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An Overview of Managed Aquifer Recharge in Brazil

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An Overview of Managed Aquifer Recharge in Brazil water Perspective An Overview of Managed Aquifer Recharge in Brazil Tatsuo Shubo 1,*, Lucila Fernandes 2 and Suzana Gico Montenegro 2 1 Departamento de Saneamento e Saúde Ambiental, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, 21040-361 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2 Centro de Tecnologia e Geociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 50670-901 Recife, Brazil; [email protected] (L.F.); [email protected] (S.G.M.) * Correspondence: tatsuo.shubo@ensp.fiocruz.br; Tel.: +55-21-2598-2469 Received: 1 December 2019; Accepted: 7 April 2020; Published: 9 April 2020 Abstract: In order to face the severe climate conditions in semiarid regions, many managed aquifer recharge (MAR) and rainwater storage systems have been implemented by local communities. Governmental programs have helped to propagate the concept of MAR. Based on a systematic review, popular initiatives, current legislation, and research lines and programs were compiled and analyzed. Although the MAR global inventory points to the prevalence of in-channel modifications among ninety MAR sites, the Barraginhas Project alone has been responsible for the construction of more than 500,000 infiltration ponds up to 2013. In urban areas, aquifer recharge initiatives mostly aim to reduce runoff peak flows. In some cases these initiatives have been stimulated by urban drainage public policies. Compared to countries such as the USA and Australia, Brazil is still at an early stage in MAR initiatives and needs to overcome technical, legal, and socio-cultural challenges to adopt MAR approaches, in order to help in facing water security challenges in a future climate change scenario. This article aims to provide an overview of the state of the art concerning technological, scientific, and legal issues around MAR in Brazil and the respective challenges for the adoption of this approach at a national level. Keywords: water security; urban water management; semiarid; Social Technology; Managed Aquifer Recharge; developing countries 1. Introduction 1.1. Historical Background Although Brazil has a huge water availability, about 30,342 m3/inhab./year in 2015 [1], it is not evenly distributed across the country, with 80% of the surface water concentrated in the Amazon region [2]. Besides this, Brazil has been struggling with many water crises since the beginning of its settlement by Europeans. A priest called Fernando Cardin recorded the first drought in 1583. Since then, more than 120 droughts have been recorded in the northeastern semiarid region alone. A seven-year drought recorded in the 18th century (1720–1727) that struck the region currently known as the states of Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, and Pernambuco has been considered the worst one on record. During that particular event, most livestock perished, rivers and springs dried up, and widespread starvation devastated the region [3]. The time period between the years of 1877 and 1879, recorded as the hottest and driest of the 19th century, imposed severe hardships and suffering on the local populations. During that period, approximately five hundred thousand people starved to death, and crops and cattle suffered devastating losses. This scenario triggered massive waves of migration of people moving towards coastal cities, bringing a demographic explosion to areas that did not yet have the appropriate infrastructure in place to support these migrations. Poor living conditions, such as the Water 2020, 12, 1072; doi:10.3390/w12041072 www.mdpi.com/journal/water WaterWater 20202020,,12 12,, 1072x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 ofof 2120 as the lack of proper sanitation systems, have been associated with a smallpox epidemic which lackcontributed of proper to sanitationthe hardships systems, [4]. have been associated with a smallpox epidemic which contributed to theFrom hardships the 1980s [4]. up to the present time, Brazil has been experiencing many of its worst droughts on recordFrom theand 1980s struggling up to the with present their time, consequences Brazil has been. As experiencinga consequence many of yet of its another worst droughts seven-year on recorddrought and period struggling (1979– with1985), their more consequences. than 3.5 million As apeople consequence ended up of yetstarving another to seven-yeardeath, with drought most of periodthe victims (1979–1985), being children more than who 3.5 perished million from people unde endedrnourishment. up starving Crops to death, and with cattle most were of lost, the victimsforcing beingdesperate children farm who people perished to loot from local undernourishment. markets seeking food Crops [5]. and In cattle2002, wereBrazil lost, also forcing faced an desperate energy farmcrisis, people known to as loot “the local apagão” markets (The seeking Big Blackout), food [5]. In mostly 2002, Brazilcaused also by faceda series an of energy dry periods. crisis, known In 2007, as “thethe northern apagão” (Thepart Bigof the Blackout), state of mostly Minas caused Geraisby su affered series a of fifteen-month dry periods. Indry 2007, spell the with northern virtually part no of therainfall. state of Minas Gerais suffered a fifteen-month dry spell with virtually no rainfall. InIn thethe BrazilianBrazilian countryside,countryside, especiallyespecially inin thethe semiaridsemiarid region,region, therethere waswas aa lacklack ofof rainfallrainfall duringduring thethe timetime periodperiod ofof 1981–2019.1981–2019. On the other hand, in thethe northernnorthern Region,Region, highhigh ratesrates ofof rainfallrainfall stillstill occur.occur. Climate models show a trend towards increasedincreased frequency and intensityintensity ofof droughtsdroughts andand lengthlength ofof drydry periodsperiods inin thethe northeast,northeast, asas alreadyalready hashas occurredoccurred inin somesome BrazilianBrazilian regionsregions [[6].6]. FromFrom 20122012 toto 20172017 anotheranother majormajor droughtdrought aaffectedffected thethe semiaridsemiarid regionregion andand 20152015 waswas consideredconsidered thethe mostmost criticalcritical yearyear ofof thatthat period.period. Figure1 1aa showsshows thethe averageaverageprecipitation precipitation for for the the early early dry dry season season in in Brazil Brazil (April–May),(April–May), fromfrom 1981 1981 to to 2010, 2010, and and the Figurethe Figure1b shows 1b shows the total the precipitation total precipitation in 2015. Inin the2015. Southern In the Hemisphere,Southern Hemisphere, autumn is theautumn transitional is the transitional period from pe theriod wet from to the the dry wet season. to the As dry can season. be seen, As in can 2015, be theseen, total in 2015, precipitation the total wasprecipitation far lower was than far the lower historical than averagethe historical [7]. Although average [7]. 2017 Although has not been2017 thehas driestnot been year the in driest the northeastern year in the northeastern region of Brazil, region the of rainfall Brazil, amounts the rainfall there amounts were far there below were the far historic below average,the historic and average, can be countedand can asbe an counted extension as an of theextension 2012 drought. of the 2012 During drought. this periodDuring (2012–2017), this period some(2012– of2017), the S someão Francisco of the São River Francisco Hydrographic River Hydrogra Region gaugingphic Region stations gauging recorded stations zero recorded flow, and zero the flowflow, released and the by flow the released reservoirs by had the to reservoirs be reduced ha ind orderto be toreduced avoid waterin order supply to avoid failures. water In 2017, supply 38 millionfailures. people In 2017, were 38 aff millionected by people drought were and 51%affected (2.839) by of drought all Brazilian and municipalities51% (2.839) of declared all Brazilian a state ofmunicipalities emergency [declared8]. Brasí lia,a state the of capital emergency of the [8]. nation, Brasília, and the São capital Paulo, of the the largest nation, and and wealthiest São Paulo, city, the enduredlargest and water wealthiest rationing city, during endured this period.water rationing during this period. (a) (b) AC: Acre AL: Alagoas AP: Amapá AM: Amazonas BA: Bahia CE: Ceará DF: Distrito Federal ES: Espírito Santo GO: Goiás MA: Maranhão MT: Mato Grosso MS: Mato Grosso do Sul MG: Minas Gerais PA: Pará PB: Paraíba PR: Paraná PE: Pernambuco PI: Piauí RJ: Rio de Janeiro RN: Rio Grande do Norte RS: Rio Grande do Sul RO: Rondônia RR: Roraima SC: Santa Catarina SP: São Paulo SE: Sergipe TO: Tocantins FigureFigure 1.1. ((a)) Average rainfall in the early dry seasonseason (1981–2010);(1981–2010); ( b) total precipitation in 2015. Source:Source: Adapted from InstitutoInstituto NacionalNacional dede MeteorologiaMeteorologia (INMET)(INMET) [[7].7]. The semiarid regionregion (shaded(shaded inin thethe FigureFigure1 1a,b)a,b) encompasses encompassesparts partsof of the the States Statesof of Alagoas, Alagoas, Bahia,Bahia, CearCeará,á, Minas Gerais, ParaParaíba,íba, Pernambuco,Pernambuco, PiauPiauí,í, Sergipe,Sergipe, andand thethe wholewhole StateState ofof RioRio GrandeGrande dodo Norte.Norte. Water 2020, 12, 1072 3 of 21 1.2. Water Availability in Brazil According to the ANA [8], close to 90% of all Brazilian rivers rely on a base flow from aquifers that feed these rivers during dry periods, keeping them perennial. The exception occurs in the northeastern region where the ground is composed of a thin layer of soil and fractured rocks known to be crystalline, unable to feed water back to the rivers. Although surface water dams are the main plan of
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