are insanity defense in the past decade, only three many other variables that can affect the outcome have been found not guilty by reason of insanity. of a trial: the ethnicity and status of the offender; the prejudices and beliefs of the jury; The insanity plea may be rarely used because and the coverage of the press (Kirwin, 1997). it is so difficult to prove. It is difficult to Fersch suggests the effectiveness of the establish whether or not a defendant is insane psychological testimony and the definition of

Sabiduría Page 19 Palm Beach State College insanity that is being used in the state in which many years. The insanity defense is more likely the defendant is being tried can both impact the to be successful if a defendant is wealthy, outcome of the trial (2005). female, or has a history of mental illness. Other factors, including the jury, press, and expert One underestimated factor in the outcome of testimony, can also influence the verdict. These the trial may be the jury. According to the factors can make the outcome of a trail involving American Civil Liberties Union, jurors often the insanity defense almost impossible to reject the insanity plea in capital cases, even predict. While trials involving an insanity plea when the defense presents strong evidence of can be dramatic and full of surprises, these cases psychological problems. One possible explanation are rarely as fanciful or as successful as society for this finding is that the jurors are afraid of the and the media believe them to be. backlash they will receive, particularly if the case is a high-profile one (Fisanick, 2012). Works Cited Another possible explanation is that, despite strong evidence of psychological issues, the Bergman, P. (2011). Criminal law: A desk jurors believe the defendant deserves to be reference. U.S.A.: Nolo. punished for his crime. After the trial of Albert Bergman, P. & Berman, S. J. (2011). The criminal Fish, a murderer and cannibal from New York, a law handbook: Know your rights, survive juror was quoted as saying, “We believed he was the system (12th ed.). U.S.A.: Nolo. insane, but we thought he deserved to die Breheney, C., Galietta, M., & Groscup, J. (2007, anyway” (Schecter & Everitt, 1996, p. 127). Annual). Gender matters in the insanity defense. Law and Psychology Review, 31, Even if the defense presents evidence of 93+. Retrieved from http://www.law.ua. mental illness, the jury may be reluctant to find edu/lawpsychology/ the defendant not guilty by reason of insanity Cornell University Law School. (n.d.). The because they do not trust the psychiatrists or insanity defense and diminished capacity. psychiatric experts involved. A study, conducted Retrieved from http://www.law.cornell. shortly after the Hinckley trial, asked the edu/background/insane/insanity.html. American public what they thought of the high- Douglas, J., & Olshaker, M. (1995). Mind hunter: profile trial. The study found that nearly forty Inside the FBI’s elite serial crime unit. percent of Americans had no confidence in the U.S.A.: Pocket Star Books. testimony of a psychiatric expert. Additionally, Fersch, E. L. (Ed.). (2005). Thinking about the the same study found that only eighteen percent insanity defense: Answers to frequently believed that psychiatrists could accurately asked questions with case examples. determine if a defendant was insane or not U.S.A.: iUniverse. (Fersch, 2005). Fisanick, C. (Ed.). (2012). Crime and criminals: Opposing viewpoints. U.S.A.: Gale Despite the media’s portrayal, and the Cengage Learning. public’s pervasive belief that the insanity defense Grachek, Julie E. (2006). The Insanity Defense in is overused and frequently successful, the the Twenty-First Century: How Recent research discussed in this paper proves that the United States Supreme Court Case Law insanity defense is not what the public believes it Can Improve the System. Indiana Law is. The public believes the insanity defense is a Journal, 81(4), 1479-1501. legal loophole that allows both mentally ill and Retrieved from http://www.repository. competent defendants to escape punishment. law.indiana.edu However, the insanity defense is only used by Insanity. 2014. In Merriam-Webster.com. approximately one percent of defendants, and Retrieved March 30, 2014, from the insanity plea is only proven in about fifteen http://www.merriam-webster. to twenty-five percent of cases. Defendants who com/dictionary/insanity. are found not guilty by reason of insanity are Kirwin, B. R. (1997). The mad, the bad, and the frequently confined to mental institutions for innocent: The criminal mind on trial –

Sabiduría Page 20 Palm Beach State College tales of a forensic psychologist. behavior” (helpingourteenagegirls.org). The U.S.A.: Little, Brown and Co. recent prominence in the media that this topic Loewy, A. H. (2000). Criminal law in a nutshell has received is bringing to the surface a behavior (3rd ed.). U.S.A.: West Group. that has long been considered normal but is Madsen, C. (2010, November 28). Law professors actually a detrimental social practice. Although explain why insanity defense is difficult street harassment is not a new phenomenon, the to prove. KSL. Retrieved from spheres in which it is committed have spread http://www.ksl.com/?sid=13443510 since its inception and prominently include Schechter, H., & Everitt, D. (1996). The A to Z college campuses. The effects of street encyclopedia of serial killers. U.S.A.: harassment on college campuses insidiously Pocket Books. contribute to a tension that harms the entire campus community and can only be countered Worth, R. (2001). The insanity defense. U.S.A.: through a thorough understanding of the causes, Chelsea House. implications, and solutions to street harassment.

About the Author – There are many different types of street harassment that apply to the definition used Jessica Ondrizek within this paper. For example, LGBT harassment, racial harassment, and religious harassment all apply to the above definition. Jessica Ondrizek will graduate However, the type of harassment discussed from the Dr. Floyd F. Koch within this paper will be limited to gender-based Honors College, at Palm Beach harassment, which most commonly consists of State College in the spring of men harassing women. This specificity implies a 2015. She will continue her social dynamic between the genders that is education in Florida, and will highlighted and exacerbated in public spaces. pursue her passion for criminology and engineering. One of the most valuable perspectives to understand when approaching the phenomenon of street harassment is that of the motives of those who commit street harassment. The explanation Hey Baby! Come Read my Paper: of street harassment most commonly accepted in Street Harassment on College academic circles is that men harass women in Campuses public spaces in order to express their dominance and to impress upon women their inequality in the public sphere (Bowman 541). Men use a range Olivia Lowrey of verbal and physical methods including cat calling, pinching, and winking suggestively in The freedom to enter a public space and order to make the object of their attention proceed unimpeded is a right taken for granted uncomfortable. As Dr. Jane Caputi, a Gender by many, but is a right that is far too often Studies professor at Florida Atlantic University violated. An uncomfortable reality, easy to explained in an interview, street harassment is overlook, is the fact that sometimes a simple act, used “not to flatter women but to intimidate even a single word, can demolish a person’s women and let them know that … their space is comfort in public. One such behavior that can in the home… cleaning up, having babies… that have negative effects in public is street the public sphere is men’s space…and if they harassment. Street harassment encompasses “a intrude into it they will be harassed.” range of harassing behaviors that occur on the It follows logically that street harassment is street or in other public places including more common in areas that have changed from catcalling, sexually explicit comments, unwanted being male dominated to mixed gender. This can touching, and other unwanted attention and be evidenced in the high rates of female

Sabiduría Page 21 Palm Beach State College harassment in noted areas like the workplace or A common rebuttal to these theories invokes the military (Caputi). In a study of government the idea that men are simply complimenting employees, 33% of women said they had received women. The suggestions that present street sexual remarks multiple times (Fitzgerald 1071) harassment as a male behavior intended to be while in a study of female veterans 55% of oppressive are often attacked as overreactions to participants reported that they had been sexually what is commonly accepted as men having some harassed (Skinner et al. 291). This explanation of harmless fun (Quinn 387). Upon closer inspection, street harassment applies to college campuses however, these rebuttals disintegrate. In October since college education was once restricted to 2014, a video of a woman undergoing over one men but has expanded in many countries to hundred instances of street harassment while include women. This invasion of women in a walking through New York City brought national previously male dominated area can explain the focus to the feelings of average women. The numerous occurrences of harassment that prominently negative reactions of women transpire on college campuses (Caputi). triggered by this street harassment awareness raising propaganda (Yan) should smother any Another possible motivation for street doubts men have about the reception that their harassment can be explained by a behavior comments are receiving. The idea that men are referred to as “Girl Watching” (Quinn 387). This only trying to compliment women degrades practice involves groups of men sexually further within a college setting. According to a critiquing a woman, or sometimes even just a survey conducted of students at Palm Beach representation of a woman. This behavior is State College (PBSC), 88% of students (both male prominent in workplace settings but also in and female) surveyed expressed that street numerous public areas and serves two purposes. harassment is not intended to complement. The first purpose is that of male bonding and the second is that it provides an opportunity for men Unfortunately, men, who usually do not have to overtly express their heterosexuality to other to undergo the uncomfortable experience of men (Quinn 394). street harassment, often have difficulty empathizing with women on this issue. Their Although street harassment and girl watching limited knowledge of the damaging effect of can include the same behaviors there is a street harassment may be caused by the fact that distinction between the two which lies in the they are not often recipients of harassment and context. While street harassment occurs, by that, even when they are harassed, it is doubtful definition, in public spaces and may consist of an they feel equally as threatened by a female interaction between only the harasser and the harasser as women do by male harassers person being harassed, girl watching can happen (Anderson). Furthermore, men are often ignorant in a variety of settings and occurs only when of harassment against women since street there is more than one harasser and does not harassment is not often committed against a require the victim to be present. For example, woman who is in the company of another man. street harassment would typically consist of a Amanda Hess, an editor for Slate magazine, has man making a comment like “Smile for me written about this phenomenon and noted that it sweetheart!” to a girl walking on the street, may result from the reluctance of harassers to while girl watching might consist of a group of approach women when they are in the company employees commenting on a co-worker, making of a man. She describes that after a friend of comments such as “I know how to show that hers refused a man’s attentions at a party by woman a good time!” Although the behaviors are claiming that she was married, “We agreed that mechanically different, the motivations behind she had said this because aggressive men are girl watching, a need to demonstrate to other more likely to defer to another man’s domain men heterosexuality and masculinity, may than to accept a woman’s autonomous rejection explain one of the social purposes of street of him.” (Hess). This dynamic places women in harassment. the uncomfortable situation of choosing between harassed independence and constricting

Sabiduría Page 22 Palm Beach State College dependence when entering public spaces. Since women’s perceptions of men (Bowman 540-42). continuously maintaining a boyfriend, family Professor Bowman elaborates on this point by member, or bodyguard near at all times is stating “it is difficult for a man, however well unfeasible and unrealistic when attending classes intentioned, to address an unfamiliar woman on at a university or college, women must make the the street without evoking some suspicion or fear decision to allow the possibility of exposing in her” and that street harassment “contributes themselves to damaging remarks and behaviors to distrust and hostility between the sexes” when they decide to pursue post-secondary (540). Thus street harassment can elicit a education. distrustful and suspicious environment with diverse consequences, provoking an The next facet of street harassment that is estrangement between men and women which integral to the understanding of this phenomenon should be of concern, especially on college is the effect that street harassment can have, not campuses. only on its victims, but on society as well. Street harassment can have multiple damaging Street harassment that occurs on college psychological and physical effects upon its campuses has recently become a topic of victims including emotional damage due to non- discussion on street harassment awareness raising resistance, objectification, restriction in public websites. One such website, Hollaback! spaces, and, in extreme cases, physical harm. It conducted a survey of college students in which has been suggested that non-resistance can lead 67% of students surveyed said that they had to feelings of disempowerment and low self- experienced street harassment on campus, while esteem while resistance to street harassment can 23% said that “harassment prevented attendance have positive psychological effects. Victims of in class/social activities” (Harassment on College street harassment also begin to associate their Campuses). In a similar survey of PBSC students, bodies with shame and humiliation after conducted in order to confirm the existence of repeated harassment. Additionally, victims will street harassment at PBSC, 40% of female subconsciously internalize sentiments of low self- students stated that they had experienced street worth which damage their self-image and may harassment on campus, while 56% of those lead to feelings of discomfort with their own students stated that being cat called made them sexuality (Bowman 535-40). feel uncomfortable. The climate of discomfort that is constructed as a result of street More actively negative consequences to street harassment does not correlate with the sense of harassment can include physical harm. “Street community that should be natural on college harassment can sometimes escalate” states Dr. campuses. Caputi. She explains that it is possible that “many physical attacks actually begin with some Students on college campuses, however, might kind of verbal harassment.” There is even some not fully appreciate the dangerous motivations evidence that street harassment is used by sexual behind street harassment. Although students are predators as a type of “rape testing” (qtd. in confronted with street harassment regularly, in Bowman 536). Depending on the level of the survey of college students at PBSC when resistance in the response of the victim an asked “Why do you think street harassment is aggressor may identify the individual as a likely committed?” responses included flippant candidate for further molestation (Bowman 536). comments such as “because people are stupid” and “people have nothing better to do” and These effects, although disturbing, are not “men trying to get with someone”. This playful surprising. A result of street harassment that may attitude towards a behavior that is clearly making be less intuitive, however, is that those who are students feel uncomfortable implies that students harassed are not the only victims. Men and underestimate or are unaware of the damaging society are also damaged. By cat calling, motivations that engender street harassment. It whistling, and pinching, many men do not realize seems that students have become desensitized to that they are alienating women by skewing a problem that has come to be considered a

Sabiduría Page 23 Palm Beach State College socially acceptable, although unfortunate, Equally as important as raising public behavior. These perceptions are, in some ways, awareness is the need to educate women on the as dangerous as the harassment itself. best way to react to a harasser when faced with one. “Every situation is different” claims Mr. Another area which recent discussions of Smith, Security Manager at Palm Beach State street harassment have highlighted is the lack of College “Under most circumstances it’s best to administrative support provided by colleges. walk away.” If a woman responds to her harasser Hollaback!’s survey of college street harassment a situation may escalate from bad to worse and revealed that 55% of college administrators by reacting may create an unsafe environment. consider their response to street harassment to Within public spaces a best course of action may be insufficient (Harassment on College be elusive, on college campuses the best course Campuses). Since only 17% of students report of action is clear. “We [security] can be called at harassment (Harassment on College Campuses), any time…any call that we’re asked to look into, this lack of initiative on the part of the we’re going to go see if we can find this person” administration may come from an ignorance of (Smith). Women who face street harassment on the problem, or from a desire to remain campus should report the incident immediately untainted by the stigma of sexual harassment. to security. On college campuses, an employee The reasons for colleges to refrain from who commits street harassment can be fired and aggrandizing any administration-stemming anti- consequences for students vary from counseling harassment activities or initiatives are apparent. to more severe actions. If harassment becomes The fact that resistance to sexual harassment is physical, the repercussions against both necessary implies that it not only exists on employees and students can be very harsh campus, but is extreme enough to necessitate (Smith). action. Understandably therefore, colleges are reluctant to draw attention to harassment on Another important step to combat street campus and be identified, labeled, and criticized harassment is to enlist “male allies” (Kearl 185). as a college with sexual harassment problems With the help of men who are aware of the (May). dangers of street harassment, incidents of harassment can be diminished, especially since One of the most valuable ways in which this is a male perpetuated situation. Not only can activists are contributing to ending street men educate others on this topic, but they can harassment is by “making street harassment an also intervene when necessary to help a victim issue” (Kearl 185). In her book Stop Street who is being harassed. A mixed-gender approach Harassment, Making Public Places Safe and to ending street harassment has other advantages Welcoming for Women, Holly Kearl claims that including positive feelings of unity between men raising awareness can be done on many levels and women. “sharing your story in person or online…holding a local event, producing a documentary, or Seemingly innocent calls of “Hey baby!” take a creating an art project.” (165). Multiple websites more sinister meaning when the actual have sprung up to meet this demand including implications behind these statements are StopStreetHarassment.com and Hollaback!. explored. Men’s intentions, either conscious or Hollaback! has even created a popular app for unintentional, to suppress women’s movement in smartphones that enables users to track areas the public sphere can be detrimental to those where incidents of street harassment are high affected. Not only women, but also men and share their stories (Clark). The evident themselves are harmed, creating an popularity of this app demonstrates how willing uncomfortable social atmosphere. The effects of women are to take action against street street harassment can be seen on college harassment and how meaningful and campuses, and they create an unhealthy situation psychologically necessary it can be to share that can distract students from the real purpose experiences of street harassment. of college: education. This discouraging situation can be countered, however, by a strong unified

Sabiduría Page 24 Palm Beach State College response from both women and men to educate and Lisa Sullivan. "The Prevalence of and intervene on the topic of street harassment. Military Sexual Assault Among Female Veterans' Administration Outpatients." Works Cited Abstract. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15.3 (2000): 291. Web. Anderson, Joe. “Why Men Don’t Understand Smith, John. Personal interview. 14 Nov 2014. Street Harassment'” Thought Catalog. Yan, Holly. “Woman in New York street Thought Catalog, 6. Dec. 2014. Web. 3. harassment video: 'My story is not Apr. 2014. unique'” CNN. Cable News Network, 30 “Anti-Street Harassment Campaign.” Helping Oct. 2014. Web. 30 Nov. 2014. ourteengirls.org 100 Megs Web Hosting, n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. About the Author – Bowman, C. (1993). Street Harassment and the Informal Ghettoization of Women. Olivia Lowrey Harvard Law Review, 106(3), 517-580. Olivia Lowrey will graduate from the Dr. Floyd F. Koch Caputi, Jane. Personal interview. 10 Nov 2014. Honors College, at Clark, Tabitha. "Hollaback! to end street Palm Beach State harassment." Daily News [Jacksonville, College, in the fall NC] 26 Dec. 2012. of 2015. She hopes “Definitions.” StopStreetHarassment. Word Press to travel the entire Themes, n.d. Web. 29. Nov. 2014. world before the Reference Center GOLD. Web. 14 Nov. age of thirty in 2014. addition to double Fitzgerald, Louise F. "Sexual Harassment: majoring in psychology and economics.

Violence Against Women In The Workplace." American Psychologist 48.10 Substance Abuse: Understanding (1993): 1070-1076. PsycARTICLES. Web. Addiction as a Disease 29 Dec. 2014. “Harassment on College Campuses.” Hollaback! Neysa Blay Hollaback.org, n.d. Web. 29 Dec. 2014. Hess, Amanda. “Why It’s So Hard for Men to See Over the past decades, an evident stigma has Misogyny” Slate. The Slate Group, 27. been attached to drug addicts. Public perception May. 2014. Web. 3. Apr. 2014. commonly disregards the scientific data Kearl, Holly. Stop Street Harassment: Making concerning the origins and development of Public Places Safe And Welcoming For substance abuse and proceeds to pass unfounded Women. Santa Barabara, Calif: Praeger, moralistic judgment on the addict. Addiction is a 2010. eBook Coolection (EBSCOhost). genetically predisposed disease of the body and Web. 29 Nov. 2014. the brain; therefore, does not represent a lack of Lowrey, Olivia. "Survey of Students, Palm Beach will power or an unwillingness to control the State College." Survey. 20 Nov. 2014. behavior. Understanding that addiction is a May, Emily. “What About Sexual Harassment on chronic disease that certain people are Campus?” huffingtonpost. The Huffington predisposed to have, and that causes impulsive Post, 27 Jan. 2014. Web. 3 Apr. 2015. decision making, could have far reaching Quinn, B. A. "Sexual Harassment And Masculinity: consequences to our legal system and to recovery The Power And Meaning Of "Girl programs Watching""Gender & Society: 386-402. Print. Renowned psychologist, scientist, and public Skinner, Katherine, Nancy Kressin, Susan Frayne, servant Alan L. Leshner has led and participated Tara Tripp, Cheryl Hankin, Donald Miller, in extensive drug use related studies as director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. In his article “Addiction is a Disease, and it Matters”

Sabiduría Page 25 Palm Beach State College published by the scientific journal Science, impulsive. They found that the impulsive Leshner states, “Addiction is actually a chronic, animals, which would not wait for the signal, had relapsing illness, characterized by compulsive fewer D2/3 receptors in comparison to the other drug seeking and use” (45). Advances in rats. In reference to the impulsive rats, Dr. psychology, neuroscience, and behavioral science Dalley states, “These animal models support the have shown that the compulsion of drug seeking existence of a ‘vulnerable phenotype’ that is a consequence of brain structure alteration and predisposes to drug addiction” (1353). After the underlying reason for which addicts continue measuring their dopamine receptors, researches their substance abuse, regardless of the well- found that the rats’ brain structures were known health related and criminal consequences. significantly different, and this could determine Evidence shows that once the brain structure has their predisposition to drug abuse. The team been altered, the addict is no longer in control of proceeded to attach the rats to a machine that his impulsive behavior, contrary to popular public would allow them to self-administer intravenous belief. Leshner explains, “We need to face the cocaine. The rodents would receive a dose after fact that even if the condition initially comes pressing a lever. Dr. Dalley explains, “Our study about because of a voluntary behavior (drug use), provides experimental evidence that high levels an addict’s brain is different from a non addict’s of impulsivity can antedate the onset of brain” (46). The addict’s first use can certainly compulsive drug use and, thereby, emphasizes come in a completely voluntary manner; the importance of preexisting impulsivity nevertheless, a predisposition to become a observed in addicts” (1354). Evidence shows that chronic drug user exists. Once the individual uses the rats with the low dopamine receptor levels the drug his brain function modifies. became chronically addicted to the cocaine, and Consequently, prolonged drug use by the the normal rats would ration their cocaine to last individual causes brain function modification that longer. The impulsive animals learned to persists long after the individual has stopped administer the drug more quickly than the other taking the drugs. This scientific fact sheds light animals to the point where the impulsive ones on the perception that an addict lacks self- were using at twice the rate of the normal rats. control and helps to educate the general public that the addict, unnecessarily, suffers from a An integral part of the addict’s behavior is the chronic impulse-driven disease. Understanding continued impulsive drug use although the addict that addiction is a chronic disease is an important has a clear understanding of the dangers and first step in diminishing the social and criminal disadvantages of this use. The reason for this impacts that drug abuse has on society. misconduct is the difficulty of the addict to resist the impulses of the drug use. Dr. Alan Stacy, Scientists have long suspected that specialist in social and personality psychology personality traits such as impulsivity, thrill- from the University of Southern California, took a seeking, and antisocial behavior go hand in hand deeper look into this behavior through several with drug addiction. The interrogative remains as cognitive studies on both normal and addict to whether these characteristics are present subjects. Dr. Stacy claims, “The essential idea is before the drug use, or if they are the results of that behavior is partly governed by automatic long-term drug abuse. Dr. Jeffrey Dalley and his processes that often exert their influence outside colleagues of the Neuroscience Department at conscious control” (292). This influence is called Cambridge University have provided insight into implicit cognition, and it refers to unconscious this problem through a complex experiment influences such as knowledge, perception, or involving rats conducted in 2007. Dr. Dalley’s memory that influence a person's behavior research involved analyzing rats’ brains for without any conscious awareness of these natural levels of dopamine receptors, and testing influences. Alongside The IVO Addiction Research for the development of impulsive behavior. After Institute in Netherlands, Dr. Stacy performed a testing their impulse behavior through the Dual-Process model experiment to study retrieval of treats after a cue, researchers automatic motivational and emotional stimuli. divided the rodents into two groups: normal and Research has already proven that the brain

Sabiduría Page 26 Palm Beach State College changes as a result of drug abuse revealing that problem relies on the fact that a great number of the impulse system becomes sensitized to the individuals facing criminal charges, or arrested drug and the cues that might predict the for crimes are addicted or drug users. For this availability of the drug or the moment of use. Dr. reason it is important to assess the legal Stacy performed a picture association experiment responsibility of addicts, whether their condition during which he randomly showed the subjects is biological or not, because addiction as a cue cards with words written in specific colors. disease cannot exempt criminals from their The individuals were asked to read the color actions. In accordance with the law, a person is instead of the word. Results showed that drug criminally responsible for his action if his actions users had intense difficulty in concentration are accompanied by an appropriate mental state. when reading a word related to their drug use. Therefore, it can be vehemently argued that For example, a card with the word cocaine addicts are not responsible for their criminal written in red color provoked stimuli in the brain actions because, due to their drug use or of the addict, and not in a non-addict subject. dependence, they are not in the appropriate Dr. Dalley performed another associative test state of mind to be accountable. Addiction during which the individuals were shown two cannot and should not be an excuse for criminal pictures simultaneously in a computer screen, acts. In light of this issue, Morse suggests the law one drug related, the other not. The pictures maintain a level of sympathy for the biological disappear after a small interval and a target cue argument of addiction, but adopt a generic appears in either the drug related picture or the partial responsibility in which the individual neutral one. Dr. Stacy states, “Drug abusers more accepts a lower level of punishment for his rapidly detect target stimulus when it replaces a criminal actions. He calls this suggestion “Guilty drug-related picture than when it replaces a But Partially Responsible”. Morse states, “this neutral picture” (294). These exercises are proposal would lump together defendants of compatible with the belief that drug users react disparately impaired rationality, and differently to their conscious awareness, and consequently, different responsibility” (198). This their actions are driven by impulse. Many suggestion would mean that a person could be researchers, such as Dalley, agree that implicit charged with a variation of the crime committed cognition in drug users opens a window to or be given a lesser sentence. This methodology mechanisms in human behavior that contribute to would allow the law to accept the argument of the development of addiction. This behavior biology without trivializing accountability for persists and worsens with continuous drug use criminal action. making it extremely difficult for the addict to control the impulsivity. According to neuroscience findings, the theory of addiction is presented based on the The scientific evidence that proves that assumption that all addicts are alike. Since addiction is disease of the brain has been a great genetics is also a factor in the predisposition and accomplishment for the scientific community. development of addiction, every addict possesses Nevertheless, these discoveries have become a variety of personality traits and patterns. counterproductive for the legal system. Criminal Renowned psychiatrist and neurologist, Dr. and Mental Health Law expert, Dr. Stephen J. Charles O’Brien, from Harvard University, argues Morse, agrees that although these discoveries are that in order to treat an addict in an efficient important scientifically, they are missing the manner, it is important to apply a treatment plan element of environmental influences that that adapts to the addict’s specific circumstance. contribute to drug use. In his article “Addiction, O’Brien states, “an understanding of addiction Genetics, and Criminal Responsibility”, Morse requires addressing all three of these classes of states, “to raise the issues most starkly and most variables (interaction of agent, host, and sympathetically to the view that biological environment), treatment and prevention efforts causation may play an excusing role, it is that fail to consider all three have not been assumed that addicts are not responsible for successful” (3277). The mechanisms involved in becoming addicted” (167-168). The danger of this the reward system of the brain vary greatly from

Sabiduría Page 27 Palm Beach State College the genetic aspects, reason of use, brain behavior of some drug addicts. Rather than structure, to environmental circumstances. All of focusing on the partial guiltiness of the drug these elements are to be considered when addicts’ behavior, it is far more important to choosing a treatment program for the addict. focus on their wellbeing and their journey back Because most of the drugs abused create a to a normal, healthy life. As difficult as it can be physical dependence, treatment programs focus to overcome addiction, there is always hope in on detoxification; therefore, after care treatment for the addict. The recovery process treatment is rapidly discarded leaving the should involve individual profiling, care and addiction practically untreated. Detoxification, support. In order for this process to have an nevertheless, is imperative in addiction to increased chance of success, the need for more alcohol and benzodiazepines because withdrawal accurate education about addiction is from these specific substances can lead to death. imperative. In his article “Evidence-Based Treatments of Addiction”, O’Brien emphasizes the urgency of Works Cited efficient treatment plans due to pre-existing Dalley, Jeffrey, David Berlin, Adam C. Mar, psychiatric disorders, or disorders caused by drug Trevor W. Robbins and Barry J. Everitt. use that should be treated independently from “High Impulsivity Predicts the Switch to the substance use. O’Brien argues, “Treatment Compulsive Cocaine-Taking.” Science for addictive disorders may begin with 320.5889 (2008): 1352-55. JSTOR. Web. detoxification, but the key to successful 11 November 2014. treatment is the long-term prevention of relapse www.jstor.org.db19.linccweb.org/stable by behavioral and pharmacological means” /20054895. (3279). It is important that these approaches be Leshner, Alan L. “Addiction is a Brain Disease, combined, and not rely solely on the behavioral and it Matters.” Science 278.5335 part by disregarding the possible need for (1997): 45-47. JSTOR. Web. 8 November medication. Even though many drug use disorders 2014. www.jstor.org.db19. have great similarities, many specific linccweb.org/stable/2894496. combinations of elements should be addressed Morse, Stephen J. “Addiction, Genetics, and individually. Long-term treatment seems to be Criminal Responsibility.” Law and the most successful so far, for it improves Contemporary Problems 69.1/2 (2006): physical status as well as mental, social, and 165-207. JSTOR. Web. 11 November occupational functions. Since currently there is 2014. no cure for addiction, it is imperative to www.jstor.org.db19.linccweb.org/stable concentrate on the part of the treatment that /27592127. concentrates on relapse prevention. O’Brien, Charles P. “Evidence-Based Treatments Popular perception has wrongfully deemed of Addiction.” Philosophical Transactions: addicts as deficient in self-control. It is Biological Sciences 363.2507 (2008): wrongfully believed that addiction is a choice 3277-86. JSTOR. Web. 8 November 2014. rather than a disease, and that addicts are www.jstor.org.db19.linccweb.org/stable unable to quit because they lack the self-will to /20208741 do so. Due to advancements in technology and Weirs, Reinout W., Stacy, Allan W. “Implicit science, new theories about drug abuse are being Cognition and Addiction.” Current presented to study this issue further. It has been Directions in Psychological Science 15.6 scientifically proven that drug use causes (2006): 292-96. JSTOR. Web. 8 November alteration in the brain structure and the user’s 2014. personality. Research has also shown that some www.jstor.org.db19.linccweb.org/stable people are genetically prone to develop /20183138. addiction. These studies have presented a challenge for law makers and enforcers because they could be used to excuse the criminal

Sabiduría Page 28 Palm Beach State College About the Author – Neysa Blay

Neysa Blay is currently studying Business at Palm Beach State College. She will transfer to Florida Atlantic University to complete a bachelor's in Business Management with a minor. Personal experiences have led her to become interested in drug addiction and treatment options. She is expected to graduate in 2017 and become a successful recording artist.

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Paul Lovelady, Editor

After graduating from Palm Beach State College, Paul Lovelady intends to transfer to Florida Atlantic University where he will pursue Bachelor’s and Master's degrees in

Economics, with a minor in English/ESL. His long-term goal is to teach Economics at the Gabriele D'Annunzio University in Pescara, Italy. Patricia Medina, Editor Patricia Medina will graduate from the Dr. Floyd F. Koch Honors College, at Palm Beach State College, in spring 2015, and transfer to Stetson University in the fall. She will seek dual degrees in Communications and Political Science with an ultimate goal of becoming a White House Press Secretary. Patricia is also the student trustee for Palm Beach State College, editor-in-chief of Beachcomber, the student newspaper of Palm Beach State College, on the SSS TRiO Debate Team, a member of Phi Theta Kappa, a member of the Human Trafficking Committee, a Model Legislature participant, and is on the 2015 All-Florida Academic team. Patricia is a recipient of the 2015 Kent Cooke Transfer Scholarship.

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