MY IDENTITY IS BEAUTIFUL: Female Empowerment through Chicana Slam Poetry

An Analysis of Selected Contemporary Chicana Performance Poetry

Diplomarbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades

einer Magistra der Philosophie

an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz

vorgelegt von

Antonia GRUBER

am Zentrum für Inter-Amerikanische Studien

Begutachterin: Assoz. Prof. Mag. Dr.phil. Ulla Kriebernegg

Graz, 2018 Declaration of Authorship

Ich erkläre ehrenwörtlich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig und ohne fremde Hilfe verfasst, andere als die angegebenen Quellen nicht benutzt und die den Quellen wörtlich oder inhaltlich entnommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich gemacht habe. Die Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form keiner anderen inländischen oder ausländischen Prüfungsbehörde vorgelegt und auch noch nicht veröffentlicht. Die vorliegende Fassung entspricht der eingereichten elektronischen Version.

Graz, am 17 Juni 2018 Antonia Gruber

ii Acknowledgements

First, I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Ulla Kriebernegg for her time, her expertise and support throughout this project.

Moreover, I would like to thank my partner, Christian, and my friends for their emotional and academic support throughout the entire process.

Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank my family. Mama, Papa, Bernhard, Pauli, Philipp and Nuga, thank you for your unconditional love, honesty, loyalty, patience and support throughout my entire life.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction ...... 6

2 Historical Overview – From the Spanish Conquest to the Chicano Movement ...... 11 2.1 Spanish Conquest and Colonization ...... 12 2.1.1 Aztlán ...... 13 2.1.2 La Malinche ...... 14 2.1.3 Our Lady of Guadalupe ...... 16 2.1.4 La Mestiza ...... 16 2.1.5 La Raza ...... 17 2.2 Mexican-American War ...... 17 2.3 Mexican Immigration After the Mexican-American War ...... 19 2.4 The Chicano Movement ...... 23 2.4.1 Definition of Chicano/Chicana ...... 25 2.4.2 Chicanx Literary Tradition ...... 25 2.4.3 Chicana Feminism ...... 26

3 Theoretical Approach Post-Colonialism and Chicana Art ...... 28 3.1 Post-colonialism ...... 28 3.1.1 Post-Colonial Literature ...... 29 3.1.2 Language in Post-Colonial Literature ...... 29 3.2 Chicana Feminism and Post-Colonial Literature ...... 30

4 Slam Poetry ...... 37 4.1.1 Slam Poetry and Resistance ...... 38 4.1.2 Identity Poems ...... 39 4.1.3 Chicana Slam Poetry ...... 40

5 Close Reading ...... 41 5.1 Mercedez Holtry “My Blood is Beautiful” ...... 43 5.1.1 Feminist and Post-Colonial Narrative and Resistance ...... 43 5.1.2 Representation of Mestiza Consciousness ...... 47 5.1.3 Literal and Figurative Voice Shifts ...... 51 5.2 Mercedez Holtry “Trapped Room” ...... 52 5.2.1 Feminist Post-Colonial Narrative and Resistance ...... 52 5.2.2 Literal and Figurative Voice Shifts ...... 56 5.3 Cristina Martinez “My Chicana” ...... 59

iv 5.3.1 Feminist Post-Colonial Narrative and Resistance ...... 59 5.3.2 Influence of Immediacy on the Audience ...... 61 5.3.3 Representation of Power in Performance ...... 62 5.3.4 Use of Authenticity ...... 64 5.4 Amalia Ortiz “Xicana Poet” ...... 67 5.4.1 Feminist Post-Colonial Narrative and Resistance ...... 67 5.4.2 Literal and Figurative Voice Shifts ...... 68

6 Conclusion ...... 73

Bibliography ...... 78

Appendix A. Mercedez Holtry “My Blood is Beautiful” ...... 87

Appendix B. Mercedez Holtry “Trapped Room” ...... 89

Appendix C. Christina Martinez “My Chicana” ...... 91

Appendix D. Amalia Ortiz “Xicana Poet” ...... 93

v 1 INTRODUCTION

Chicanx have had an indisputable presence in the society of the United States over the last centuries. The history of Mexicans in the United States can be traced back to the 19th century and undoubtedly presents a complex story of immigration. Mexican-Americans constitute over 60% of minority groups in the United States, and while numbers remain estimates, approximately 13 million people of Mexican descent live in the United States today (Meier et al. 3).

The history of Mexican immigration to the United States cannot be compared to other immigration histories. It differs due to the vicinity to the cultural homeland and the recentness of their immigration history. Additionally, it does not only entail the history of people crossing the border to enter the United States; in the case of U.S.-Mexican history, the border shifted in 1848 due to the Mexican-American War and the annexation of the American Southwest. The annexation and its consequences for the people of the Southwest are of great importance to gain a deeper understanding of the identity of Mexican-Americans (Meier et al. 4).

The years following the Mexican-American War and the annexation of the Southwest show a development of immigration which was strongly influenced by economic reasons. While Mexicans were welcomed to the United States in order to provide cheap labor, they became the main target for deportation as soon as the demand for labor was fulfilled. This development led to both immigration and emigration of Mexicans; due to the social and economic insecurities that came with the U.S. economy’s demand for cheap labor, most Mexicans did not settle in the United States (Acuña 121), which seems understandable as the U.S. government did little to nothing to integrate Mexican workers into U.S. society. Therefore, a pattern of going back and forth developed amongst Mexican workers (Henderson 8). In addition to not being welcome as part of U.S. society, Mexican workers had to face discrimination and violence and the constant threat of deportation (Acuña 119). Until today, Mexican-Americans are not treated equally; the history between Mexico and the United States has had a tremendous impact on the people and is widely reflected in the work of arts produced by people of Mexican descent.

The injustices Mexican and Mexican-American workers had to face led to resistance in the 1960s. As part of the ongoing identity movements, Chicanx started to fight for equality, and the Chicano movement evolved. This movement represented cultural as well as political resistance and comprised activism of farm workers who fought for better working conditions as well as 6 students who fought for education reforms (Nittle). As part of this movement, the term “Chicanx” experienced a renaissance and became a representation of identity and pride. While originally used as a derogatory term used by Anglo-Americans to label the Mexican-American population in the borderlands, Chicanx has now become a name that represents self- identification and carries pride. In contrast to terms such as “Latino/a” or “Hispanic,” “Chicanx” does not have any specific main emphasis; therefore, the terms “Mexican- American” and “Chicanx” will be used alternatingly in this thesis (Ikas 4–6).

However, the evolving Chicanx movement illustrated a clear male dominance. This situation indicates the beginning of Chicana feminism, a counter-movement that arose as part of the ongoing Chicano movement in the United States. While Chicanos aimed at fighting for more equality within their community, they did not question the existing patriarchal system. Therefore, Chicana feminists started to address the issues of their limitations within the movement (García 1). The consciousness of their identity as being female and women of color (Mestiza) in the U.S. is often referred to as the “Mestiza Consciousness,” a term coined by Gloria Anzaldúa, a Chicana feminist and queer activist who described this consciousness as follows: “Cradled in one culture, sandwiched between two cultures, straddling all three cultures and their value systems, La Mestiza undergoes a struggle of flesh, a struggle of borders, an inner war” (Anzaldúa 100). La Mestiza refers to a concept of being of so-called “mixed blood,” which historically can be traced back to the time of the Spanish Conquest but became more than a term: it became an ideology. In other words, Chicanas have to constantly fight for equality, whether in hegemonic Anglo-America or within the patriarchal system of the Chicano community.

Therefore, Chicana literature can be understood as being of socially critical character of the Chicana experience; an experience which constitutes a consciousness of the effects of colonization on the homeland Mexico as well as the effects of colonization through patriarchy. Although Chicana literature often has fictional character, it deals with problems and issues Chicanas face within their ethnic group and in the interaction with Anglo-American society. Hence, a crucial feature of Chicana literature is its subjectivity (Ikas 1). This subjectivity can be understood as contesting the objectification that colonization implies and is used to resist the object status colonizers put on people.

Therefore, Chicana literature can be read as a form of resistance writing which aims at challenging the colonized status of Mexico. Chicana literature is mainly written in English and

7 uses the “language of empire to contest the dominant ideologies of colonialism” (Madsen 65). However, the situation of Chicanas remains a special one; as Deborah Madsen points out, “Chicanas are twice oppressed: first by the master discourse of colonialism (mobilized within Anglo-American culture) and then by the colonizing effects of patriarchy (within both Anglo and Chicano cultures)” (Madsen 65). This constant struggle for voice within both cultures has been the main theme of Chicana literature and is also subject of this thesis.

Slam poetry, a literary movement created in the 1980s by construction worker Marc Smith who wanted to break down the constructed border which kept common people from being an audience to poetry out, emerged as something which created a new generation of writers who were consistently underrepresented in the mainstream literary canon; therefore, slam poetry puts emphasis on diversity and sets out to include everybody, especially marginalized groups. Opening the “academic monopoly” (Somers-Willett 4) of poetry to all people hit a nerve, and soon, so-called poetry slams spread from their origin in Chicago to other cities in the United States. A key feature of a poetry slam is its open-door policy which means that everybody can attend and participate; hence, poetry slams are not limited to a certain group of people but are set out to include everybody who is willing to partake. The fact that poetry slams opened the door to a celebration of verse which no longer presented an exclusive field for academia especially caught America’s youth (Somers-Willett 5).

Slam poetry is termed a form of art, which represents a lifestyle that provides a stage that does not limit the artist to a certain genre but rather welcomes all genres and mix genres. Therefore, slam poetry breaks down borders between serious and light literature, and with that it opens a new sense of agency for Chicana feminist thought.

Additionally, research into the field of slam poetry has shown that a new movement of Chicana feminist thought has arisen for which poetry slams have built a platform to convey their message. Political debate puts Mexican-Americans on the margins of society by creating a discourse which sets out to discriminate and stereotype the largest minority group of the United States. This situation calls for action amongst Chicana feminists; awareness is raised through different forms of media, art, literature, and political activism. One of these platforms is slam poetry. Incorporating post-colonial theories, Chicana feminists aim at “challenging racist, sexist, classist, and heterosexist paradigms” (Chicana Feminism – Postcolonial Studies) and reclaiming their Mexican as well as their U.S. American identity. Artists such as Mercedez

8 Holtry, Cristina Martinez, and Amalia Ortiz use poetry slams to address issues such as poverty, discrimination, language, and community and contest them within the frame of slam poetry.

The aim of this thesis is to analyze the depiction of feminist post-colonial identity in contemporary Chicana slam poetry. Therefore, the analysis will examine the construction of Chicana identities and investigate the connection between these identities and current societal structures. The selected texts “My Blood is Beautiful,” “Trapped Room,” “My Chicana,” and “Xicana Poet” are analyzed by considering post-colonial and feminist narrative techniques, thematic structures, and performance on stage. The selected poetry slammers are Mercedez Holtry, Cristina Martinez, and Amalia Ortiz. These poets represent a contemporary voice of Chicana feminism and dedicate their performances to female empowerment amongst Chicanas. Through the act of performance and the space a stage provides for the artist, Chicana poetry slammers actively resist oppression and shift the voice of women from the silently written to the loudly spoken. By doing so, they depict themselves as protagonists of society and refuse to be silent objects. Although Chicana slam poetry is steadily gaining popularity, this art form has seemingly not gained substantial attention in the world of academia. This is surprising considering the immediacy of communication between the poets and their audience qualifies the poets to carry political contents as well as entertainment and therefore raise awareness. Hence, this thesis aims at contributing an academic perspective on the political aspects of slam poetry.

This thesis will start with a historical overview of the relationship between Mexico and the United States. As mentioned above, the possibility of gaining insight into the historical background is crucial in order to obtain a deeper understanding of the selected works of Chicana poetry slammers. While Chicana identities represent dynamic processes which are in a constant state of development and cannot be seen as static constructs, what they all have in common is the influence of their history on their identity formation (qtd. in Nünning and Nünning 121). Thus, a historical overview is crucial to get a comprehensive insight into the portrayed works of art.

Consequently, the second chapter of this thesis will give an overview of the theoretical approach the analysis is based on. As the aim of this thesis is the analysis of depictions and constructions of feminist post-colonial identities, the theoretical approach follows post-colonial and feminist narratology. In contrast, these concepts will not be dealt with separately; they rather merge to form the basis for this analysis collectively. Furthermore, the works of Chicana feminists such

9 as Gloria Anzaldúa and Cherrie Moraga constitute another basis for the analysis of contemporary Chicana poetry slammers. The art form of slam poetry will be treated in this chapter as well in order to provide insight into the history and development of slam poetry.

The third chapter consists of an analysis of the selected Chicana poetry slammers. Although these artists have achieved reputation within the slam poetry community so far, their voices must be included in contemporary Chicana academia. The selected slammers differ in performance and transfer, but all carry a strong feminist message and present the situation of Chicanas in the United States. Each poet constructs an individual identity through their poetry slams and transports the message of their poetry in various ways. However, all three poets mentioned in this thesis have in common that their aim is to finally put a stop to social stratification and to be able to live their lives without stereotypes.

10 2 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW – FROM THE SPANISH CONQUEST TO THE CHICANO MOVEMENT

The history of Mexicans in the United States is without a doubt a complex matter. Although the United States represent a country of immigrants, people of Mexican decent living in the U.S. play a special role because of their history and their high numbers. Mexican-Americans make up about 13 million people in this country, and this number is steadily increasing due to recent immigration. However, Mexican-Americans and their history did not receive the scholarly attention they deserved. While historians and scholars investigated the history of other immigration groups in the United States for decades, the oldest group of immigrants had been left out of the canon until the 1960s. In fact, until 1960 not a single historical book had been written about Mexicans in the U.S. and their ancestors (Weber xvii). Therefore, the act of gaining insight into the history of Mexicans in America is a crucial part for working with Chicana art. In fact, the establishment of a deeper historical understanding is not only an important part of working with post-colonial narratives, it is also the content of the analyzed work (Meier et al. 4).

Firstly, the period of the Spanish conquest covers the time of native civilizations and their destruction by Spanish colonization. The term “Mestiza,” which refers to a person of so-called mixed blood, derives from that period of time. Nowadays, most Mexican-Americans identify themselves with this concept of being a mixture of European and indigenous racial roots (Meier and Gutiérrez 245). Mestiza presents a concept and an ideology which both are of significance for Chicana feminists and has been a subject of analysis for decades. Gloria Anzaldúa addressed the issue of Mestiza consciousness in her works and stated that this identity represents a constant struggle of “walking out of one culture and into another” (Anzaldúa 99). Historically, Mestiza refers to the above-mentioned “mix” of races, which evolved from the relationship between a Spanish conquistador and an indigenous woman. Culturally, however, this term represents the awareness of inhabiting more than one culture and one personality (Anzaldúa 100).

Secondly, this chapter will deal with the period of Mexican independence and the Mexican- American War. These political events are of great importance for the history of Mexicans in the United States. Especially the Mexican-American War stands for a significant cesura of

11 Mexican identity as the loss of half of Mexico’s territory due to war also meant the loss of a homeland for Mexicans who had lived there before (Meier et al. 4).

Additionally, the time after the Mexican-American War is a decisive period for the development of Mexican-American identity and the immigration of Mexicans into the United States. However, racism and xenophobia towards people of Mexican descent are also characteristic features of this period, which, without a doubt, was a struggling time for anybody who was not considered to be Anglo-American (Meier et al.4). This ongoing racism and constant discrimination called for action amongst Mexican-Americans; resistance started to rise. The situation of Mexican-Americans did not ameliorate, and they were still at the margins of society. Still, if needed for cheap labor, U.S. employers welcomed Mexicans and actively recruited them for work (Acuña 128). For an overview of these historical events in Mexico and the United States, this chapter will discuss the period from the Spanish conquest to the Chicanx movement.

2.1 SPANISH CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION

The discourse of Mexican-American identity starts with the Spanish conquest in 1519, which marks the beginning of contact between Spaniards and indigenous people in Mexico. The property, which was the main target of Spanish colonizers, was part of the Aztec empire. The Aztec empire was a Mesoamerican culture and constituted 38 provinces which spread from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific Ocean. Nowadays, the empire is not only known for its rise and power in the 15th and 16th century but also because of its sudden collapse after the arrival of Spanish colonizers (Gibson 1). The last ruler of this empire was Montezuma II, who ruled until he was killed by Spanish conquistadores (“Overview of the Aztec Empire”). The term “conquistadores” refers to a “conqueror, especially one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru in the 16th century” (Conquistador | Definition of Conquistador in English by Oxford Dictionaries). A definition of terms like these is crucial for any analysis of Chicana works of art.

When Spaniards arrived in Mexico, they found many civilizations who inhabited the land. As Henderson points out: “Aztecs, Mayas and many other groups, who were highly advanced civilizations, built the main force against Spanish conquistadores surrounding Hernan Cortes” (Henderson 9). Forcing these people out of their homeland would not have been possible, so they used them as farmers and cheap workers. The societal structure of colonized Mexico was organized in a detailed racial caste system which was called Las Castas and constituted a social

12 stratification of people according to their ethnicity. Indigenous people who inhabited the land before the arrival of Spanish colonizers belonged to the lowest caste in the racial caste system developed by the Spanish government (Tal et al.). Joined by Africans and people of mixed race, indigenous groups had to live under enormous discrimination and with hardly any chance of climbing up the social ladder; even after Mexico gaining independence in 1821 (Henderson 9).

The first revolts against the Spanish power were led by the illegitimate son of Hernán Cortés and his mother, La Malinche. The legacy and myth of La Malinche will be discussed later in this paper. Finally, Mexico gained independence in 1821 after fighting for eleven years in the war of independence.

The history of the Spanish conquest of the New World represents the origin of the Mexican- American experience. This conquest implied forced social and cultural changes and represented the starting point of racism and oppression towards indigenous peoples. The conquest meant a cultural clash between European conquistadores and indigenous peoples and was followed by a destructive colonization of Mexico (J. Rodriguez 4). The consequences of this brutal conquest were immense and have shaped the identities of Mexicans ever since. Since then, Mexicans have continually referred to their indigenous homeland and used symbols to emphasize their heritage. The homeland of Aztlán represents one of these symbols which were of importance especially during the Chicanx movement.

2.1.1 AZTLÁN

Any investigation into the field of Chicanx studies requires a definition of the term “Aztlán” and its role in Mexican-American culture. Aztlán is a Nahuatl word and refers to “the homeland of ancient Aztecs.” (Anaya et al. 2) It dates back to the place of Aztec residency before the Spanish colonization. The myth of Aztlán has become a prominent and important theme for Mexican-Americans, and it has been subject of several Chicanx works.

The idea of Aztlán, according to Gloria Anzaldúa, originates from a history of migration. It refers to the mythical land of the Aztecs who had to move south in the 12th century where they founded the city of México Tenochtitlán. As Gloria Anzaldúa points out:

During the original peopling of the Americas, the first inhabitants migrated across the Bering Straits and walked south across the continent. The oldest evidence of humankind in the US – the Chicanos’ ancient Indian ancestors – was found in Texas and has been dated to 35000 B.C. In the Southwest United States archeologists have found 20,000- year-old campsites of the Indians who migrated through, or permanently occupied, the

13 Southwest, Aztlán – land of the herons, land of whiteness, the Edenic place of origins of the Azteca. (Anzaldúa 26) Throughout the years, Chicanx have taken different approaches to the idea of Aztlán. While some have determined Aztlán to being their historical homeland, others have tried to overcome this cultural nationalism. Claiming Aztlán as the homeland of Chicanx was prominent during the movement in the 1960s and represented a form of nationalism and supported many Chicanx seeing themselves not only as immigrants but as direct ancestors of the Aztecs and, thus, asserting claim to the American Southwest (Pisarz-Ramirez 27–28). Then, the concept of Aztlán presented a way of “remapping” (Pisarz-Ramirez 28) the American Southwest and put forward a historic continuity of the Aztecs and Chicanx. This concept made the national border between Mexico and the United States invalid. However, this form of cultural nationalism changed in the 1970s, and a new form of discourse evolved.

This new discourse aims at questioning the homogenous narrative of nation and puts forward the idea of identity beyond national or cultural borders. Therefore, the concept of Aztlán has changed as well and does not view Aztlán as the homeland of Chicanx anymore but rather puts focus on an acceptance of ambiguities in discourse. This new consciousness is described as the Mestiza consciousness which aims at building bridges to overcome differences (Pisarz-Ramirez 36–37). In order to define the term “La Mestiza,” the myth of La Malinche has to be explained first.

2.1.2 LA MALINCHE

La Malinche has become a prominent and controversial historical figure. While most of her history remains speculative, the myth circles around the legend of an indigenous Aztec woman who worked as a translator for Hernán Cortés and was one of the many assigned mistresses of the Spanish conquistador. Although there hardly exist historical facts about her story, for many, the myth has become a symbol of betrayal for the Mexicans. This symbol gained popularity in the years after the Mexican revolution when the country found itself in a process of defining a new cultural and national identity. The narrative that evolved with her myth focused on sexualizing La Malinche and emphasized the sexual relations she had with Hernán Cortés. Their son represents the first “Mestizo,” a person of so-called mixed blood (Moraga 99–100).

La Malinche has been subject of interpretations for decades, and many theorists have published works about her biography and symbolical interpretation. In his essay “The Sons of La Malinche,” Octavio Paz, a Mexican writer and Nobel Prize winner, addressed a prominent

14 interpretation of La Malinche, which uses the term “Chingada” (Joseph and Henderson 21). The Chingada represents a mother who has suffered from the aggression of a male and who is “defenseless against the exterior world” (Joseph and Henderson 21). This narrative represents the time of discourse in which Paz wrote his works and represents the dominant discourse on La Malinche as a passive object (Foundation).

However, Chicana feminists such as Gloria Anzaldúa and Cherrie Moraga aimed at rewriting the existing narratives of La Malinche. Cherrie Moraga puts forward a feminist understanding of La Malinche and portrays her as a strong female rather than a passive object (Moraga 90– 94). Additionally, Anzaldúa and Moraga represent a queer feminist perspective which reveals the dominant ideologies and aims at deconstructing them. Moraga starts her essay “A long line of vendidas” by stating:

Sueno: 15 dejulio 1982: During the long difficult night that sent my lover and I to separate beds, I dreamed of church and cunt. I put it this way because that is how it came to me. The suffering and the thick musty mysticism of the Catholic church fused with the sensation of entering the vagina-like that of a colored woman’s dark, rica, full-bodied. The heavy sensation of complexity. A journey I must unravel, work out for myself. (Moraga 90) This statement and the following chapter show how queer Chicana feminism aims at deconstructing the existing notion on the myth La Malinche. As Moraga comes to terms with her own sexuality, she also realizes that her lesbianism represents a portrayal of cultural betrayal of the Chicano notion of La Malinche. Moraga suggests that the myth of La Malinche forms the basis for finding one’s identity because she represents the mother of all Chicanas and therefore inhabits this “sexual legacy” (Moraga 99). However, this legacy is a “legacy of betrayal” (Moraga 99) and influences the sexual and racial identity of Chicanas. Therefore, Moraga deconstructs the effects the myth has on Chicanas and points out the parallels between La Malinche and Eve. Portraying a female to represent betrayal has not only been the case with Mexicans. It seems, as Moraga suggests, that the legacy of Eve of the Catholic Church was transported from Spain to Mexico (Moraga 101). Moraga examines the legacy of betrayal and points out the influences it has on Chicana women. She describes lesbianism as being the ultimate betrayal of her culture as it means that a woman rejects a man and puts another woman first (Moraga 103). This betrayal through sexual orientation empowers women and breaks down the existing ideology.

15 These different approaches to the legacy of La Malinche show the consequences the myth has on Chicanx culture. Although the historical facts are limited to the knowledge that La Malinche worked as a translator and was one assigned mistress of Cortés, the myth that has been created represents a crucial notion of women in Mexican culture. Their son is considered the first “Mestizo,” a person of mixed blood. As a consequence thereof, the identity of “Mestizo/a” has experienced a new form of discourse within the Chicana feminist movement.

2.1.3 OUR LADY OF GUADALUPE

Our Lady of Guadalupe represents an important religious symbol and a female figure which has had tremendous impact on the development of Mexican female identity. For many Mexican women, it stands for power and religious faith. However, Our Lady of Guadalupe has also been a target of discrimination and is often used to stereotype Mexican women as inferior and naive (Pena 522). This stereotype has been reinterpreted by many Chicana feminists and artists. In the 1970s and 1980s, many Chicana artists used the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe and presented works of art which depicted Our Lady of Guadalupe as a sex symbol or another attention-getting figure. By doing so, they challenged the existing stereotypes of a religious and pure female figure and positioned the presence of this figure in a patriarchal society (Pisarz- Ramirez 77).

This criticism focused on the patriarchal structures of society and its gender constructs and aimed at fighting the exclusion of the Mestizo, namely nonwhite, body. Through these acts of criticism, Chicana feminist artists indicated their renunciation of religion and aimed at demanding new possibilities of female identification of Our Lady of Guadalupe beyond patriarchal demands (Pisarz-Ramirez 77).

2.1.4 LA MESTIZA

In Gloria Anzaldúa’s essay “La conciencia de la Mestiza Towards a New Consciousness,” which was published in her groundbreaking book Borderlands/La Frontera, she theorizes and discusses her identities and the borderland space these identities inhabit. She links her personal work and achievements to overcome divisions in gender, race, and borders to further create a new consciousness. This transformation requires a “new Mestiza consciousness” which makes it possible to transform all labels of society into a new form of identity. As Anzaldúa points out:

16 At some point, on our way to a new consciousness, we will have to leave the opposite bank, the split between the two mortal combatants somehow healed so that we are on both shores at once and, at once, see through serpent and eagle eyes. (…) Or we might go another route. The possibilities are numerous once we decide to act and not react. (Anzaldúa 100) The new Mestiza finds herself in a constant process of accepting ambiguities rather than fighting them. She learns to be more than one culture and one personality (Anzaldúa 101). This concept of consciousness coined by Gloria Anzaldúa has shifted the perspectives of Chicanas and pathed the way for new visions of identity.

2.1.5 LA RAZA

Chicanx identity is strongly connected with cultural pride and became one of the most prominent themes in the Chicanx movement of the 1960s. One of the slogans of this movement was “Viva La Raza,” which puts emphasis on the concept of race. However, race, in this case, is not to be understood as a biological claim of heritage but can be seen as a broader term that refers to culture and pride (Lampe 158).

The biological roots of “La Raza” derive from the time of the Spanish conquest and refer to a genealogy of Indian, Spanish, and Anglo-American people (Lampe 159). However, the theme of “La Raza” has become a reflection of colonized societies and a post-colonial experience and aims at unifying the community through cultural pride (Rachum 61). This cultural pride especially became important after the consequences of the Mexican-American War as the year 1848 marks the beginning of the existence of Americans of Mexican descent in the United States.

2.2 MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR

The Mexican-American War marks an important turning point in the history of Mexico and the United States. Due to this war, the United States expanded their territory to Mexico and therefore profited significantly from this conquest. But the consequences these actions had on the Mexican people were horrific and have shaped the identity of Mexican-Americans until today. As the historian Rodolfo Acuña points out, the Mexican-American War represented an invasion into Mexican territory and can be characterized as an act of violence. Acuña describes that this violence consisted of the conquest of Mexican land and the brutality against Mexicans. He argues that the existing cultural narrative of the Mexican-American War does not deal with the acts of violence people had to face (Acuña 3). He continues by stating that this war has left

17 a memory of “distrust and dislike” (Acuña 3) amongst Mexicans who remained in the northwestern territory.

Preceding the Mexican-American War were numerous events the relationship between Mexico and the United States had to face, which ultimately led to the outbreak of the war. Firstly, the conflict between Mexico and the U.S. can be traced back to Benjamin Franklin who had a territorial expansion to Cuba and Mexico on his agenda. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803, by which the U.S. bought the territory of Louisiana from France, aroused interest amongst the U.S. to further expand their territory. Additionally, it was believed by Americans that the purchase also included Texas, and therefore they considered this land to be American territory. Hence, many Anglo-Americans entered the territory of Texas, which was in fact Mexican territory, and settled there. In the beginning, these settlers lived there by a mutual consent between Mexico and the U.S. However, the situation came to a head throughout the years. Mexico prohibited Anglo-American immigration to Texas in 1830, which led to more tension between the settlers and Mexico. This tension was also influenced by racism against Mexican people. Anglo- American settlers saw themselves as superior to Mexicans. In fact, many historians argue that racism did play an important role in the revolt. The ongoing fight for power in Texas between Anglo-American settlers and Mexico led to the Texas Revolution in 1835 (Acuña 3–9).

Secondly, Mexico was the main target of the United States’ expansion towards the west. The United States’ politics were confident concerning their politics. Anglo-American people saw themselves as superior to Mexicans, and Mexico was facing internal conflicts and weak leadership, which made it an unstable country. In 1845, the United States annexed the territory, and Texas became the 28th state of the United States (Acuña 11). As a consequence of this annexation, Mexico immediately stopped all diplomatic relations with the U.S. Both Mexico and the U.S. sent troops to protect the border which was still not clearly defined because Mexico claimed the border to be north of the Rio Grande. One year after the annexation of Texas, the war broke out. The Mexican-American War was fought from 1846 to 1848 and ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Acuña 17). Because of the defeat of Mexico’s army and the occupation of the capital Mexico City, Mexico was forced to start negotiations with the United States to end the war. In 1848, Mexico finally signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, accepted the Rio Grande as the new border, and ceded the Southwest to the U.S. for 15 million dollars. Present day California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado became U.S. territory. Thus, Mexico lost a third of its territory (Acuña 18).

18 This treaty had a significant influence on the lives of Mexican people as the border of their land moved south, and they now found themselves as part of the United States. The treaty regulated the situation of Mexicans. They had one year to choose whether to move to Mexico or stay in the United States. Most Mexicans decided to stay in what they still considered to be their homeland. According to the treaty, Mexicans were ensured to have the same rights as citizens of the United States and live in liberty and protection. However, these rights were constantly violated by Anglo-Americans (Acuña 19). As Henderson points out:

In a sense, the first Mexicans to reside in the United States managed the remarkable feat of migrating without ever leaving home. Instead, the border of their country migrated to the south and west, landing them in a new and alien nation, one in which they quickly came to comprise a small and frequently persecuted minority (Henderson 9). This war has left deep scars in the memory of Mexicans, and until today, it influences the identity of Mexicans and especially Mexican-Americans. The victory of one and the defeat of the other have each influenced the attitudes towards the other country. The discussion on the Mexican-American War is ambivalent: While some scholars argue that the war was an excuse to occupy and steal land and that the treaty can only be seen as a formal document of land theft, others argue that the United States simply won the war and therefore gained the Southwest. However, the impact this war had on Mexican-Americans was tremendous and still influences their lives (Lopez).

2.3 MEXICAN IMMIGRATION AFTER THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN

WAR

Mexican immigration has become a prominent theme in the current political debate. Looking back on the history of Mexican immigration, it becomes obvious that it is not a one-sided issue but a rather complex topic which has been part of historical research for decades. As said before, it is clear that the history of Mexican-Americans cannot be compared to any other immigration history. Therefore, the following chapter will give a short introduction to the history of Mexican immigration after the Mexican-American War to provide a better understanding of the uniqueness of Mexican-American identity.

The Mexican-American War ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe which expanded the United States’ territory tremendously while Mexico had to give up its remaining northern lands. Mexicans had the possibility to decide whether or not they wanted to become American citizens. If they wanted to remain Mexican citizens, they had one year to file notice; otherwise

19 they would automatically become American citizens. In reality, most Mexicans never received the American citizenship and have been treated as foreigners ever since (Spickard 149–150). The years following the end of the Mexican-American War consisted of a time of transformation for Mexico. The Mexicans fought a civil war which was led by the idea of modernizing the country and forced many people to leave their country and migrate north to the United States (Henderson 11).

The unjust system of the U.S. government imposed on Mexicans who either immigrated to the United States or “were immigrated” due to the shift of the border southwards called for action amongst Mexican-Americans. U.S. society and the government discriminated against Mexicans and legitimized violence as a necessity to control the supposed violent nature of Mexicans (Acuña 119). This situation divided the country into two groups and polarized the society. Many Mexicans became active and started resisting the system. Francisco P. Ramirez was a journalist for the Los Angeles Star and used the news to print critical thought. In an article published in 1855 Ramírez criticized violence against foreigners in California (Acuña 107). As he points out:

Who is the foreigner in California? He is what he is not in any other place in the world; he is what he is not in the most inhospitable land which can be imagined. (…) The North Americans pretend to give us lessons in humanity and to bring to our people the doctrine of salvation so we can govern ourselves, to respect the laws and conserve order. Are these the ones who treat us worse than slaves? (qtd. in Acuña 110) Ramirez started resisting the unjust system which not only brought about violence and discrimination against people of Mexican descent in the United States but also used a legal system with contrasting principles which did not treat Mexican-Americans the same way it treated Anglo-Americans.

The time after the American Civil War showed a change in the requirement of cheap labor, and therefore Mexicans and other immigrants were welcomed to work in the U.S. in order to keep the salaries low. The abolition of slavery brought about a change of attitude towards Mexican workers. That time also revealed the U.S. capitalist system’s openness to change immigration laws according to the economic needs of the country (Acuña 121).

The history of immigration in the United States also influenced their societal structure. Mexican immigration to the United States led to a situation where relationships were highly dependent on social class or sex. Acuña points out that this situation between U.S. Americans and immigrants follows the notion of colonization:

20 Social relations between Mexicans and the dominant society became more rigid with the passage of time. Contact often depended upon class or sex. The latter involved a degree of sexual politics common to most colonized experiences. The conqueror intermarried with the native aristocracy both because of the lack of white women and for control of the native population. (Acuña 40) It seems paradox that relationships and marriages between Mexicans and Anglo-Americans actually took place. However, certain circumstances such as political power (politicians married Mexican women to gain votes from the Mexican population) or the lack of white women made it possible for intermarriages to happen. This situation became subject of disapproval amongst many Americans, and distinctions between light-skinned Mexican women, who were considered being of pure Spanish descent, and dark-skinned Mexican women were made (Acuña 40–41).

Mexican immigration to the United States continuously increased, and the beginning of the 20th century marked another peak of immigration. Many Mexicans were offered to work as agricultural laborers with higher wages and more security than they had in their homeland (Henderson 8). However, while Americans made an effort to bring workers to the United States because they benefited from the cheap labor, they did not work on actually integrating Mexican workers into U.S. American society. There was rather an attitude of intolerance, especially amongst the nativist movement which describes a movement characterized by a strong anti- immigrant attitude (“The Definition of Nativism”).

World War I marked a time for a great number of Mexicans moving back to Mexico. The reasons for that were partly increasing living costs in the U.S. and the improving situation in Mexico. This labor shortage forced the U.S. government to recruit Mexican workers who they needed as cheap laborers. Getting around the Immigration Act of 1917, which put a head tax on immigrated workers, employers did not follow the law but rather focused on gaining back cheap labor (Acuña 129).

In the 1920s, the anti-immigration attitude towards Mexican immigrants intensified while the number of Mexican workers increased. When the economy collapsed and a financial depression started, Mexicans fell prey to racism and hostility. Although companies had actively recruited Mexican workers only a few years earlier, they did not feel responsible for these foreign workers when the economic situation became worse (Acuña 130). At the same time, the beginning of the 20th century stood for an era in which racism, xenophobia, and the nativist movement rose dramatically. Although Mexicans were not the main target of the anti-

21 immigrant attitude, thousands of Mexicans were deported to Mexico nonetheless. However, Mexicans were still considered cheap laborers and therefore important for many business men and contractors. Hence, a battle between the Department of Labor, which fought against keeping Mexicans out of the country, and the Department of State, which wanted to restrict immigration law, started (Acuña 135).

Although Mexican laborers were welcomed at the beginning of the 20th century, the Great Depression hit employers hard. Consequently, they were more concerned about saving their own money and looking out for jobs for themselves than saving jobs for Mexican workers. Hence, their attitude shifted, which led to a situation where Mexicans found themselves without jobs and were also blamed by Anglo-Americans who saw them as the reason for their own bad financial situation. Between 1930 and 1934, thousands of Mexican-Americans were sent back to Mexico even though they were U.S. citizens (Acuña 138).

Due to the labor shortage caused by World War II, the need for Mexican workers came back. The Bracero Program of 1942 was a series of agreements between the U.S. Department of Labor and Mexico, which guaranteed decent living conditions and a minimum wage for Mexican workers in the United States. This program became the biggest foreign worker program in the United States and lasted for over 20 years. According to the Oxford Dictionary, Braceros were Mexican laborers who were allowed into the United States for a limited time as seasonal agricultural workers (“Bracero | Definition of Bracero in English by Oxford Dictionaries”). The program brought over 200 000 laborers who worked for railroads and farms in California. Even after the end of the program, the importation of Mexican workers increased after the end of World War II (Meier and Gutiérrez 54). In order to soothe nativists in the U.S., the U.S. government promised that Mexican workers would go back to Mexico after they had finished their job in the United States. The following years were marked by Anglo-Americans intending to open the border when harvest approached; which U.S. officials but denied. This led to thousands of workers crossing the border illegally. These undocumented workers were most vulnerable to deportation in times of economic crisis. That situation became drastic during the so-called “Operation Wetback,” an immigration law through which massive deportations took place. This law was supported by local U.S. police officers. Even U.S. citizens who were “brown” became suspects, and illegal house searches took place. This operation showed a radical violation of human rights (Acuña 157). “Operation Wetback” marks one of many violations of human rights in the United States. The situation of Mexican-Americans in the U.S. was characterized by an unjust treatment concerning labor and education; violence surfaced on 22 a regular basis. The following chapter will give an overview on the resistance movement of the 1960s in the United States, the Chicano movement.

2.4 THE CHICANO MOVEMENT

The situation of constant discrimination and overt violence against the Mexican community in the United States has been prominent since the formation of Mexicans as a minority group in the United States. Centuries of fighting for equal rights and equal opportunities in American society have been an integral part of Mexican-American history. In the 1960s, a time when American society found itself in many different movements which demanded more rights for all kinds of people, the Chicanx community gathered and withdrew from white people. This movement consisted of different groups of individuals with different political views. Within these views, the protest varied from economic to cultural protest (Meier et al. 217–19).

Especially young Chicanx students protested against the unfair conditions concerning their education in comparison to the education of white Americans. The fact that the 1960s were a time of tremendous change within American society encouraged young Chicanx activists to demand even more change. Additionally, more Chicanx students had entered tertiary education and were therefore more concerned about the situation at universities and high schools. This led to actions such as walkouts or boycotts in order to fight for their demands (Meier et al. 220).

The Chicanx movement did not break loose immediately. The development of protest is seen differently amongst various historians. Many scholars claim that the initial point of conflict can be marked at the point of the Spanish conquest of the indigenous people of Mexico (Mariscal 5). However, the movement, which had its peak in the 1960s and 1970s, was a direct consequence of the political, social and economic changes in the 1940s and 1950s. The time during World War II was a time of change for most Americans, Mexican-Americans, and other immigrants: it marked a time of crisis and violence against them.

The Zoo Suit Riot is one of these conflicts which kindled in the years of the war in California. California, especially Los Angeles, was an important military basis for European soldiers. Simultaneously, Los Angeles represented a place for young Chicanx youth groups who called themselves “Pachucos” (Chiodo 1). The situation between European soldiers and these youth groups turned into a conflict which escalated in 1943 when soldiers and policemen attacked any person who wore the distinctive suit, a feature of the youth group. The riots went down in history as racist motivation against immigration groups in Los Angeles. Although police

23 investigations brought little results, the riots became an inspiration for later civil-rights protesters (Chiodo 1–4). The Zoo Suit Riot provides one example of violence, which has influenced later resistance movements in the United States.

The developments of the 1960s and 1970s spawned identity movements in different areas of U.S. society and therefore strengthened the Chicanx movement and other political activities (Mariscal 7).

Although the movement had started as a journey towards “self-determination and self- definition,” (Mariscal 3) politicians and historians did not see the Mexican-American community’s movements as threatening. Richard Nixon stated that “the Mexicans” would never rebel like “the Blacks” (Mariscal 3). However, the Chicanx had managed to organize a union amongst their own people to offer resistance. The slogan “Viva La Raza” became an important one for this movement and represented a lifestyle for Chicanx who embraced their cultural identity and fought for equal rights as citizens of the United States (Mariscal 4).

The calm and rather quiet protest took a drastic turn when Cesar Chávez entered the picture. He was a farm worker who grew up in a migrant family of Mexican descent and served in World War II. After the war, he returned to work on farms (“Cesar Chavez | Biography & Facts”). In 1962, Chávez founded an association called “National Farm Workers Association.” which later became the United Farm Workers. After years of not gaining the wanted attention, more and more workers became aware of his union and started to participate in nonviolent resistance (“The Story of Cesar Chavez”) due to Chávez’ consistent activism. Cesar Chávez became the central figure of Chicanx activism, and with his organization of Chicanx workers and the symbol of the thunderbird and the banner of Our Lady of Guadalupe he gained national publicity. The thunderbird became an important symbol and represented the “already existing symbol of the eagle from the Aztecs”(“How One Flag Went From Representing Farmworkers to Flying for the Entire Latino Community”) which was of special meaning to all Chicanx who felt strongly connected to the Aztec culture. His actions were reported in major newspapers. The boycott became his most powerful weapon, and Cesar Chávez successfully managed to “convert Mexican- American farm workers’ struggle into a civil-rights movement” (Meier and Gutiérrez 82). Cesar Chávez is one of many “male heroes” who became part of the historiography of the Chicano movement which excluded female activists of the Chicano movement . The situation of Chicanas in the male dominated Chicano movement will be investigated in a later chapter.

24 The Chicanx movement describes a movement which continues a tradition of Mexican- American activists who fight for equality in the United States. Not only the fight for equality but also the idea of Chicanx nationalism tied the movement, which spread from cultural to economic protest and from academic to labor resistance, together. The idea of Chicanx nationalism, also called “Chicanismo,” contested the Mexican-American identity and aimed at creating a consciousness towards a hybrid Chicanx identity (M. S. Rodriguez 10–11).

2.4.1 DEFINITION OF CHICANO/CHICANA

The terminology of people of Mexican descent is a complex matter, and many terms have been introduced throughout the last decades. The most common terms to refer to Spanish-speaking communities in the U.S. are “Hispanic” or “Latino.” However, these terms represent superficial names and do not address the individual communities. The terms “Chicano/Chicana” were mostly used to identify oneself as part of the resistance movement in the 1960s and 1970s. Some used the terms to refer to people of Mexican descent who were born in the United States, while others used it to emphasize their racial status as a form of resistance. Therefore, Chicanx can be considered to present a “self-fashioned US minority group” (M. S. Rodriguez 2–3) who aims at identifying themselves beyond a dominant historical and cultural narrative (M. S. Rodriguez 2–3). Alongside this movement came new awareness of Chicanx literature. From the 1970s on, Chicanx literature has been published and has started to be part of academic discourse in the United States. Philipp D. Ortago called this development the “Chicano Renaissance” (qtd. in Leal 18). The following chapter will give a brief overview of the Chicanx literary tradition.

2.4.2 CHICANX LITERARY TRADITION

Chicanx literature has a long tradition can be traced back to the arrival of Spanish conquistadores in Mexico. The colonization of Mexico also left trademarks in literature and Spanish colonizers were eager to leave signatures in the colonized land. Especially folksongs became popular in the New World and became an oral tradition that was influenced by Spanish and Indian tradition. Only after a few decades, these literary traditions were used by Mexican Indians and the paved the way for the development of so called “corridos”, a narrative ballad (R. A. Paredes 72–73). The development of “corridos” will be investigated further in the chapter on Chicana poetry slam. This period of Chicanx folklore and oral tradition can be seen as the

25 basis for later literary developments. As Paredes points out, “Folklore thus ties the Chicano to his Mexican origins and serves as the core of his literary sensibility” (Paredes 73).

Academically Chicanx literary tradition has started to receive attention in the 1960s. However, as Luis Leal points out, it still finds itself in the process of positioning. While some argue it should be part of Mexican literature, others argue that it should be part of American literature. Both approaches seem problematic as Chicanx do not yet regard themselves as being part of either nation. Therefore, appreciating Chicanx literature in its entity seems to be the most suitable approach which does not restrict the literature (Leal 18–21). As Luis Dávila points out, Chicanx literature has to be appreciated as literature of Americans of Mexican descent “regardless of what they might prefer to call themselves” (qtd. in Leal 21). This definition of Chicanx literature states the origin of the settlement of the American Southwest during colonial times and the development to the present as the root of Chicanx literature. Paredes contributes to this way of defining Chicanx literature by stating:

Chicano literature is that body of work produced by United States citizens and residents of Mexican descent for whom a sense of ethnicity is a critical part of their literary sensibility and for whom the portrayal of their ethnic experience is a major concern of their art. (Paredes 104) Celebrating Chicanx literature in its diversity and at the same time acknowledging the unique history of it seems to be the most applicable approach to these works of art.

2.4.3 CHICANA FEMINISM

The role of Chicana activists in this movement made it clear for female activists that the movement’s male leadership is characterized by “chauvinism and sexist discrimination” (Meier et al. 230). Chicana activists found themselves to be victims of discrimination within the Chicano movement, and simultaneously, they were racially and ethnically discriminated against by the Anglo-American society (Meier et al. 230). Struggling with discrimination on both sides, Chicanas unified in organizations across universities and colleges where they held discussions and conferences in which they addressed the issues of discrimination within their own culture (Susan Sniader Lanser 4).

Preceding the Chicanx movement of the 1960s and 1970s, Mexican-American women had been politically active since the beginning of the 20th century. They had been activists within their communities and had fought against social and economic inequalities. However, the patriarchal structure of their community had not given female activists the voice they deserved. This

26 tradition of struggle of Chicana feminists even prior to the movements of the 1960s and 1970s continued during the Chicanx movement. Surrounded by other feminist movements such as the African-American women’s movement, Chicanas evaluated their limitations within the Chicano movement. This led to a form of resistance that did not only focus on racial discrimination but also aimed at fighting sexist discrimination (García 3–4).

As Deborah Madsen points out, “In the United States, Chicanas form a marginalized gender group within a marginalized racial group” (Madsen 67). The historiography of the Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s successfully excluded Chicana participation and silenced their work. Chicanas found themselves faced with sexist discrimination and as part of a movement which represented a culture that did not treat women equally to men. As a consequence, they unified in their own resistance movement and fought against internal and external discrimination (Arredondo 59).

Chicana feminist Gloria Anzaldúa, who is a theorist, poet, and writer and, together with Cherríe Moraga, published the groundbreaking book This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (1981), is one of the major figures of Chicana feminism. Anzaldúa’s work introduced the concept of “borderlands” and created a metaphor by using her own experiences as a source of her theories (Reuman and Anzaldúa 4–7). Therefore, the metaphor she created includes any version of “crossing” (Anzaldúa 6). As addressed in the introduction of her book Borderlands/La Frontera:

In Borderlands/La Frontera Anzaldúa establishes the border between these two countries as a metaphor for all types of crossings- between geographical boundaries, sexual transgressions, social dislocations, and the crossing necessary to exist in multiple linguistic and cultural contexts. (Anzaldúa 6) The writings of Gloria Anzaldúa and Cherríe Moraga provide diverse perspectives on feminism, queer feminism, and race and aim at inviting all women to be part of the discourse. Therefore, they intend to go beyond a division of different feminist labels and provide a discourse for all women (Kathleen and Tracy 110). Additionally, the Chicana experience represents a complex experience of colonization, which is reflected in Chicanx literature. Therefore, Chicana literature and post-colonialism are strongly linked together as Chicana literature not only addresses the colonization of Mexico but also the colonization of women in a patriarchal society (Madsen 65). Hence, the following chapter will give an overview of post-colonial studies and the connection to Chicana feminism.

27 3 THEORETICAL APPROACH POST-COLONIALISM AND CHICANA ART

In order to analyze the contemporary work of Chicana slam poetry certain theoretical approaches have to be defined. Therefore, post-colonial theory and its correlation to Chicana art will be investigated in the following chapter. Both concepts are inevitable for the analysis. The definitions used for the analysis do not represent one specific theoretical base but are rather developed on the current notions concerning post-colonialism and Chicana art.

3.1 POST-COLONIALISM

In recent years, post-colonialism has gained attention amongst scholarly works in the humanities and has become a significant critical theory. However, defining this term proves to be a difficult task. Therefore, the development of post-colonialism has to be investigated first. As the name indicates, post-colonialism deals with the effects of colonialism and examines the consequences it has for people. In a historical and political context, the term refers to the period of time after previously colonized nations gained independence in the second half of the 20th century (Six-Hohenbalken 94). One can assume that these effects are closely linked to control and power. Taking these terms into account, it is safe to say that post-colonialism aims at investigating the effects of control and power on colonized cultures. Ashcroft et al. point out that “post-colonial literatures are a result of this interaction between imperial culture and the complex of indigenous cultural practices” (Ashcroft et al., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader

1). Consequently, post-colonial theory has existed ever since colonized peoples had started to reflect on their situation and addresses the experiences of peoples of colonized nations. Additionally, Ashcroft et al. point out that even after their independence, post-colonial societies remain subjects of domination. This domination, which is often referred to as Neocolonialism, is described as a development of “new elites within independent societies” (Ashcroft et al., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader 2) and shows that post-colonial theory is an ongoing process and does not end with the independence of a country (Ashcroft et al. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader 2).

The interdisciplinary field of post-colonial studies originated with the publication of Edward W. Said’s book Orientalism (1978), which represents a founding document. In his work, Edward W. Said developed a new discourse which revealed its power on the western depiction

28 of the Orient. He argued that this discourse of cultural powers is of the same significance for maintaining colonial power as military and political force (Hall 236). His work represents a path-breaking critical thought and leads future directions in post-colonial studies.

Post-colonial studies address an existing historiography which sets out to emphasize the contrast between colonizers and colonized peoples and sheds light on the dynamics between these two groups and the marks they have left in societies. Therefore, it contests the notions that colonized peoples have either suffered irreversible damage due to European colonization or changed positively due to the modernization of it (Ashcroft et al. 2). To investigate the dynamics between colonizers and colonized peoples, post-colonial studies discuss various experiences such as migration, slavery, and resistance, to only name a few. The responses to “the master discourse of imperial Europe” (Ashcroft et al. 2) emerge through post-colonial studies and challenge existing discourses of history (Ashcroft et al. 2).

In order to go beyond the focus of language culture and discipline, other aspects have developed in post-colonial studies. These aspects have been established in different colonial histories and methodological traditions of the respective countries. Three pioneers in this field are Edward W. Said, Gayatri Spivak and Homi Bhabha. They have put their focus on Orientalism, Subaltern, and a Third Space and applied their theories to literary discourse (Ashcroft et al. 10– 11).

3.1.1 POST-COLONIAL LITERATURE

Post-colonial literature aims at critically investigating colonialism and its legacy. The term refers to works of literature which have been produced in formerly colonized countries and addresses the effects and consequences colonization has for its people. Therefore, post-colonial literatures can be understood as a result of the interaction between the imperial colonizers and the indigenous colonized cultures (Ashcroft et al. 1).

3.1.2 LANGUAGE IN POST-COLONIAL LITERATURE

Post-colonial authors create hybrid texts and new forms of speech. Many texts written by them are multilingual and address a multilingual audience. However, texts which are only interspersed with words in a foreign-language are also comprehensible for a monolingual readership. In any case, post-colonial literature contains language which has evolved from

29 multilingualism in colonized countries because the colonial language remains in a colonized culture and has to be considered as such (Göttsche et al. 183).

The strategy of using variation of language which deviates from standard language is often used in post-colonial literature. It is used to distance oneself from the former colonial powers and their norms. These words are often left untranslated and represent a technique that aims at “conveying the sense of cultural distinctiveness” (Ashcroft et al., The Empire Writes Back 63). Indigenous languages, creoles or pidgin languages are often used to consciously disturb the reading flow in order to show the otherness of the authors. Ashcroft et al. describe this “interlanguage” as follows:

The use of untranslated words as interface signs seems a successful way to foreground cultural distinctions, so it would appear even more profitable to attempt to generate an ‘interculture’ by the fusion of the linguistic structures of two languages. (Ashcroft et al. 65) This use of language, however, is not to be misunderstood as a defective variety but rather as a representation of an authentic linguistic system. The adaption of colloquial syntax and standard variety is understood by the term “syntactic fusion” (Ashcroft et al., The Empire Writes Back 67) and refers to a technique which intends to make the structure of spoken language more accessible. The most common method of post-colonial language is “code-switching” (Ascroft et al. The Empire Writes Back 71). Here, the authors switch between different languages or varieties and incorporate sentences, words, or even poems, songs, or dialogues in their texts (Ashcroft et al. The Empire Writes Back 71–76).

Through literary texts and the above-mentioned language strategies, former colonized countries have a possibility to express their experiences and perspectives. The following chapter traces the development of Chicana feminist literature and embeds it in a post-colonial discourse.

3.2 CHICANA FEMINISM AND POST-COLONIAL LITERATURE

In order to analyze the contemporary work of Chicana slam poetry artists, certain theoretical approaches have to be defined first to form a theoretical basis for the analysis. Therefore, post- colonial theory and its correlation to Chicana art and Chicana feminism will be investigated. Both concepts are inevitable for the analysis. The definitions used for the analysis do not represent one specific theoretical base but are rather developed due to the current notions concerning post-colonialism and Chicana art. Therefore, the theoretical framework that is

30 developed here presents scholarly work necessary for an analysis of selected contemporary Chicana poetry.

In her revolutionary writings, Gloria Anzaldúa reflected on the acceptance and understanding of women of color. Giving women of color a voice in their own chauvinistic culture as well as in the white male world is one of the key features of Chicana feminism (Arredondo 2).

In 1984, the conference of the National Association for Chicano Studies (NACS) marked a revolutionary turning point for the Chicana feminist movement. The conference, which was held for the 12th time, was hold under the title “Voces des la Mujer” and, for the first time, focused on women’s issues and gender in the Mexican community (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies xix). Furthermore, women constituted the majority of scholarly work and were able to raise awareness of issues concerning the position of women in Chicano studies (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 2). These scholarly works focused on the different approaches towards the study of Chicanas. In one of the published essays, Alma M. García pointed out that each approach has strengths and weaknesses which need to be examined further. Shedding light on Chicanas, who have not been given a voice in the Chicano movement, is one approach towards Chicana history. It protests against the stereotype of Chicanas being passive and silenced objects. As Garcia points out, this approach, which stresses the struggles of Chicana history by using autobiographies and other egodocuments, can be a step forward to the inclusion of Chicanas in the male dominated field of Chicano studies (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 21). However, any analysis that contains autobiographical work only becomes insufficient and remains on a merely descriptive level and therefore does not provide a theoretical basis. Hence, this kind of approach resulted in failing to portray the lives and stories of “other women” (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 21).

In order to avoid omitting a majority of Chicanas, theorists have started a second approach which aims at integrating “Chicanas as Workers” (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 21) in the field of studies. Investigations on the role and development of female labor, especially in the Southwest of the United States, have shown that Chicana labor has merely promoted the growth of the so-called working class. Hence, this approach focuses on paying attention to the social class of workers and their struggles in a capitalist economy which is set out to keep Chicana and Chicano workers at the lowest level of social stratification. However, this approach also lacks a focus on representing a complete history of Chicanas as it

31 does not shed light on Chicanas who have not entered the job market and are therefore not part of the working class (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 22).

As a result, the third approach mentioned here aims at filling this gap and focuses on the perspective of “ Chicanas as Women” (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 23). Investigating the struggles which Chicanas have to face not only because of their role within their families but also because of being female in the discriminating Anglo-American society has become the most prominent aspect of Chicana feminism. Garcia points out that the existing research on Chicano family lacks an analysis of the relationship between females and males in Chicano families. Hence, the approach “Chicanas as Women” focuses on an analysis of male domination in Chicano families, and also the analysis of gender plays an important role in this approach (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 25).

The approaches mentioned above show that Chicanas have to fight constantly for their voice to be heard within the Chicano movement and the Anglo-American society. Each approach has its limitations, and therefore, certain groups are omitted. Uniting these approaches and their key aspects of class, labor, and gender can provide any analysis of the Chicana experience with the necessary elements. According to Garcia, integrating Chicanas in the discipline of Chicano studies requires the breaking down of different obstacles first. Therefore, defining what is meant by “integration” has to be a first step. Integration cannot be an inclusion of works by Chicanas only but has to develop a deeper understanding of the importance of Chicana perspectives in the history of the Chicano movement. However, this can only be possible if the consciousness of male and female scholars changes towards a consciousness of Chicanas (Córdova and National Association for Chicano Studies 25).

The Chicana experience, which is characterized by the search for a true self within Mexican and Anglo-American culture, is strongly related to post-colonialism. Chicanas represent women who have faced many forms of colonization. Embedding Chicanx literature in a post-colonial discourse has been a complex discussion amongst various theorists. The unique experience of Chicanx in the United States has been criticized as not being compatible with post-colonial studies. Gayatri Spivak put forward this criticism and pointed out that the experience of Chicanx cannot be compared to other post-colonial experiences. Therefore, Spivak argues that a post- colonial approach cannot fulfill the expectations of the complex and heterogenic Chicanx experience (Ikas 36). However, other theorists such as Deborah Madsen have investigated the post-colonial experience of Chicanas and pointed out the meanings of post-colonialism and

32 Chicana art. Deborah Madsen distinguishes between three primary meanings of post- colonialism, “First, post-colonialism refers historically to writings produced in a previously colonized nation after its independence from colonial control.” Secondly, post- colonialism can be subdivided into four categories, “pre-colonial, colonial, independence, and de-colonized periods of a nation’s development” (Madsen 2). Finally, Madsen points out the third meaning of post-colonialism, namely the “critic, rather than the text or its author, who adopts a post- colonial perspective” (Madsen 2). Considering these perspectives on post-colonial literature builds a suitable basis for an in-depth analysis of post-colonial work. Post-colonial theory describes a broad spectrum and a phenomenon which has to be accepted in its diversity. Therefore, a combination of post-colonial as well as feminist theories is suitable to capture the unique Chicana experience and its reflections in literature.

Post-colonialism does not only refer to the colonization of Mexico by the Spanish in the 16th century; it also (if not more) deals with the legacy of the U.S.’ colonization of the Hispanic Southwest in the 19th century. Additionally, Gloria Anzaldúa claims Mexican patriarchy as another kind of colonization for Chicanas (Madsen 5). Therefore, Chicana literature has come to be a form of resistance that fights the oppression of colonialism and the colonial effects of patriarchy within Anglo-American and Chicano cultures (Madsen 65).

“Cradled in one culture, sandwiched between two cultures, straddling all three cultures and their value systems, la Mestiza undergoes a struggle of flesh, a struggle of border, an inner war” (Anzaldua 78). According to the Oxford Dictionary, Mestiza describes a woman of mixed race, especially one having indigenous and Spanish descent (“Mestiza | Definition of Mestiza in US English by Oxford Dictionaries”). Historically speaking, La Malinche was the mistress of conquistador Hernán Cortés and therefore the mother of the first person considered Mestizo. In Chicana feminist circles, this legacy is portrayed both in a negative and a positive way. It is either all the negative aspects of a woman’s sexuality and being a passive object or a form of female empowerment which puts a woman’s sexuality in perspective (Sutanto 19).

In regard to post-colonial theory, the Mestiza is seen as a woman who was able to live in both cultures and therefore became an icon of a female representing the consequences of colonialism for the construction of Chicana femininity. She is the image of a woman being colonized sexually, culturally and territorially altogether. Hence, it comes as no surprise that the myth of La Malinche is content of many Chicana writings, past and present (Madsen 71).

33 Identity construction and post-colonial theory merge and are of common and dominant interest. Identity and enunciation, voice and agency are strongly linked and therefore form a foundation on which the identity constructions can be built. Additionally, identity is formed through discourse in its most direct form: through a narrative. However, identity is a dynamic construct which is in a constant process of formation and change and can therefore not be seen as a homogeneous or static model (qtd. in Nünning and Nünning 119). Identities cannot be standardized but have to be accepted as a formation evolving out of history and discourse and a product of globalization and, in terms of post-colonial theory, of migration. Although their origin lies in a historical context, identities deal with the subject matter of questioning and answering the past and its influences on the present. As Hall points out, identities focus on the process of “becoming rather than being” (Hall and Du Gay 4).

In addition to the identity of a single person, the construction of cultural identity is also part of post-colonial theory. This construction of cultural identity, namely the identity of not only one subject but rather a collective identity, identifies with norms such as ethnicity and gender and is determined by the feeling of belonging to a group. Therefore, cultural identity is an image which is created within a group and presents the similarity of that group in order to be able to identify with it. Hence, cultural identity is of importance for minority groups as it is an opportunity to take a stronger and more confident position within the dominant society (Nünning 121–122).

Looking at the situation of Chicanas in the United States, the above-mentioned arguments of post-colonial theory and identity formation are applicable. Chicanas fight for using their voice to be heard; not only in Anglo-American culture but also in the male dominated Mexican culture. The construction of a cultural identity, which implicates the identity of females and of being of Mexican descent, strengthens the Chicanas’ will power to fight against their oppressors and position themselves within the Mexican and Anglo-American culture as well as white feminism.

Although the Chicana movement collectively fights for the same cause, it is important to be aware of the diversity of this community. Chicana feminists are part of a community consisting of women of Mexican origin and descent. Therefore, they differ according to factors such as their regional origin, social class, and language, which further leads to the use of different terms to describe women of Mexican descent. However, in this paper, the term Chicana is used to describe women of Mexican descent to emphasize their political character. Nevertheless, it is

34 crucial to be aware of the complexity of Chicana history and Chicana feminism in order to be capable of understanding Chicana discourse critically.

In addition to the movement’s fight for equality and freedom within the male dominated Mexican and Anglo-American culture, Chicana feminism also fights for a voice within white feminism. Chela Sandoval suggests that Third World feminism enables creating a new perspective on U.S. feminist consciousness and rewrites perceptions of domination and subordination. Therefore, Third World feminism and “hegemonic feminism” (Lewis and Mills 76) should not be considered as opponents but should enable new theories to arise from the existing discourse. Sandoval’s theory focuses on “identifying forms of consciousness in opposition,” (Lewis and Mills 76) meaning that an individual is able to oppose ideology and at the same time speaks “in and from within ideology” (Lewis and Mills 77). Putting forward this approach, Sandoval introduces a way for marginalized and self-conscious individuals to rearrange the existing order of power. Chicana feminism represents this form of opposing dominant orders. While it divided the feminist movement by distancing itself from the dominant “white feminism,” it gave its own movement a voice and consciousness (Lewis and Mills 77).

Contextualizing narration historically and culturally represents a central concern of feminist narration (Nünning and Nünning 39). The often cited use of a so-called “voice shift,” which this thesis aims at proving, understands the definition of voice as the one by feminists such as Susan Lanser; namely, “actual or fictional persons or groups who assert women-centered points of view” (Susan Sniader Lanser, Fictions of Authority 4). The term “voice” has become a prominent theme in literature, philosophy, and sociology and is of great importance to contemporary feminists. Especially amongst silenced communities such as women in general, people of color, and other colonized people, this term is of significance because of their fights for their voice to be heard in hegemonic societies. Therefore, the term has become an expression of identity (Susan Sniader Lanser, Fictions of Authority 3–5).

However, there is more than one approach to this concept. Firstly, voice can be understood as a political statement and an expression of identity and power amongst silenced groups. The second approach refers to narratology and represents a distinction between the teller within a textual world and the author. Therefore, the narrator and the narrated world are of equal importance and constitute a dynamic relationship in which one cannot exist without the other. Hence, the feminist approach to voice focuses on the representation of persons who may be either real or fictional characters and their perspectives on positioning their voices within a

35 patriarchal society. The narratology aims at investigating the structure and form of voice and does not put its focus on the ideological aspects of voice. However, these two approaches do not have to be seen as two separate ways of investigating literature. Viewing them in a relationship with each other shows that narrative voices can be seen as an embodiment of political voices and therefore become the ideology itself rather than the representation of ideology. This ideology embodies numerous aspects which are crucial for a feminist approach to literature. That is because voice does not only represent what is said but also investigates the political context in which it is produced (Susan Sniader Lanser, Fictions of Authority 3–5). Therefore, an insight into the concept of voice offers new perspectives on a female experience.

Chicana feminism and voice are strongly linked together. Chicanas aim at finding their voice within Mexican as well as Anglo-American culture. For contemporary Chicana feminists, slam poetry has become a platform to shift their voices and has provided them with the necessary agency to transport a political message. The following chapter will give an overview of the history of slam poetry and its political nature.

36 4 SLAM POETRY

Slam poetry has developed out of the wish to create a form of poetry that reaches all humans and is not limited to intellectual circles. In the 1980s, a Chicago poet named Marc Kelly Smith decided to introduce a more relaxed style of poetry which was less structured and old-fashioned. Therefore, he held the first National Poetry Slam in 1990, a competition that still exists today (History of Slam Poetry – Spoken Word Poetry | Power Poetry).

A poetry slam describes a performance contest in which each poet is given a certain amount of time, usually approximately three minutes, to perform their poem. The audience forms the jury for each poem and judges it after the performance. Giving the audience a voice and letting it be part of poetry is the reason why the poetry slam was born. The idea of bringing average people to a poetry performance and giving them the chance to like or dislike it opens up a new sense of agency for everyone to participate in this art form (Glazner 11).

In comparison to traditional poetry, performance poetry or slam poetry is meant to be performed on stage. In fact, the way a poet sounds when reading their work and the movement and gestures that are produced on stage present an important factor for a poetry slam. Although it does not limit the poet to a particular form of structure or style, many poets use their voices and body language to support the argument of their poem; this often leads to a small form of acting on stage to give their poem more depth (History of Slam Poetry – Spoken Word Poetry | Power Poetry).

Poetry slams have developed as a popular form of art in the United States and around the world. Since the first National Poetry Slam in 1990, a nonprofit organization called The Poetry Slam Inc (PSI) and standardized rules have been established. Each poet has a time slot of three minutes and ten seconds in which he or she can perform their poetry. The performed poetry is judged by the audience with numbers from zero to ten. After rounds of elimination, the poet with the highest score is declared the winner (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 51).

The Women of the World Poetry Slam (WOWPS) is an annual poetry slam tournament which started in 2008 in Detroit and is organized by the PSI, which offers women from around the world to express their voices and compete against each other. The event was created in order to

37 foster growth in the national-level performances of women involved in the poetry slam community.“ (Wowps)

The fact that poetry slams are judged and performed by anyone who is willing to participate opens the door towards a cultural transformation that questions existing discourse on who is meant to perform poetry and who is meant to judge it. Therefore, poetry slams break down the border between light and serious literature and challenge existing social norms and standards. This opens a new platform for Chicana feminists to raise their voice and shift their agency from the desk to the stage.

4.1.1 SLAM POETRY AND RESISTANCE

Performing poetry in front of an audience, however, was not invented by Marc Kelly Smith but has its roots in ancient oral traditions. Assumingly, poetry competitions have already taken place during the ancient Olympics. However, the renaissance of poetry slams in the 20th century is characterized by moving poetry away from its traditional audiences and venues. The 1950s and 1960s mark the time of the so-called “beat poetry,” which shows many similarities to slam poetry. Beat poets performed in coffee shops, bars, or private living rooms and invited their audience to participate. A lot of similarities can also be seen in the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s. There, live performance and an attitude of political resistance were used to contest traditional verse culture (Love and Matter 121–24).

The places where poetry slams are held are of significance for the political message slam poetry conveys. Poetry slams usually take place in venues such as bars, community centers, or restaurants. Choosing these venues makes it easy for anyone to attend a slam. Therefore, slam poetry shares many similarities with other performance poetry. However, as Sommers-Willet points out, “Slam’s key distinction from academic verse is its overt emphasis on pleasing and entertaining a popular audience” (Somers-Willett, Authenticating Voices: Performance, Black Identity, and Slam Poetry 85). This is also influenced by the audience participation of poetry slams, which not only comprises the judging by number, as introduced above, but also the audience reaction such as cheering or finger snapping. Taking these determining factors such as venue, artists, and audience concerning poetry slam competitions into account, it becomes evident that poetry slams inherit a democratic nature which is committed to make them accessible for average people (Love and Matter 124–128).

38 This results in the creation of an environment which invites artists to critically judge existing structures in society and develop a discourse of resistance. In order to achieve reliability among the audience, authenticity plays an important role at poetry slams. While it is not necessary to perform biographical poems only, many slammers use their own history to convey their messages of resistance.

4.1.2 IDENTITY POEMS

Identity poems, which are performed poems that express an authorship and often address issues such as political views, have an increasing frequency amongst the poetry slam community. Poets who belong to marginalized society groups often express their identity or specific aspects of their identity through poetry slams. These marginalized groups vary from ethnicity and gender to occupation. The expression of identity through poetry slams provides artists with a stage to celebrate their diversity and simultaneously perform resistance against the existing hegemonic society. Additionally, the authorship aims at evoking an emotional response from the audience, and therefore, the more authentic a poem is, the more it will achieve an response from its audience. The way a poem is performed is as important as its content (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 68–70). Therefore, the term “authentic self” (Somers-Willett 73) is often applied to describe the nature of these poems. In reference to that, authenticity describes a construction of identity, which is not limited by external factors and therefore appears to be of particular credibility to the audience (Somers- Willett 73). The analyzed works of art in this thesis belong to the genre of identity poetry as they use authorship to express their identity.

Performing one’s identity has become popular amongst poetry slammers, and the frequency of identity poems in the National Poetry Slam has increased in recent years. Especially amongst marginalized groups, declaring identity and celebrating diversity together with the audience has developed into a form of resistance against the official discourse of verse. Additionally, the physical appearance of each author supports the embodiment of performing identity and therefore achieves reliability with the audience (Somers-Willett 73).

39 4.1.3 CHICANA SLAM POETRY

Addressing political thought and social injustice has been part of the literary tradition of Chicanx for centuries. The first traceable use of poetry and rhythm to convey a political message were the so-called “corridos.” “Corrido” refers to Mexican folklore which has its roots in the period of romanticism in the 15th century but became highly popular between the 1860s and 1930s (A. Paredes 231). These songs, which are of narrative nature, narrate the distinctiveness of transnational communities and therefore have great impact on cultural memories. They represent cultural identity and address the influence social injustices, racism, and oppression have on their identities (Sánchez 4–6). As Sánchez points out, oral tradition represents an important feature of resistance because the interaction between the performers and their audience is flexible and can be adjusted to the given circumstances (Sánchez 9). Due to its political nature and expression of identity, the history of corridos can be seen as an ancestor to Chicana slam poetry.

In general, poetry is an important mouthpiece for Chicana critical thought and can be traced back to the 19th century. In the 1960s and 1970s, writers such as Cherríe Moraga and Pat Mora used poetry to express their presence in Chicano culture. The 1980s mark a time when many Chicana poets had their works published. In 1983, Cherríe Moraga, for example, published her prose poetry book Loving in the War Years, Ana Castillo published Woman Are Not Roses in 1984, and in 1987, Gloria Anzaldúa published her pathbreaking book Borderlands/La Frontera. Chicana poetry at that time contested notions of tradition of that time and articulated hybrid, queer, and feminist voices (Aldama, Spilling the Beans in Chicanolandia 1973–74). Historically, Chicanx political activism has a long tradition of using performance poetry as a tool to convey their messages (Aldama, The Routledge Companion to Latina/o Popular Culture 152).

Contemporary Chicanx slam poetry has taken on the political nature of the poetry of the Chicanx movement and represents a new generation of resistance. As Marc Pinate, a National Poetry Slam champion states, “We are the inheritors of a Chicano literary tradition started in the 70’s” (“The Chicano Messengers of Spoken Word”). This new generation is mainly represented in social media and on video portals such as YouTube.

40 5 CLOSE READING

The following chapter will provide an introduction and analysis of selected Chicana slam poetry. All selected poets identify as Chicana and have performed their art at National Poetry Slam tournaments such as the Women of the World Poetry Slam. The analysis focuses on the depiction of Chicana identities as well as the construction of post-colonial feminist identities and their relationship among the artists’ experiences. Additionally, the performance of each artist will be part of the analysis. Due to the art form’s nature, this thesis aims at showing that slam poetry opens up a new sense of agency for feminist poets, which enables Chicana poets to shift their voices. Approaching Chicana art with post-colonial as well as feminist theory is a blending rather than a dividing process. Therefore, Chicana literature cannot be seen as either “post-colonial” or “feminist” but has to be seen in a broader context. This feminist post-colonial approach not only investigates the construction of a post-colonial identity but also embeds it in a feminist discourse.

The first poet to be analyzed is Mercedez Holtry and her poems “My Blood is Beautiful” and “Trapped Room”; both poems deal with the lives and struggles of Chicanas in the United States. Mercedez Holtry grew up in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where she attended high school and later majored in Journalism and Communications and Chicanx Studies at the University of New Mexico. Holtry describes her family as a “huge Chicano family that is loud and compassionate and caring and sometimes they’re drama and sometimes they’re not” (humansofnewmexico). She started performing poetry at the age of 17 and describes her passion for writing poetry as a way to “heal the pain and find closure” (humansofnewmexico) and growing up in Albuquerque as both positive and negative, which helped her art to become more powerful. Holtry’s family on the maternal side is from Mexico. Her grandparents moved to the United States in the 1970s. Spanish was the main language in their household, and her grandparents never denied their Spanish heritage. Her father grew up in the Chicago neighborhood, and her grandfather was an orphan. Her last name “Holtry” is actually a German last name, which might be her grandfather’s foster parents’ name. However, she does not know a lot about her father’s side of the family. Holtry states that she identifies as Mestiza, a mixed child, and is proud to be part of the rich history of New Mexico (humansofnewmexico).

The second poet, Cristina Martinez, is a Chicana poet from Houston, Texas, whose poetry focuses on an explicit fight against stereotyping Chicanas. The analyzed poem “My Chicana”

41 deals with the impact of stereotyping Chicanas and explicitly addresses the issue. Martinez performed this poem as part of the Write About Now Poetry platform which is an organization for spoken word poetry in Houston, Texas (Ramirez). Martinez started writing poetry when she was in grade school; her work has been featured by The Huffington Post Latino Voices and We are mitú. Martinez combines her poetry with activism in her community (Lu).

The third poet called Amalia Ortiz is a “Tejana” actor, writer, and activist. Ortiz has performed at numerous events such as Ted talks, or in musicals and theater. Her poetry has been included in literary features, and she has participated in numerous poetry slam tournaments such as the National Poetry Slam where she and her team finished second (Amalia Ortiz). In her work, Ortiz focuses on representing a Chicana perspective and, often ironically, demonstrates the situation Chicanas have to face on a daily basis (“‘Rant. Chant. Chisme.’ by Amalia Ortiz, Renaissance Tejana”). Her performance at poetry slams is often said to have a “punk aesthetic” (Courtney). Ortiz justifies the necessity of using this performance style by the fact that “racial injustice, gender inequality, and environmental justice demand immediate action and outrage” (Courtney).

The analyzed poems all have the performance of a personal experience as a common feature. Each poet uses the stage to perform their individual experiences and express theirselves through the art of poetry. This place of performing one’s experience is used to consciously express thoughts on political issues; in Chicana slam poetry, the content circles around the issues of identity formation, social and racial discrimination, and stereotypes (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 68).

The poem’s transcripts can be found in the appendix of this thesis; each line is indicated with a number. The analyses will follow the chronology of the poems, also indicating each line with the respective number.

42 5.1 MERCEDEZ HOLTRY “MY BLOOD IS BEAUTIFUL”

The poem “My Blood is Beautiful” by Mercedez Holtry was performed at the Individual World Poetry Slam, an event put on by the PSI in 2014. This poem tells the story of Mercedez herself being a Chicana in 21st century USA. Due to the autobiographical aspect of this poem, the speaker of the poem will be addressed as Mercedez Holtry herself. The following analysis aims at analyzing the construction of identity in this performance poetry and tries to examine the connection between slam poetry and feminist activism.

5.1.1 FEMINIST AND POST-COLONIAL NARRATIVE AND RESISTANCE

The poem starts out with Holtry telling her own story about being in a coffee shop and talking to a man who asks for her name. As she writes down her name, he seems confused about her being a Chicana but having a German last name. These lines set the stage for the text and function as an introduction of the two protagonists of this poem: Mercedez herself and “an old man from a coffee shop.” It could be argued that this old man functions as a symbol of white male domination of U.S. American society. Although it is never explicitly mentioned that he is actually white, Holtry mirrors society’s assumptions about “brown” people through his character – even when she is just out to get a cup of coffee. According to post-colonial narratology as introduced by Nünning and Nünning, the narrative is of substantial importance to the construction of the individual as well as cultural identity because it functions as a central and coherent context (Nünning and Nünning 122). Starting the poem by telling a story about her life, Holtry uses her personal narrative to create coherence throughout her performance. Post-colonial narrative strategies depict the stereotyped representation of the other, and therefore, a dynamic relationship between the self and the other is constructed, which can only be stabilized within the existing social context (Nünning and Nünning 124).

The concept of the otherness was first introduced by Frantz Fanon and became one of the key aspects of post-colonial studies. The “other” refers to the colonized subject who does not belong to the dominant group and does not have an “identity, propriety, purity or literality” (Al-Saidi 95). Therefore, a post-colonial approach aims at investigating the function of representation of otherness in literature. Additionally, the construction of a personal or cultural identity is directly connected to the otherness. Hence, the self and the other constitute a dynamic interaction (Nünning and Nünning 123–124).

43 Holtry uses her performance time to depict the result of being the other. She puts herself in a dynamic relationship with her oppressor, who, in this case, is represented by the “old man from the coffee shop,” and actively resists being stereotyped by accounting all the names and assumptions she feels are running through his head (Lines 5 and 6). Identity construction in post-colonial theory, articulation, and agency are inevitably connected and needed and used in order to position oneself in a medium of resistance (Nünning and Nünning 123). Holtry uses the platform of resistance, which the poetry slam stage offers her, to refuse being put on the shelf by Anglo-American society. The resistance articulated in the first five lines is directly connected to the male at the coffee shop. It becomes evident that Holtry uses his figure as a symbol of society when she lists what she assumes he thinks about her. Being called a “coyote” triggers something in Holtry and shifts the poem to an act of resistance. By articulating loudly with a lot of emotions, Holtry starts reciting racist labels for people of “mixed blood” (line 5). As she does not wait for the man to articulate these names but rather gets ahead of his thoughts and calls out the names herself, she pushes her voice from a silenced one to one that is heard.

Post-colonial theory aims at investigating how features that are imposed on people are presented by the individual (Nünning and Nünning 124). Line 5 presents how Mercedez Holtry uses attributes which are put on her by the hegemonic society to show that she does not accept them. This is done by assuming what the man thinks of her and starting to name these thoughts before he is able to articulate them. The performance of listing abusive names by which people of color are called is rather strong and emotional. The audience is emotionally touched, and the poet herself seems to be emotionally involved as well. Therefore, the platform of a poetry slam, which aims at provoking emotions in the audience, and the strategies of post-colonial identity formations merge in order to shift the poet’s voice.

Additionally, the starting lines 1–4 are narrated in the first person and present an authorial introduction to the poem, which makes the personal “I” the protagonist of the poem and puts Holtry in the center. However, as soon as Holtry starts reciting the stereotypical names that are used for Americans of Mexican decent, the personal “I” shifts first to the second and from lines 12 to 13 to the third person. Susan Lanser differentiated between “public and private narration” in feminist analysis and put forward the idea that “public narration” addresses an external listener, for example, a public audience. “Private narration” on the other hand addresses a designated recipient within the produced textual world (Susan S. Lanser 352). The public audience of Holtry’s poetic performance is in fact the audience sitting in a room where the

44 poetry slam is held. The transported message shows a relationship between the constructed feminist identity and the textual world of the poem.

This typology is created to prove the close relationship between social identity and textual performance in feminist narratology (Nünning and Nünning 44). Therefore, analyzing the depiction of gender is closely linked to the context of what is performed and by whom. Not only the produced textual world is analyzed, but also the entire discourse of it (Nünning and Nünning 44). Following this typology, one can see that the relationship between social identity and the textual world is created through the shift of the first person “I” towards a “you” and ultimately to a “she.” Therefore, Holtry uses language to show the discrimination she has to face by Anglo-American society and fellow “brown” girls. This distance is created through transporting the personal “I” to a state of passiveness by using the third person.

Examining Chicana feminist work inevitably leads to an examination of opposing colonization. Chicana feminists aim at reclaiming space and agency that was taken from them by colonization. This act of “decolonization” (Ashcroft et al., Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies 65) refers to the process of revealing all aspects of colonization, which also includes hidden powers that arose after gaining independence (Ashcroft et al., Key Concepts in Post- Colonial Studies 65). Especially reclaiming the self becomes a major part of Chicana feminist art (Córdova 379). Holtry reclaims this self by de-historicizing her family’s past as well as her community’s past. Her own occupied history and her story are reconstructed, and the self is uttered in lines 17–21. Starting them with “I am the walking definition of rape” and “I am part recognize your privilege and never forget your struggle,” the poet breaks down her built-up oppression and frees her identity through a formation that includes all complex layers of history and culture, and thereby, she creates a dynamic and flexible identity which is neither set in stone nor homogenous. Holtry does not explain her history; she claims her history. She herself becomes the definition of “rape, kill, and conquer” and therefore collects all of her and other Chicanx history in her own identity to represent that being Mexican-American is more than just belonging to a marginalized society group. This is a voice shift that turns her own voice towards one that must be heard; the perfect medium that enables these stories to be told through their own voices rather than being told by others is the poetry slam stage.

In post-colonial discourse, the staging of memory presents a relevant aspect of personal identity; the reappropriation of a cultural memory and history becomes evident in the process of identity formation (Nünning and Nünning 140). Holtry defines herself as being the “walking” definition

45 of her culture’s history. Indicating that history influences the present and represents a dynamic process, Holtry constructs an identity that is in a process of formation which emerged out of history and carries this memory to the future. Therefore, being a “walking history lesson” shows that the present is shaped through the past which in turn shapes the future. As she emphasizes her history as being one that is “walking,” she also puts emphasis on the dynamic aspects of it and contests the representation of history as being static.

The deconstruction of history appears again in line 22 as Holtry presents the audience with the system of “Castas.” This system functioned as a racial classification by Spanish colonizers in the 17th and 18th century (Estes). Holtry comments on this system as follows, „It was inspired by the assumption that the character and quality of people varied according to their birth, color, race, and origin of ethnic types“ (line 22). It influenced every aspect of life and was set out to control and determine a person’s life in Spanish American colonies (Estes). Holtry draws a line between this system of the 17th century and today’s social stratification. She argues that the names people are called are a direct junction of this system and today’s stereotyping. Once again, history is being de-historicized to prove its influences on today’s systems.

The end of the poem once again mentions the “old man from the coffee shop” and thus closes the circle of the story. It does not matter what name someone is called, whether it is “Mestizo” or “Mulatto”; these names stand for the bigger picture of being “mixed blooded” and therefore not “pure.” Adopting once again the old man’s voice, Holtry is told that she is not part of America as America loves “pure”, and she is “messy and different” (line 30). This shift to multiperspectivity and historical references is of importance when analyzing female identity (Nünning and Nünning 60). In fact, the shift of perspective appears numerous times throughout the poem. However, it is a shift that is limited as it does not give the audience a completely new perspective but rather assumes the perspective of the other. Through adapting different perspectives, which ultimately lead to the construction of her identity, a multiperspectivity is created that enables Holtry to define herself. The conception of the “old man,” who, on behalf of Anglo-American society, implies that her blood hinders her from being part of “pure America,” operates through a multiperspective view as well as the conception of the perspective other “brown girls” have of her not being a real Mexican. Additionally, describing the man as being “old” transports the tension between old and new discourse in society and portrays the power of old white male domination in the United States. Presenting multiple perspectives while shifting the voice back to her own perspective after each digression in the perspective of others, Holtry paves the way for the concluding last lines of the poem. 46 The concluding lines of this poem are introduced by Holtry’s narrative “I” defining herself as “a walking history lesson” without actually uttering the words. In fact, the entire poem presents a level of conversation (between her and the “old man”) that is not actually spoken but operates as a tool of representing the daily struggle of Chicanas in the United States. In the last lines, Holtry uses her narrative to actively resist any sort of cultural or national stereotype. Stating, “Yes, I am a mix of things; but what I am not is a fucking identity crisis” concludes the de- historization of her heritage as well as the heritage of 9 million other people and leads to an identity that goes beyond nationality, heritage, or borders and is nothing but herself. She refuses to let any sort of stratification take her character by posing that, “My character belongs to me, my identity belongs to me, my blood belongs to me.” She uses repetition as a rhetorical device to stress the urgency of the matter and finally states that, “I’ll be damned if anyone calls my blood anything but beautiful.”

5.1.2 REPRESENTATION OF MESTIZA CONSCIOUSNESS

In this performance, Holtry constructs an identity that goes beyond labels of stratification and continues the legacy of Gloria Anzaldúa’s Mestiza Consciousness. Hence, the construction of her cultural as well as her personal identity challenges any existing labels and aims at defining identity on a higher level. She addresses poverty and education that people who belong to marginalized groups have to face to challenge existing structures in society.

The construction of a cultural identity can be seen as a well-defined limit between oneself and the others; particularly, as group affiliation implies exclusion of those who are not part of the group (Nünning and Nünning124–125). Holtry explicitly delimits herself from either group that she is pushed into from the outside. In line 8, she states how her “mixed blood” does not fit in either group that society wants her to be part of. On the one hand, she is “too ghetto for AP placement,” which is a program in the United States that offers college-level curricula and examinations for high school students (“Advanced Placement Exams”). Hence, her dark skin hinders her from achieving academically because it determines her social class and status. On the other hand, she describes herself as being “not brown enough to be called Mexican”, depicting the struggles she has to face within her Mexican community. Gloria Anzaldúa points out, “The Mestiza’s dual or multiple personality is plagued by psychic restlessness” (Anzalduá 100). By being constantly torn between two worlds, La Mestiza also constantly fights an inner war (Anzaldúa 100). These lines introduce Holtry’s fight against stereotypes on both sides of society. She not only does not have the same possibilities to achieve academically, but she also

47 has to fight stereotypes in the Mexican community due to her white skin. These fights on both sides represent an inner war, as Anzaldúa described it, which depicts one of the unique aspects of Mestiza consciousness.

The first eight lines function as an introduction to the theme of the poem and bring the audience to the process of identity construction within a hegemonic society. Viewing these lines in the discourse of post-colonial theory, one has to mention the term “counter-discourse” (Madsen 65). This term, which is inevitable in post-colonial theory, refers to a resisting attitude towards existing notions of literature (Ashcroft et al., The Post-Colonial Studies Reader 95–98). Holtry depicts both worlds in her poem and describes struggles in two cultures rather than wanting to fit in one. She recites the struggles she has to face on either “side” of herself, her Mexican as well as her “American” side; the articulation of these struggles presents a form of resistance which empowers multiperspectivity by calling out the negative consequences categorizations have for people. Therefore, her performance represents a “counter-discourse” that contests hegemonic societies.

In line 9–14, the narrative takes a turn, and the story shifts to the assumptions made by other women of Mexican heritage. Starting with stating that she is “that kid,” Holtry switches her personality from being part of a marginalized group within the Anglo-American society to that of a marginalized group within the Mexican-American culture. This is uttered by telling what names she is being called by other “brown girls.” Holtry consciously positions herself between both cultures. This shows the dynamic between alterity and identity; in this case, the term “alterity” is used loosely as Holtry depicts her identity as the other in two ways. A dynamic interaction between the identities of an outsider in either culture is created to construct and form a new identity which goes beyond national borders and social class. The story merges in a way which does not show a clear line between the assumptions that are made about her by “the old man” and the assumptions that are made about her by other “brown girls”; rather, the lyrics go from one perspective to the other without a clear limit. Merging together the stereotypes of Anglo-American society and Mexican culture breaks down the border between these society groups and therefore melts them together, showing that either form of discrimination affects the discriminated.

This process of melting together the questions and assumptions that are asked and made about her leads to the necessity of giving a “history lesson” (15–18). Proving that all questions and assumptions collectively create a history lesson that is not only about her but about 9 million

48 other people living in the United States, a deconstruction of the history of 9 million Mexican- Americans is used as a tool to prove her point of not accepting to be pigeonholed. Lines 15–18 function as a representation of a culture which is facing discrimination due to the consequences of colonization. Holtry now stands for a representative, who is only one in millions, and tells her story to show that the marginalized group she is part of is in fact not small. In line 16, Holtry refers to the census which were held in the United States and which represent the complex reality of Chicanx. In the census of 1920, Mexican-Americans were categorized as a “foreign born population group” (Ikas 35), and ten years later they found themselves under the category “other races.” Since 1980, Mexican-Americans have been considered as a “white ethnic minority” (Ikas 35). The construction of identity in line 18 is explicit as Holtry defines herself being the “walking definition of rape, kill, and conquer.” According to Stuart Hall, identities “are about using the resources of history, language, and culture in the process of becoming rather than being” (Hall and Du Gay 4). Holtry uses the history of her community to define the process of becoming in a society that is set out to make this process a constant battle.

Moreover, in line 18, the idea of border theory is put into practice as Holtry deconstructs history and “deterritorializes” borders (Lewis and Mills 628) when she is making herself the “walking definition of rape, kill, and conquer.” Being Chicana means having ancestors who were Aztec people as well as Spanish conquistadors. Therefore, Holtry breaks down borders that have been drawn geographically as well as historically and constructs a new identity which combines all borders and historical associations in one person. She herself becomes the definition of history and its consequences. In post-colonial theory, identity construction does not necessarily have to be a rigid and clear distinction between oneself and the other. Instead, a dynamic and flexible identity formation can form the basis for a cultural hybrid (Nünning and Nünning 126). This dynamic is emphasized in Holtry’s definition of being the “walking” definition of history; the movement of walking stresses the dynamic nature of history affecting the present. As Homi Bhabha points out:

It is significant that the productive capacities of this Third Space have a colonial or post- colonial provenance. For a willingness to descend into that alien territory (…) may reveal that the theoretical recognition of the split-space of enunciation may open the way to conceptualizing an international culture, based not on the exoticism of multiculturalism or the diversity of cultures, but on the inscription and articulation of culture’s hybridity. (Bhabha, The Location of Culture 38) The question of cultural hybridity is especially one that is asked by post-colonial nations and the border they inherit. The term refers to “the creation of new transcultural forms within the

49 contact zone produced by colonization” (Ashcroft et al., Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies 118). Theories on hybridity critically investigate the borders of these nations and its overlaps in culture. According to Homi Bhabha, intercultural relationships are not a multicultural community of equal groups but rather a transcultural interaction. Therefore, a “third space” has to be invented (qtd. in Nünning and Nünning 127). This space is located in between cultures, and its differences are voiced by its minority groups (qtd. in Nünning and Nünning 127). Holtry’s construction of identity can be seen as the creation of such an in-between space depicting oneself not as one type of person but rather as the product of centuries of history. These multiple identities all have different historical roots. While part of her family’s decent belonged to Aztecs, the other part belonged to Spanish conquistadores who in her words were “mistaken for white gods.” This results in a personal history that stands for “part recognize your privilege and never forget your struggle.” Additionally, in line 20, she claims being “part Mexican mother and American father; Chihuaha Mexico and grandfather’s orphanage”; Holtry’s maternal relatives are from Chihuaha, Mexico, and migrated to the United States in 1970. Her father grew up in Chicago and was the son of an orphan. Therefore, Holtry does not know where her father got his German last name, but it might have been the last name of her grandfather’s adoptive parents (humansofnewmexico).

In her performance, Holtry continuously builds on the legacy of Gloria Anzaldúa’s theory of Mestiza consciousness. By shedding light on discriminations she has to face in either culture, Holtry aims at proclaiming more tolerance for ambiguity. She addresses the stereotypes made about her in both Mexican-American and Anglo-American culture, but simultaneously, she aims at rising above them in order to celebrate the multiple identities she inherits. This is explicitly mentioned in the last lines when Holtry states, “Yes, I am a mix of things, but what I am not is a fucking identity crisis (…) my character belongs to me.” This utterance can be seen as a direct connection to Anzaldúa’s theories on identity. As Anzaldúa points out:

The new Mestiza copes by developing a tolerance for contradictions, a tolerance for ambiguity. She learns to be an Indian in Mexican culture, to be Mexican from Anglo point of view. She learns to juggle cultures. She has a plural personality, she operates in a pluralistic mode (…) she turns the ambivalence into something else. (Anzaldúa 101) Holtry continues this legacy of tolerance in her performance. The chronology of her poem shows the development of this new consciousness. She starts by stating the stereotypes about her and ends by claiming her own history and her own identity. Therefore, she addresses the difficulties in order to rise above them.

50 5.1.3 LITERAL AND FIGURATIVE VOICE SHIFTS

In this poetry slam performance, Mercedez Holtry uses three minutes and 21 seconds to send a clear message of resistance. Her performance is based on her own experience as a Chicana living in the United States, and therefore, it reveals her own as well as her community’s struggles in daily life. The setting within the text is a scene in a coffee shop where Holtry has a conversation with a man. Although the audience does not know whether or not this man is white, he works, as mentioned above, as a representation of Anglo-American society. The setting of a coffee shop is wisely chosen as it represents the normality of stereotyping she faces on a daily basis. The poem undergoes many voice shifts, both literally and figuratively. Performance poetry gives the artist the opportunity to not only rely on the written text they have produced but also to emphasize it through performance. This performance part is used in Holtry’s slam numerous times. Her voice raises for the first time when she recites the stereotyping names which the man from the coffee shop seemingly has for her. The stage provides her with the space she needs to articulate her literary work, and the creative nature of a poetry slam builds a bridge between political action and identity formation, which leads to the construction of a complex and dynamic identity.

The second voice shift appears at a turning point during the performance when Holtry moves from citing what she assumes the old man thinks about her towards addressing what fellow “brown girls” think about her; the constant struggle of neither belonging to the Anglo-American society because of her name and family’s origin nor to the Mexican community because of her American heritage; being either too “brown” or too “white.”

Therefore, Holtry contests assumptions about her identity and creates resistance that builds agency (Arredondo 2). The resistance is not addressed towards the Anglo-American society per se but rather towards the constant assumptions about her identity. Holtry concludes these thoughts at the end of her performance when she admits that she is a “mix of things” but argues that this mix does not make her an “identity crisis.” Thus, she addresses those who assume that she must be in conflict with herself because she is not a “pure American.” Holtry finalizes this thought and at the same time shifts her voice again by stating that her identity, her blood, and her character is not to be seen as “anything but beautiful.” As Gloria Anzaldúa points out in the foreword of This bridge we call home, “Living in multicultural communities and the complexities of our age demand that we develop a perspective that takes into account the whole planet” (3). Holtry’s performance supports this view of life and identities as she presents her

51 performance to be part of a hybrid view of life, which cannot be categorized but aims at a perspective beyond national borders and social stratification. Holtry carries on the legacy of La Mestiza by developing a consciousness concerning her identity, which arises through multiplicity and turns it into an identity that only belongs to herself; an identity that goes beyond borders and positions itself right in the middle of assumptions, discriminations, and stereotypes.

5.2 MERCEDEZ HOLTRY “TRAPPED ROOM”

The poem “Trapped Room” was performed at the Individual Poetry Slam in 2014 and constitutes the second performance of Mercedez Holtry, which is subject to analysis in this thesis. This poem is three minutes and 29 seconds long, carries a strong feminist Chicana voice, and simultaneously speaks to and empowers all women.

5.2.1 FEMINIST POST-COLONIAL NARRATIVE AND RESISTANCE

The poem starts with Mercedez Holtry telling the audience about her 20th birthday. Again, in this performance, the authentic self is uncovered, and Holtry uses her own life story to construct identity and position herself within the textual as well as her personal world. Holtry continues by stating that she finds herself “in a room full of doors” (line 1); this imagery description of her situation as a woman sets the tone of the performance and continues as the central theme throughout the entire performance. The room a woman finds herself in stands for the society which captures her identity. As long as a woman remains inside the room, she is protected from society’s stereotypes but at the same time remains held captive. Therefore, she can exist but cannot appear as a subjective. Hence, in order to live, a woman must exit the room. However, as soon as she exits, she is not in control of herself anymore and becomes an object, and this object will be stereotyped. The poet describes the fear of stereotyping with the sounds of “nails against a chalkboard.” This sound as appears to be an allegory of the glances of society. Therefore, the chalkboard can be seen as a woman’s skin, and the assumptions made by society can be seen as the nails against this skin. The question of a depiction of space has only been put in the focus of feminist narratology in recent years but represents an important concept when analyzing the context of feminist literature (Nünning and Nünning 54). This concept applies because in this poem, space is described literally as a “room”; however, the cultural context of this depiction opens a perspective on female suffering, which can only be described as being “trapped in a room.” The room represents a cage women find themselves in and is depicted as

52 a condition every woman is put into by society. Due to the fact that Holtry performs this poem, the audience is immediately aware that it tells the story of a woman.

The venue for poetry slams offers a stage for poets to express theirselves; therefore, the poem which has the theme of identity as its focus has become a popular tool for artists to convey their message to the audience (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 68). However, while the content of identity poems is important to create authenticity, the performance is as important for a successful slam. As Somers-Willett points out, “Performance, as one should expect in a genre such as slam, is the instrument that makes the poem ring true or false with any given audience” (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 52).

Because of the nature of this particular poem, the message of a female voice which investigates and challenges existing structures of discrimination and oppression is received within the first seconds of the performance. Holtry opens her performance by instantly stating her consciousness of what it means to be a woman in U.S. society. This awareness conveys a strong and also political message. The poet transports it explicitly by stating what “being a woman” means and also stages it literally by using the image of being “trapped in a room.” Moreover, Holtry shows what it means for women trying to exit this room; she states that instead of a “sign labeled exit on the top of the door, it’s a stereotype you inherit when you exit the room” (line 3). Therefore, women cannot break out of the existing system of oppression without being stereotyped. In the first three lines of her performance, Holtry has identified and revealed the condition of women in a patriarchal society.

In line 4, Holtry starts to describe the anxiety that women have to face when they want to escape the oppression they have to suffer because of their gender. Being a woman, which is mentioned by Holtry as the “second sex,” one is trying to “find a way out of the cage.” This act ultimately leads to being “displeasing.” In fact, as the second sex, society would prefer women to stay in the cage and not try to escape from it. By using the term “second sex,” Holtry references Simon de Beauvoir’s work on the treatment of women throughout history. An analysis of intertextual references might give some indication for identity construction (Nünning and Nünning 141). In this case, the use of intertextual references can be seen as a form of solidarity amongst feminists all over the world. Holtry adapts a term which was coined by Simon de Beauvoir in 1949 and hence draws a line in history, which shows that the fight against discrimination has not ended yet (Gray). Taking Susan Lainser’s theory on female voice into account, this strategy of

53 intertextuality used by Holtry shows the relationship between narratology and the political nature of voice (Susan Sniader Lanser, Fictions of Authority 3–10).

Holtry continues by listing the individual stereotypes women inherit, no matter which door they choose to exit the room (lines 8–18). When reciting these stereotypes, Holtry speeds up in her speech, and she repeats the term “bitch” to refer to women. Feminist criticism aims at contesting the current situation women find themselves in, challenges existing structures of female oppression, and ultimately leads to a new definition of gender, which is not dependent on male domination and women’s inferiority (Marcus 1722). Holtry challenges existing structures by naming them. She explicitly addresses the situation of women and describes its profundity through the image of “nails against a chalkboard,” which is a description of a sound that evokes emotions in anybody who pictures it.

Adapting the register of a male dominated society, Holtry emphasizes the discrimination imposed on females in Anglo-American society. Additionally, Holtry’s female voice gets empowered as she is the one who uses the term “bitch” ironically to refer to the male perception of women. Holtry describes the stereotypes women of all ethnicities inherit and does not differentiate between white women and women of color. She summarizes the collectiveness of all women by stating, “Vagina: not getting paid the full dollar” (line 15). Thus, Holtry shifts her voice and rises above Chicana and hegemonic feminism to include all women in her “oppositional consciousness” (Lewis and Mills 85). Hence, the opposition addresses all forms of discrimination and therefore creates new forms of identity construction and political voice.

U.S. Third World feminism, as Sandoval suggests, represents a struggle that faces discrimination because of gender, class, and ethnicity and opposes the existing domination (Lewis and Mills 85). However, while U.S. Third World feminism aims at renouncing hegemonic white feminism, Holtry raises her voice above these existing structures and uses her performance to include all women. As Gloria Anzaldúa suggests, “Living in multicultural communities and the complexities of our age demand that we develop a perspective that takes into account the whole planet” (Anzaldúa et al. 3). Holtry’s depiction of doors which make women decide whether to exit or stay in the room is elaborated by naming the specific stereotypes women have to face. However, she does not exclusively recount stereotypes women of color are confronted with but develops a consciousness that addresses struggles amongst all females.

54 When feminism is defined in such political terms, it aims at discussing the heterogeneity of women’s suffering and emphasizes the experiences of women who have not had a change of their situation yet. However, it does not aim at differentiating one woman from the other according to their ethnicity but rather enters a new sphere which aims at leaving female suffering behind; collectively as women (hooks 25). In lines 9 - 18, Holtry recounts how different women are labeled. She starts by stating, “Housewife: bitch that cleans up the place” and continues to name the stereotypes that are used for different women according to their ethnicity, character, or occupation. The last utterances of these lines conclude female suffering by stating, “Vagina: not getting paid the full dollar” (line 15) and address the issue of women not getting paid equally.

In line 19, Holtry describes her battle with finding her own identity as a game of tug-of-war. This image carries a strong meaning as it suggests that while she is aware of her identity, the other part of the rope, namely society, constantly pulls her in a different direction by telling her what is expected of her to do, being a woman. This other side of the rope is elaborated in more detail in lines 20–23 by naming different organizations or institutions that pull the rope and so hinder her to be her own true self. The question of identity construction in a post-colonial discourse is closely linked to the aspect of articulation; this articulation forms the basis for self- determination or self-alienation (Nünning and Nünning 119). Holtry uses her voice to articulate how self-determination and self-alienation constitute a struggle which determines most of her life. Her identity is heteronomous, and through society’s expectations she finds herself being pulled in different directions. Additionally, the concept of identity being a dynamic process rather than a static model is applied through the metaphor of a tug-of-war game (Nünning and Nünning 120). Pushing and pulling a rope, which in this case stands for Holtry’s identity, indicates a dynamic process rather than a static state of mind. However, this process is described as a fight in Holtry’s performance. It is a fight between herself and society’s assumptions about women.

Additionally, in line 19, Holtry states, “Everyone tells me what to put in my vagina. What not to put in my vagina.” In connection to the game of tug-of-war mentioned before, this line can be seen as the depiction of rape. The constant “what to do and what not to do” and the pulling back and forth creates the image of sexual intercourse. Therefore, the juxtaposition of these utterances depicts a woman that is raped by society.

55 In line 24, Holtry states that, “The world cuts out your tongue despite the bite you took of the forbidden fruit.” Referencing the Adam and Eve narrative, Holtry addresses a mythology that is deeply rooted in Western culture. The Genesis’ interpretation often suggests a legitimization of oppression, a natural subordination of women and therefore has become a popular narrative amongst male dominated Western culture (Rooke 160). An analysis of intertextual references gives indication of articulated identity concepts (Nünning and Nünning 141). Holtry continues by stating that the effect of silencing female voice leaves a “bitter taste” in one’s mouth; this voice is held captive by male domination. Holtry addresses society with “they” and speaks directly to women, telling them what “they,” namely male dominated society, do with a female voice. The concept of “us vs. them” creates room for women to shift their agency towards a space that constitutes a collective fight against male oppression amongst all women.

Lines 28–29 ask questions about the origin of the situation of women in U.S. society. Naming brands such as MTV and FOX News, Holtry attempts to deconstruct the development of discrimination and passes on to find out what has put her in the situation she finds herself in. In line 30, Holtry describes herself trying to meet the expectations of women such as acting “like a proper lady” and only “speaking when spoken to.” Through the utterance of characterizations that are imposed on her by the other, Holtry explicitly reveals the effects of heteronomy. In post-colonial context, the question of perspective of the other is relevant in terms of the space the narrator gives the other (Nünning and Nünning 134). Holtry addresses her colonizers and asks the rhetorical question of whose responsibility it was that she ended up in this “room.” Therefore, she calls out names of brands, movements, and institutions she holds responsible for ongoing male domination in U.S. society. Although these lines are formulated as questions, it becomes clear that Holtry regards certain brands and institutions definitely responsible for the situation.

5.2.2 LITERAL AND FIGURATIVE VOICE SHIFTS

Throughout this poem, Holtry uses her voice to address stereotypes and discrimination women have to face on a daily basis. The structure of her poem represents two main voice shifts. Holtry describes the inequalities and discrimination she, and women in general, are confronted with. This first part of the poem already represents a clear positioning and form of resistance as Holtry explicitly addresses the situation.

However, the performance takes a dramatic turn in line 33. On her birthday, Holtry realizes, as the story of her poem suggests, that she is ready to “break out of the cage.” She repeats the 56 image of the cage; this time to suggest ending the current situation. Additionally, she realizes that she is a “beast.” This voice shift carries the meaning of a fighter, and Holtry portrays herself as a powerful creature ready to fight the battle instead of remaining a helpless human. When Holtry makes a voice shift referring to the content, she simultaneously changes her voice in how she is performing the poem. She speeds up her speech, and her tone appears to be more aggressive, creating the literal image of a wild animal that finally escapes its cage. In line 34, Holtry uses the term “warrior” to illustrate the battle she has to fight in order to break out of the cage. This correlates with the Chicana experience which has always been one in which women have had to fight in order to achieve something (Chabram-Dernersesian 224). Holtry depicts this fight quite literally by naming strong female figures such as Athena, the Greek goddess.

Decolonization refers to a process in which a community and a self undergo tremendous change in order to alter the entire societal structure from the very beginning on, and this change can only be achieved through active resistance against existing structures (Mohanty 7). Holtry stages the image of a “beast ready to break out of this cage” to illustrate an act of decolonization. She starts explaining the process, which can only be understood as such and within a historical context, by means of the image of a “room full of doors” and ultimately leads the audience to her escape. Her escape, however, requires a tremendous transformation; in Holtry’s performance, it is a transformation into a “beast”; described in more detail with terms such as “Lioness, Athena, Tomb Raider.” This fundamental change of her self is necessary to achieve the change of a society. Using the personal pronoun “you” in line 36, Holtry addresses society again and reminds it that she is in fact “breathing the same air as the man who made me and the man I make will breathe the same air as me”; Holtry uses the act of breathing to shift dependencies. It is not women’s existence which is dependent on men but rather men’s existence that is dependent on women.

In addition to decolonozation, deterritorialization also represents a significant feature of feminist post-colonial identity construction. It refers to a process within literature that aims at providing literature which is in opposition to mainstream. Therefore, Deleuze and Guattari point out that is characterized by “the deterritorialization of language, the connection of the individual to a political immediacy, and the collective assemblage of enunciation” (qtd. in Lewis and Mills 627). Holtry deterritorializes existing structures by staging her identity in an immediacy with existing societal structures. Hence, she deconstructs the territory of patriarchal society within the world of her poem and creates a new form of identity.

57 The fight against oppression finds its climax as Holtry claims to “blow this motherfucker up”; these lines, in addition to Holtry’s performance, can be read as a declaration of war against sexism. Holtry shifts her voice and pushes her consciousness towards an active fight against female oppression. Being aware of inequalities is not enough for Holtry. She uses the political nature slam poetry inhabits to show her audience that she is willing to change the situation. By staging herself in the center of attention and depicting her identity ready to break out of the existing struggles, she illustrates a voice shift towards the empowerment of women. However, this fight leaves scars on her body. Holtry claims that she will have “more scars than a man ever could,” implying that no man will ever be in the position of having to fight as much as women have to. This is emphasized in line 41 when Holtry explicitly states that “every day is a battle to be female”; describing the situation of women as a battle. She finalizes her performance by stating that she deserves to be “equal, to be respected, to be treasures, but more than anything, I deserve to be free”; Holtry nods towards her audience and exits the stage.

This performance carries a strong female voice and sends a clear message towards sexism, stereotyping, and male domination in U.S. society. Holtry speaks to all women and not only to fellow Chicanas. Therefore, she shifts her voice above the restrictions of Chicana feminism and addresses injustices all women are affected by. She indicates the oppression women are faced with by describing the situation of women as a situation of someone being held in a cage. This image continues throughout her performance and constitutes the story line of the poem. Her poem undergoes a voice shift as she concludes her performance by stating that the suffering has come to an end and that she is ready to escape the room she has been trapped in and therefore is ready to end the situation of all women.

58 5.3 CRISTINA MARTINEZ “MY CHICANA”

The poem “My Chicana” was published on the Write About Now poetry platform in 2016. It is performed by Mexican-American poet Cristina Martinez and deals with stereotyping Chicanas and the effect it has on a person. The poem is three minutes long and belongs to the genre of slam poetry. The poet herself performs on a small stage in a room with an audience. The audience, however, is not visible; only its reaction is audible throughout the performance.

5.3.1 FEMINIST POST-COLONIAL NARRATIVE AND RESISTANCE

This performance aims at challenging the depiction of Chicanas. Martinez represents the existing narrative and addresses injustice to create a new narrative that does not discriminate against Chicanx.

The first lines of the poem start with a description of the way she is approached to, and she introduces English as well as Spanish words and the term Chicana as the protagonist of the poem. The title “My Chicana” already indicates the main theme of the poem and constitutes the first line. The poem continues with an immediate listing of the assumptions about the term Chicana. Performing in the third person, Martinez moves her voice away from herself and shifts it towards a third person description that shows how it sounds for others, “It sounds like girl you talk too fast you must be running from something.” This is one part of the assumptions made about her. The concept of the other is applied to this poem because the aim of post- colonial theory is to describe the strategies of stereotyped representation of the other (Nünning and Nünning 124). Martinez represents the stereotyping features she has to deal with in a society where she is considered to be the other. In this poem, the role of representing stereotyping features of “My Chicana” such as depicted in lines 2-6, functions as an introduction to the poem as well as the story that is to be told through it.It is a life story and an identity construction that aims at showing how identity is constructed through oneself as well as through others. It is rather a dynamic process that evolves through a dialogue between the self and the other than a process that only happens out of the inner self. Therefore, the assumptions and stereotypes that are made about the Chicana of this poem are a distinctive part of the process of identity formation (Nünning and Nünning 124). In order to define her identity, Martinez uses a so-called hybrid language, which is a mix of English and Spanish words, to distinctively position herself as a Chicana.

59 5.3.1.1 HYBRID LANGUAGE Line 3 introduces a new concept of identity formation: the hybrid language. Often called “Spanglish,” Martinez uses line 3 to mix English and Spanish words and sentences. The use of this “metalanguage” (Morales 5) breaks down borders that divide people and their personalities internally in order to make room for a new hybrid identity which does not accept being either English or Spanish. Therefore, the use of English and Spanish words as one language expresses more than missing words in either language; it represents an active empowerment towards a new identity and can be seen as an open form of resistance against social stratification. As Ed Morales points out, “Spoken Spanglish is only a verbal manifestation of a powerful force that has been incubating in America since the beginning of the postwar era, and will almost surely be a powerful determinant of U.S. culture in the twenty-first century” (6). Martinez addresses her bilingualism explicitly in line 11 by stating that, “Speaking two languages literally makes your brain stronger.” Her performance changes as she utters this line, and a smile appears on her face; the audience reacts, too, and laughter can be heard. It represents the belonging to more than one identity and challenges existing structures of categorizing people according to language, race, or ethnic type (Morales 10–12). Therefore, it represents a form of resistance.

Moreover, the use of Spanglish entails a construction of identity as it emphasizes the uniqueness of every individual and puts forward the idea of being one’s own language; a language which does not merely contest the language of the empire, English, but opens it up and merges it with Spanish in order to create a broader view not only of language but also of identity as a whole (Morales 7). The inception of Spanglish and the Chicana experience are closely related. Spanglish stands for a state of mind that has experienced a displacement from one home to another, and through this displacement, the state of mind has changed and therefore welcomed new places which then are also considered home. These homes, which represent more than one location, are considered to be welcoming places but simultaneously carry a meaning of not being wanted in either place. Hence, Spanglish creates consciousness through language and generates a new state of mind which goes beyond differences and aims at including rather than excluding (Morales 7). This use of code-switching and colloquial syntax is a technique which aims at making the text more accessible to the audience. Juxtaposing this language technique and the aspects of slam it can be said that the language and the art form are set out to make the transported message more accessible to the audience. Hence, these two aspects of performance represent the influences of the relationship between Martinez and her audience.

60 5.3.2 INFLUENCE OF IMMEDIACY ON THE AUDIENCE

The audience experiencing immediacy is a crucial aspect of slam poetry and directly linked to the performance’s success. Hence, the artist and the audience have to have a connection; not only is this connection important because the audience is in fact the jury of the performance, but it is also important for the poets to transport their messages (Love and Matter 121–125). Martinez’ relationship with the audience becomes obvious numerous times throughout the poem. Not only does she need the audience as support for her performance, but she also makes use of the audience’s knowledge when she ironically addresses serious issues.

This immediacy reveals an important feature of poetry slam in line 11: humor. The statement, “Speaking two languages literally makes your brain stronger,” evokes laughter with the audience and the poet as well. It gives the poem, which carries a serious meaning, a lightness which is not to be confused with being trivial. As Hoffman points out, “Laughter evoked by the poetry slam likewise frees participants from the prohibitions and norms of a dominant culture, allowing them, if momentarily, to construct a second unofficial culture from which to contest the hierarchies that structure their daily lives” (Hoffman 62). In Martinez performance, line 11 concludes the introductory part and gives the audience a short moment to laugh before she continues with the second part of her performance.

The poem continues by describing what Chicana means to different people. Chicana has become a fashion trend, and in line 4, Martinez asks the addressee in her poem if she is “Selena Quintanilla enough for you?” This reference to the American singer and so-called “Queen of Tejano music” (“Selena”), who became a legend after her death in 1995, is a direct comment on the fact that marginalized groups in the United States are often described by celebrities, food, or music. This again puts them into certain categories which are mostly stereotypes. Asking whether or not she is enough of the singer Selena Quintanilla shows a consciousness of this stereotyping and ironically fires the question back at the addressee. Again, in line 8, Martinez addresses the close associations that are made with food when it comes to Chicana heritage and culture. Addressing these stereotypes of food and fashion trends shows an active resistance towards those who picture Chicanx culture as nothing more than that.

A central issue of Chicana feminism is sexual oppression; there is still a constant debate amongst Chicana feminists on the definition and position of feminism. However, it stands for a constant fight against sexism, male domination, and sexual oppression (hooks 24). Martinez addresses the issue of male domination in her performance; starting in line 12, Martinez’ 61 narrative tells the story of a conversation between “two adult males” about women. This line also introduces the second part of the poem and initiates the voice shift that will follow in line 15. The trigger of this voice shift represents the word “weak.” “Weak” is the answer to the question of how a man who “can’t handle a Latina, Chicana or anybody brown for that matter” is called. The strategy of reciting an overheard conversation is chosen on purpose to use it as a trigger. The next lines show an aggressive and emotional performance and a text that explicitly refuses oppression. Refusing that she is not “something that needs to be dealt with,” therefore refusing to be objectified, and refusing to be categorized as a “disaster” is performed strongly and evokes emotions with the audience. In post-colonial narratology, the aim is to investigate the literary staging of ascribed attributes (Nünning and Nünning 125). Martinez stages the ascribed attributes of Chicanas, which force a man to be called “weak” if he cannot handle Chicanas, to perform a voice shift. The poem’s tone shifts, and the poem itself gains speed as well as emotion. Additionally, in line 18, Martinez again addresses the issue of food as a form of cultural categorization. By suggesting that “all my culture can offer you is a frozen buzz with salt, sometimes sugar and around the rims of a headache,” once again, the poet explicitly addresses the discrimination many Chicanx workers have to suffer from, especially during their everyday work. The metaphor of popular drinks is not only a tool to describe the simple view of Mexican culture, it is also used to build a bridge within the poem.

Starting with the “brain freeze” that is caused by consuming cold beverages, Martinez uses the term “freeze” again to show how the opinion of Americans about Mexicans has “frozen in time.” In fact, Martinez expresses Mexico as her country and gives it a possessive pronoun, calling it “my Mexico.” Thus, she suggests that the derogatory attitude towards Mexicans was developed “years ago” and has been stuck in people’s minds ever since. The poem has now undergone another voice shift. The addressees are not the old men but rather the country itself. Martinez uses the second person “you” to directly address “America” as a person who “made up its mind about not wanting us years ago” and who “stuck with it.” America becomes the protagonist of the poem and is addressed directly. However, “America” is not considered to be an enemy; rather, Martinez’ lyrics suggest that “America” does not belong to any specific type but to everybody (line 24).

5.3.3 REPRESENTATION OF POWER IN PERFORMANCE

Furthermore, categories for an analysis of imparting the staging of identity are provided by Genette’s differentiation between “narration” and “focalization” (qtd. in Nünning and Nünning

62 131), which describes the composition of the mode of perception of narrators and figures (focalization) and can be identified as a conceptualization of power (qtd. in Nünning and Nünning 131). Martinez’ performance also provides a staging of power. While she does give a voice to both sides of colonization, in this case Chicanas and men, she also directly answers the utterances made by the two men. Therefore, Martinez demonstrates a form of power in which she gives a voice to her colonizers but simultaneously reacts to their perception of Chicanas. When deciding what she allows the characters depicting the two men to say, she presents the power she embodies in her poem. It is her decision to use the dialogue of two men about Chicana women to give her the stage to react to it and show resistance by answering their opinion of women. Thus, a dynamic relationship between her and the other is created in order to show resistance. Moreover, Martinez demonstrates power by melting the characters of the two men into one and addressing “America” as a new character (line 21). This formation of a new character demonstrates her power by silencing the two men and substituting them with the new character, “America.” On the one hand, this manifests the interdependence between the colonizer and the colonized subject, and on the other hand, it empowers the poet’s resistance.

In respect of the depiction and conception of figures at the story level of the poem, the narrative staging of the figures in the story of the poem indicates the potential for conflict between the colonizer and the colonized subject. As the conception of the figures suggests, the two men, who work as a tool to create the stereotype of white male domination, are only overheard by the narrator and do not actively participate in a conversation with her. In post-colonial context, the constellation of figures allows an analysis of the dynamic changes between certain figures and their functions (Nünning and Nünning 133). In line 12, Martinez applies the conversation between the two men to later respond to the attributed stereotypes. However, the conversation between those men is only “overheard” by her; she is not an active part of it. This emphasizes that the existing potential for conflict is already staged in the constellation of the figures as the colonized subject is not allowed or able to take an active part in the conversation with the colonizers. However, conflict can be a trigger for transformation; especially the reaction to conflict can change the existing discourse, depending on the response to it (Anzaldúa et al. 4). Martinez does not flee from conflict but reacts directly to it. She includes the conflict in her lyrics in order to be able to react to it. Therefore, she creates a dialogue between the colonizer and the colonized subject and uses it to shift her voice to one that is heard; although she is silenced by the conversation, she responds to it, and therefore, she presents courage and action.

63 The response she gives is a turning point in the poem and simultaneously stands for a turning point in the world of Chicana feminism. The respond is angry, performed very fast with a louder voice than the one used for the first lines, and evokes strong emotions with the audience and the poet herself. In “This bridge we call home”, Anzaldúa points out that “activism is the courage to act consciously on our idea, to exert power in resistance to ideological pressure – to risk leaving home” (5). In this poem, activism is the courage to response to the conversation instead of being silenced.

Moreover, the responses transform the poet’s identity from a personal identity into a cultural one. Martinez’ identity is a dynamic process and shifts from an individual to a collective identity. She introduces the hybridity of identity by asking why it is so difficult to understand that “I am you and you are me” (line 24). An identity, which goes beyond the borders of nationalities, is constructed and invites all Americans to be part of it.

5.3.4 USE OF AUTHENTICITY

The use of authenticity represents an important technique in Martinez’ performance. She does not only use an identity poem to tell her story, but also, Martinez tells an actually story of her life in this poem. This story starts in line 25 and introduces a new part of the poem; the lyrics and performance tell the story of discrimination at the U.S.-Mexican border. Shifting the narrator’s voice to the first person, Martinez creates a scene which shows the daily routines at checkpoints. Line 26 functions as a tool to name what is allowed across the border; these items are staged as representatives for the exploitative politics and customs of U.S. society. U.S. history, as pointed out in the chapter on the historical overview, shows a pattern of inviting and deporting Mexican workers, depending on the labor that is and was needed in the country at a certain point of time. Martinez uses the symbol of “foreign fruit” and “seed” to present the view of people of Mexican descent as exotic and the stigmatization as a consequence thereof. This version of stereotyping is described by Homi Bhabha as part of colonial discourse which depends on the construction of “otherness.” This “otherness” simultaneously represents stereotypes which are characterized by “fixity” (Bhabha, “The Other Question…” 18). Therefore, the other is clearly distanced and described as an exotic being, but at the same time this construct represents an immutable stereotype and contributes to a racist narrative.

The scene that is created in lines 25 to 29 depicts the story of a family wanting to cross the border back to the United States. It ends with the father, called “my dad”, not being “allowed home.” Indicating that the family lives in the U.S. and is of Mexican descent, the created scene 64 shows the arbitrariness of U.S. law. Martinez emphasizes this by phrasing, “Why buy the cow when you can milk the life out of it in color of corruption of free trade?” These lines can be seen as direct criticism of the trade agreements between the United States and Mexico. When criticizing the exploitation of Mexican workers by U.S. economy, Martinez stages these injustices by asking rhetorical questions such as, “Why pay more for the original when you can buy the photocopy of the photocopy of pennies to the dollar?” to draw attention to the story of underpaid Mexican workers and by using the example of the family father in her poem. Chicana cultural studies are concerned with the realities of Chicanas/os and focus on the representation of these realities to shed light on the daily struggles which are represented in Chicana art (Chabram-Dernersesian xix). By reciting the struggles and experiences that are taking place at the U.S.-Mexican border and the labor exploitation of Mexican workers, Martinez calls attention to the struggles many families have to face and sheds light on issues which are rather wished to remain unseen.

Chicana cultural studies aims at positioning a new form of “transnational literacy that does not erase working-class or immigrant populations or see the nation as being polluted by the hybrid cultures or vivid memories of the expansive borderlands” (Chabram-Dernersesian 3). The term “invasive species” is repeatedly used throughout the poem and suggests a depiction of people of Mexican descent to be as invasive in the United States as a species which spreads uncontrollably. Martinez consciously repeats this term to challenge and address the existing stereotypes made by a conservative U.S. society.

The last part recounts a conversation between her and her mother, talking about how they will get her father home. Home, in this case, is considered to be the United States. However, assumingly, the story that is told through this poem deals with her father, who was born in Mexico, not being able to reenter the United States although he had been working and living there. Martinez addresses her father directly in line 33 by talking to him about how all he wanted was to thrive on the love of this land. However, the country takes this land for granted, she mentions. Indicating the attitude of naturalness of the U.S. territory is a clear allusion towards the colonization of the Americas. The colonizers take land for granted which has already been inhabited before the arrival of Spanish and Anglo colonizers, and they still view nonwhite people as an “invasive species.” Martinez sends a clear message towards a dominant society which generalizes and discriminates Mexican-Americans and simultaneously fetishizes Chicanas as portrayed in the first part of this poetry performance.

65 She finalizes the poem by concluding the story about her father not being able to reenter the United States. The last lines suggest though, that he did manage to cross the border and is welcomed with the words “Welcome home.” However, these words include a number of daily struggles which he has to face in order to live in this home. The struggles are hard labor to survive and the daily struggle to fit into the society that he lives in. Valuing the hard work of her father, Martinez states that her choice of men is strongly influenced by the worship of her father. Line 37 can be understood as an attack towards U.S. men who do not work as hard as her father has to and therefore are of no interest to her. Martinez concludes her performance with the powerful message that no one who has not proven to her that he is “worthy” should approach her.

This poem strongly challenges the existing narrative which objectifies and stereotypes Chicanas. It recites names and people, mostly men, who reduce her and other Chicanas to sexualized objects who need as much attention as something that “needs to be handled” needs. Similar to other feminist Chicana poetry slammers such as Mercedez Holtry, Cristina Martinez uses her own life story to create a performance which addresses injustices towards Mexicans and Mexican-American women. Her performance varies in volume speed and level of emotion and also evokes emotions with the audience on-site as well as with the audience watching the performance via internet. Again, both a post-colonial identity as well as a feminist identity are depicted and try to position themselves within both nationalities. The poetry slam stage provides Martinez with the necessary agency to shift her voice towards a political message that aims at fighting social stratification, sexism, and stereotypes back.

66 5.4 AMALIA ORTIZ “XICANA POET”

The poem “Xicana Poet” is three minutes and 28 seconds long and was performed at the National Poetry Slam in 2000. The characteristics of the performance are fast spoken words with a strong influence of acting and the use of different voices. The audience is audible throughout the performance.

5.4.1 FEMINIST POST-COLONIAL NARRATIVE AND RESISTANCE

This performance poetry uses irony and parody to define its identity. Ortiz starts the poem by telling the audience that she has done research and found out that she can be a Chicana poet. Stating what is necessary to be a Chicana poet, Ortiz introduces the irony of this performance. She continues by saying how she could describe parts of her body and uses Spanish terms for it. Throughout the poem, Ortiz uses both Spanish and English. She continues by staging assumptions used by other Chicana writers in order to ironically prove that she could actually be a Chicana poet herself.

Additionally, Ortiz creates sexual lewdness by naming Spanish words for food such as “melons” or “pan dulce”; the performance of these lines is influenced by her acting and the recounting of sexual experiences (line 2). This sexualization works as a tool to address the sexualization of Chicana women metaphorically. By repeating the phrase “I can be a Chicana Poet”, Ortiz puts forward this criticism of fetishizing Chicana women by stating all the assumptions people have about Chicanas. The poet lists all attributes which stereotypically describe a Chicana. This method is used as a parody to mirror society’s perspective on Chicanas (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 90). Using the stage and her skills, Ortiz acts in order to support the message she wants to send. Her over- acted, sometimes comic performance stultifies existing stereotypes of Chicanas. However, the message that is conveyed carries a serious meaning. The tight connection between political activism and literature signifies the importance of literature with spreading a political message (Geuder 73). Ortiz stages her findings on “being a Chicana poet” by attributing herself with different food choices; additionally, she makes a comparison between sexual experiences with “Latin lovers” and terms of food such as “salsa, caliente, tomatille” (line 4). Hence, she sends out a clear message about the frivolity stereotypes like these inherit. Ortiz consciously uses extreme exaggerations of Chicanas to evoke a response with the audience and to challenge the viewers to question their own perspectives on Chicanas. The given connection between the poet

67 and the audience at a poetry slam enables Ortiz to transport her message while challenging the existing awareness of the audience.

5.4.2 LITERAL AND FIGURATIVE VOICE SHIFTS

Ortiz performs numerous voice shifts throughout her poem. Especially, the sexual lewdness that is created in Ortiz’ performance breaks the silence Chicana women are confronted with regarding sexuality in a system of patriarchy. The latter has oppressed women’s sexuality for centuries and only approves sexual desires in the context of marriage. This represents a form of oppression that controls a woman’s body, and any escape from this oppression has led to shame and disrespect within the community (Arredondo 228). In Ortiz performance, sexuality plays an important role as she uses sexual lewdness to resist racial fetishizing many Chicanas are faced with but also to resist the sexual repression within a patriarchal society. Lines 3 and 4 particularly show a strong performance of sexual lewdness which can only be received as such through the poet’s performance. Written words only would not be able create this effect. Therefore, the performance of the poet shows a tremendous impact on the message that is sent and would not have been understood as a form of resistance just by reading. These lines break the silence and build up resistance against patriarchal structures in society.

Racial fetishism is an issue many Chicana women have to face. According to Homi Bhabha, racial fetishism represents a form of stereotyping and is part of a colonial discourse in which the representation of the other is an ambivalence between recognizing the other and, simultaneously, viewing the other as a fixed stereotype. Therefore, the other represents something that is “already known” and something that must be “anxiously repeated” (Bhabha, “The Other Question…” 18). Ortiz addresses the issue of racial fetishism in her poem by making a comparison between a “Latin lover” and food and by stating that it would “of course be like spicy salsa.” The most consistent stereotype of Chicanas is the representation of their “tropicalness”; a narrative is being developed by means of a depiction of a homogenous identity which puts all Chicanx in one category of being bright, colorful, and passionate and by an emphasis on a portrayal which is strongly influenced by sexualizing Chicanx (GuzmáN and Valdivia 211). By using tropes of food to describe the perception of Chicanx culture with flavors such as “spicy,” Ortiz reveals the most common clichés Chicanas are confronted with on a daily basis. Giving these stereotypes a voice and deciding to turn them into a parody which challenges the existing structure and the audience, the poet puts her female voice in the center

68 of attention and empowers it by turning herself into an active participant of this discourse rather than a passive victim.

Ortiz continues the performance by stating that another way of being a Chicana poet could be to reveal her family’s secrets. However, Ortiz challenges the audience by saying that it does not deserve to hear about her “broken home, unfaithful father, exploited step-mother” (line 8). The Chicana experience is strongly influenced by a common background such as being part of the working-class and a constant struggle to position themselves within Anglo-American society and the patriarchal structures of their Mexican culture (Arredondo 3–4). However, Ortiz challenges these stereotypical representations of her culture by implying that it is not everyone’s right to hear about her personal history. Although certain assumptions are made about her in order to qualify as a Chicana poet in the eyes of a hegemonic society, Ortiz resists these attributes by stating that the audience does not “deserve” to hear her family’s secrets (line 7– 10).

In lines 11–14, Ortiz continues to recite the attributes she inherits which seem to be necessary in order to be called a Chicana poet. Mentioning the overuse of vowel sounds, which are attributed to Chicana speech, Ortiz again addresses stereotypes directly. In order to identify stereotypes as a form of knowledge which inhabits a paradoxic nature demands a theoretical debate that questions the position of their meanings (Bhabha, “The Other Question…” 18). The typical stereotype of specific Chicana speech, which depicts an overuse of vowel sounds and an exposure of emotion, is addressed directly in Ortiz’ performance. However, Ortiz simultaneously deconstructs the development of such stereotypes by stating that she is not afraid to state the “raw emotion of just how much La Raza has struggled” (line 12–13). Challenging the superficiality of stereotypes concerning Chicanas speech becomes evident as Ortiz provides the audience with an explanation of the struggles her culture has to face. As mentioned before, the term “La Raza,” literally translated “the race” (“La Raza - English Translation – Linguee”), refers to Mexican people who in fact are not considered to be of Mexican race but rather have demographic influences from all over the world due to their history of colonization and immigration. It also refers to solidarity amongst Mexicans who do not connect their Raza with any form of racial purity; in fact, quite the opposite is the case: it presents the hybrid for humankind (Romero). Ortiz does not hesitate to show consciousness of her Raza’s struggle and refers to herself as being “una macha” – which is translated as a feminine term for macho; neither does she hesitate to call herself a Chingona – a confident and

69 strong woman (“Urban Dictionary”). Ortiz shifts her voice when proudly identifying as a “Chingona, Macha”, stating that she is not afraid to call herself that.

In respect of the composition of attributes, the staging of post-colonial concepts through the voice of the narrator can reveal existing hierarchies and therefore opens a space of agency for the poet herself (Nünning and Nünning 130). Ortiz uses this space by staging the attributes she is endued with but simultaneously owning them with pride and consciousness towards a new narrative that goes beyond the categorization of people. In line 16, Ortiz recites the myth of La Malinche and names Hernan Cortez. She states that she can “whip out allusion after allusion”; the repetition of these words emphasizes the easiness of making up assumptions about people. Ortiz continues by claiming that she can do that faster than “Malinche can be Malosa, Cortez can conquer or Frida can feel.” These comparisons also deconstruct history; La Malinche, who inhabits negative and positive connotations amongst Chicana feminists, functions as a tool to stage a post-colonial identity.

The fast performance of the poem takes a break in line 17 when Ortiz says that she also has a “spiritual side.” Her speech slows down and becomes deeper as she utters the sentence about having a spiritual side. Her hands form a cross over her face before they are put together to a gesture of prayer. When Ortiz enunciates her spiritual side, laughter can be heard in the audience. Line 17 emphasizes the impact performance has on the artist’s voice. While her spirituality could easily be read as a criticism of religion, the performance indicates that Ortiz is in fact criticizing other Latino/a writers and their performance of spirituality. Therefore, Ortiz addresses fellow Latino/a writers who embody stereotypes through their performance of religion (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 91). By ironically staging spirituality, Ortiz declares her identity to go beyond the stereotypical perception of a Chicana.

The last lines of the poem give response to what she can do to be a Chicana writer. They also conclude the stereotypes recited before by stating that she could “pimp” her “culture” and “use all the expected tools” to put herself “even further into a stereotype of an old archetype” she “can’t even remember” (line 18). This line in particular responses to the stereotypes imposed on her. She continues by stating that she would have to “ignore other realities in her brain” in order to embody the stereotype which is expected from her by society. This line indicates that reality, in fact, cannot be compared to the fiction that is created through these stereotypes.

70 In lines 21–23, Ortiz asks the audience, “But you don’t really want to know about me, do you? Just see me do the Latino thing?” This question yet again emphasizes society’s willingness to stereotype cultures. As Homi Bhabha points out, in colonial discourse “otherness” represents an “object of desire and dirision, an articulation of difference contained within the fantasy of origin and identity” (“The Other Question…” 19). By using a rhetorical question, she addresses the society that is not willing to change its opinion about her (line 21). She ends her poem by stressing that she is both: Chicana and Latina; although “some people never put the two together”, she states, “Me vale” which means that she does not care. This last statement presents a voice shift towards an identity that does not care whether or not it fulfills the attributes a Chicana poet is supposed to fulfill; neither in Anglo-American society nor amongst her fellow Chicanas/os. The end of the performance with the Spanish phrase “me vale” emphasizes a conscious differentiation between two languages and ultimately two cultures. In post-colonial theory, the usage of the language of the colonized subject sends a political message and portrays a form of resistance towards the dominating language and culture (Nünning and Nünning 144).

Amalia Ortiz performs a poem which can be understood as a declaration of her identity. Ortiz chooses to stage the construction of her identity in the context of irony and therefore challenges the audience and sends a clear message towards hegemonic society. Her poem is performed with high speed and presents a mix of English and Spanish words which are mostly used throughout the poem to create a sexual lewdness that addresses racial fetishism of Mexican- Americans. The audience plays an important role in Ortiz’ performance poetry. It can be assumed that due to the political nature of a poetry slam, Ortiz takes the audience’s knowledge into account and therefore aims at challenging their existing perceptions. Thus, the ironically performed attributes of Chicana poets break the existing knowledge; even if that knowledge has already been positioned in a discourse that is aware of the discriminating narrative of Mexican-Americans in the United States. It becomes evident that the stage of a poetry slam tournament like this enables Ortiz to shift her voice against repression and stereotyping. By reading the poem, one could get the impression of it being a mere criticism of religion. However, by watching the performance, one realizes that Ortiz is not only criticizing religion itself but rather the religious attributes many Chicanx poets in fact represent.

Ortiz collects these assumptions and stereotypes a typical Chicana poet “must have” and responses to them collectively in the last two lines. She states that she is in fact both, a Chicana and a poet, and while many people will “never put these two together” – she just does not care. The last lines represent a strong empowerment and a clear message towards Chicana feminists. 71 Ortiz distances herself from any form of categorization because she does not want to be part of it. Revealing that she can be both a Chicana and a poet, Ortiz constructs a self which is not a homogenous or static circumstance but rather a dynamic process. By emphasizing her authenticity, she overthrows the stereotype.

72 6 CONCLUSION

Chicana slam poetry represents an art form which continuous the legacy of oral tradition and Chicanx activism. This tradition can be traced back to the 19th and 20th century when so-called “Corridos”, narrative folk songs, where performed to address political thought. The 21st century puts this tradition in a new context but with the same political meaning. Slam poetry is performed at informal venues and represents a competitive art form. In addition to these venues, slam poetry is commonly distributed via platforms such as YouTube. These platforms have become crucial for contemporary activists to transport their message.

The analyzed works of Chicana poetry slam, “My Blood is Beautiful,” “Trapped Room,” “My Chicana” and “Xicana Poet”, show a direct connection to the concepts of post-colonial and feminist criticism and explicitly construct these identities. While each poem differs in performance and conveyance, the overall aim of empowering women can be seen as a common theme. The aim of this analysis firstly was to identify the depiction of identities and then to show that these identities, which carry a strong political voice, find a new sense of agency and power in the art form of slam poetry. Due to the nature of an actual poetry slam and the close connection between the artist and the audience, such messages experience another voice shift which enables empowerment and sends a strong political message.

The first poet who was subject of this analysis was Mercedez Holtry. Her poetry deals with her personal experiences as a Chicana living in the United States and addresses poverty, education, language, and community. The analyzed poems were “My Blood is Beautiful” and “Trapped Room.” The first poem is influenced very strongly by the daily discriminations Chicanas have to face. Holtry stages this issue by telling the story of her life. Throughout this story, she transports a strong message of resistance which empowers Chicanas, and she shifts her voice towards contesting male domination. These voice shifts become visible numerous times in her performances and represent figurative as well as literal voice shifts. The poetry slam offers her the stage to do so. Holtry uses the form of an identity poem to tell the story of her life and stages it within the frame of the poetry slam. This platform, which practices an open-door policy and therefore allows all forms of poetry, enables her to tell her story and depict her identity without the restrictions of a literary genre. Therefore, the expression of identity reaches a new level due to the freedom of performance and the competitive aspects poetry slam offers.

73 Additionally, slam poetry has experienced an increase in the emphasis of identity by its poets. This development can be explained due to the fact that poetry slams have opened the field of a former exclusive literary genre to all people and therefore have opened a stage for minority groups to express their identity. Thus, diversity is performed on stage, and this can be seen as a form of resistance against the “homogeneity of official verse culture” (Somers-Willett, “Slam Poetry and the Cultural Politics of Performing Identity” 69). In the poem “My Blood is Beautiful”, Holtry takes advantage of the idea of expressing oneself through slam poetry and does not only act in resistance against poetical tradition but positions herself in resistance against racial stereotypes. Connecting the history of Mexican-Americans to post-colonial theory as well as feminist theories, Holtry constructs an identity that is highly influenced by her ancestor’s history and shows a clear depiction of a feminist and post-colonial identity. This construction is shown throughout the performance numerous times and shows a continuation of Gloria Anzaldúa’s theories on a “Mestiza consciousness,” namely the consciousness of women of “mixed blood” who find themselves in a constant battle with society (Anzaldúa 100). Holtry references historic events such as the Spanish Conquest and American colonization and simultaneously claims this history to be part of her identity. She does so by explicitly stating the consciousness she has of her history. This consciousness is emphasized through her performance on stage, and Holtry undergoes numerous voice shifts throughout her poem. She literally shifts her voice depending on what she is saying. For instance, this becomes obvious when her speech speeds up and her tone shifts as soon as she lists stereotypes. She also undergoes a figurative voice shift by declaring her identity with her performance. This declaration reaches a high point at the end of her poem when Holtry explicitly lists what her identity is and what not. Again, the close connection with the audience and the performance of identity at a poetry slam enables the poets to convey their messages not only in written form but spoken out loud.

The second poem of this analysis is called “Trapped Room” and also performed by Mercedez Holtry. In contrast to her first poem, this one has a strong feminist attitude and puts an emphasis on stereotypes all women have to face on a daily basis. In this performance, a connection with Chicana feminist theory, as defined in the first section of this thesis, appears. Holtry uses her performance to address all women and does not restrict her message to Chicanas. Chicana feminist theorists such as Gloria Anzaldúa and Chela Sandoval put forward the ideas to celebrate differences and to avoid seeing Third World feminism and white feminism as opponents. Hence, Holtry’s performance can be seen as carrying on this legacy. In order to

74 convey this message, Holtry takes advantage of the freedom the art form of slam poetry offers her. This is shown in the strong influence of performance on her poem. Holtry’s voice shifts several times throughout her performance. These voice shifts strengthen herself and give extra force to the message she wants to convey. Similar to Holtry’s first performance, this poem also uses her personal story as a tool to send a political message.

It comes as no surprise that identity poems have enjoyed popularity amongst poetry slammers. Especially poetry slammers of minority groups such as women, people of color, gays, and lesbians have used identity poems to declare their identities. Therefore, poets use the stage not only to express their identity but also to connect with the audience to achieve a transmission of their message. This act of voice shift is enabled through the literal voice shift of spoken word poetry and the figurative voice shift of putting one’s subjectivity into the center. The analysis of the first two poems brought forth the importance of performance for Mercedez Holtry’s voice shifts.

The analysis continued with a third poem performed by Cristina Martinez. In contrast to Mercedez Holtry, Martinez has not gotten as much attention as Holtry amongst the slam poetry community. However, the fact that Martinez, despite her lack of prominence, uses the platform of a poetry slam to send her political message proves the political nature of slam poetry. In other words, the poetry slam offers her a place to transmit her message and does not exclude her. Poetry slams are characterized by their open-door policy, which welcomes any person who is willing to perform on stage.

Martinez’ poem “My Chicana” constructed a strong identity which contests the existing narrative of women. Therefore, the theoretical approach of feminist narratology was applied numerous times to this poem, and the analysis identified different tools Martinez used in her performance to support her message of resistance. The content of her work is strongly influenced by the declaration of a Chicana feminist identity and addresses the stereotypes she has to face because she is Chicana. Therefore, Martinez uses her performance to address white male domination and racism in the United States. Again, her performance belongs to the genre of identity poetry and is used to express and declare her identity. The connection between the audience and the poet is very prominent in Martinez’ performance because, in her case, the audience seemingly supports her throughout her performance. This support becomes evident when Martinez forgets her lines during her performance. The audience immediately reacts to the insecurity of the poet and encourages her by applauding, which gives her time to remember

75 her lines. Her performance once again shows the impact the immediate connection between the poet and the audience has on the performance. Throughout the thesis, I have argued that slam poetry opens up a new sense of agency for Chicana poets to shift their voices towards empowering women and declaring their identity. Martinez takes advantage of the space that is provided by the poetry slam and uses it to oppose the existing narrative on Chicanas. This opposition leads to a new form of identity, an identity that goes beyond the borders of poetic traditions and sexism. Merging these two aspects, the analysis shows that this process enables Chicana poetry slammers to declare their identities and simultaneously empower women.

The analysis concludes with the last poet, Amalia Ortiz, and her performance “Xicana Poet.” Ortiz’ work differs from the other poems concerning her performance on stage. It is strongly influenced by irony. This irony is used throughout the entire performance and sets the tone of what she is trying to say. As mentioned in the theory part, the staging of certain aspects is of importance for constructing a post-colonial identity. Ortiz uses this trope to construct an identity for herself, and at the same time she challenges the existing narrative and the audience in her room. However, the irony of her performance cannot be identified as such if the performance doesn’t support it. Merely reading the poem would result in a criticism of Anglo-American society. But watching the performance on stage opens a new spectrum and shows that Ortiz is not only criticizing society but also fellow Chicanx poets.

The use of parody becomes evident as Ortiz excessively performs the stereotypes which are attributed to her. Therefore, she embodies the stereotypes and challenges her audience as well as society. In contrast to the other poems which have been subject of analysis in this thesis, Ortiz uses humor and irony to transport her message. She manages to reflect the quest for identity by staging every assumption she does not want to be made about her. Holtry and Martinez in contrast transport this message through a partly emotional performance. Ortiz, however, adds irony to these emotions, which does not decrease the intensity of her performance. The analysis shows that each poet declares her identity differently. While Holtry and Martinez use a very explicit performance to do so, Ortiz uses irony to express herself implicitly.

The theoretical approach to the works of art of Chicana poetry slammers should be proof for the reader that poetry slams offer a stage for poets to express and declare their identities without any genre-based limitations. This is of great importance to Chicana poetry slammers as it enables them to construct and declare their identities. The analysis proves that these Chicana

76 poetry slammers construct feminist post-colonial identities and embrace these identities in order to send messages of empowerment to women. The issues addressed in all four poems, which were subject of this analysis, have in common that Chicanas are still faced with discrimination, racism, and stereotypes in their lives. Although these issues can be seen as a common theme amongst the analyzed poets, the performances vary tremendously. Each poet takes up the time and space the stage offers her to perform an individual poem.

The decision to analyze four poems by three different poets arose out of two reasons. Firstly, the aim of this thesis was to show a new movement amongst Chicana feminists, who have gained attention within the scope of slam poetry. Secondly, an analysis of different poems was necessary to show the different approaches each poet takes in order to construct identity. This made it possible to experience the constructions of identity and shed light on the diversity of this new movement. This thesis aimed at contributing an academic perspective on the political nature of slam poetry. Each analysis has shown that the immediacy of communication between the poet and her audience has influenced the transmission of political contents and therefore supports the argument which has been stated at the beginning of this thesis.

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Primary Sources

Mercedez Holtry “My Blood is Beautiful” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiOyn6NQEEg

Mercedez Holtry “Trapped Room” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKEsRNBAmnw

Cristina Martinez “My Chicana” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zXZD5R3vMU

Amalia Ortiz “Xicana Poet” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5CjFZbFCrU

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86 Appendix A. MERCEDEZ HOLTRY “MY BLOOD IS BEAUTIFUL”

1. The old man from the coffee shops asks for my name 2. I write Mercedez Holtry on a piece of paper – he stares at it 3. Holtry, ha? If you are Chicana, how did you end up with a German last name? 4. Oh, you must be a coyote a child of mixed blood 5. What he means to assume is: you must be a bastard, a mutt, mongrel, vagabond, impure messy, complicated messed up monstrosity, you’re one of those people huh 6. your parents are two opposite flavors and swirly fucked you into existence 7. you are all Spanish accent and light skin, all long dark hair and freckles 8. too ghetto for AP placement not brown enough to be called Mexican 9. You were that kid I bet 10. Always having to prove your split tongue, always having to hear whispers about the skin you are in 11. The assumptions about were your blood comes from 12. Pinchi Sangrona, the brown girls would say 13. She thinks she is all that because she’s half white, talking smack in Spanish as if my grandmother never taught me how to cuss in our native tongue 14. answering questions like: You know Spanish? Are you Spanish? What about Hispanic. You kinda look Latina There is no way you are Mexican You look white to me If you are white why to you pretend to be brown You know Mexican is not a race right He, What’s your dad your mom is from Mexico 15. Eventually, the questions and assumptions write themselves into a history lesson 16. My story is the story of 9 Million Americans who like me check the other box on the census 17. I am the walking definition of rape, kill and conquer I am bird from oppressed and oppressor I am Aztec indigenous woman and Spanish conquistador 18. My ancestors were the ones mistaken for white gods and also the ones enslaved into patriarchy 19. I am part recognize your privilege and never forget your struggle 20. Mexican mother and American father; Chihuahua Mexico and grandfathers orphanage 87 21. part traceable to the root, part accepting the unknown 22. In the 17th century, the system of castas was based on the accepted knowledge that the character and quality of people varied according to their birth, race color and origin of ethnic types 23. and soon, every name they call you only places you back on the list of social stratification 24. Mestizo, Castizo, Spaniard, Mulatto, Albino, Morisco, Coyote, Albarazado, Chamiso , lobo 25. Barcino, Coyote, Torna atrás, Coyote mestizo, Ahí te estás 26. They all translate to mixed blood, blood that is not pure 27. You are not pure, the old man tells me with his face 28. America loves pure 29. And you are messy, different, disordered, brewed needed and fused together 30. I nod my head as to say Yeah, I am a walking history lesson 31. proof that we all come from the same tree but eventually outgrow roots 32. so yes, I am a mix of things but what I am not is a fucking identity crisis 33. some kind of chemistry experiment 34. Americas ignorant assumptions about who I am, what I feel, how I act 35. My character belongs to me, my identity belongs to me, my blood belongs to me 36. and I’ll be damned if anyone calls my blood anything but beautiful.

88 Appendix B. MERCEDEZ HOLTRY “TRAPPED ROOM”

1. On my 20th birthday I realized that being a woman is standing in a room full of doors 2. With multiple exists 3. But instead of the sign labeled Exit at the top of the door it’s a stereotype you inherit when you exit the room 4. The anxiety of walking through the wrong is the sound of nails against a chalkboard 5. A screeching agony that bruises the body 6. Labels you something you didn’t ask for 7. You were just trying to find a way out of a cage as the second sex but no matter which exit you choose you become displeasing 8. Walk through the exit sign labeled housewife: bitch that cleans up the place 9. Feminist: bitch that needs to be put in her place 10. Pro-choice: murderer 11. Clothes too tight: hoe 12. Clothes too loose: dyke (?) 13. Latina: 62cents the dollar 14. Black woman: 69 cents the dollar 15. Vagina: not getting paid the full dollar 16. Comfortable with sexuality: slut 17. Virgin: prude 18. Raped: asked for it 19. At this age, I am playing tug of war with my identity everyone is constantly telling me what to put in my vagina, what not to put in my vagina 20. The media tells me I need to fill the hole to fill hole 21. The protestors tell me my body does not belong to me the church says I am a sinner 22. The womanizer says: be a dirty girl be a good girls be a pretty girl be a girl that doesn’t talk too much doesn’t speak up isn’t opinionated 23. God forbid I say something “stupid” because I am female 24. As a woman, this world cuts out your tongue in spite the bite you took out of the forbidden fruit 25. your mouth tastes bitter after all the times you were silenced 89 26. They will hold your voice in the palm of their hands 27. And decide what is best for your because choosing the wrong exit is inevitable 28. I am sitting here asking “Who the fuck put me in this place anyways?” 29. Was it the politicians, our fathers and brothers, double standards, Eve’s curiosity Adam’s bitemarks, your religion, the government, MTV, FOX news, antifeminist 30. Who must I set myself straight with I am trying really hard to act like a proper lady to speak when spoken to 31. This world has trained be to be a domestic animal, an obedient creature, subservient, complient 32. Sexism is that you can never really seem to get rid of even after pubertiy 33. But on my 20th birthday I realized that I am a beast ready to break out of this cage 34. Think of lioness(?) meets she-wolf , Athena meets Tomb Raider a warrior 35. Fighting the everyday struggle to be more than less and not less than equal 36. Reminding you that I breathe the same air as the man who made me and the man I make will breathe the same air as me 37. We will inhale and exhale the same 38. You are not bound to suffocate in this trapped room that I am kamikaze waiting to blow this mother fucker up it will happen 39. Sooner than later I will have more scars than a man ever could 40. Some from birth, sexual harassment domestic abuse hate crimes heartbreak, motherhood, love, war 41. Because every day is a battle to be woman – to change and grow and learn without being judged for it without being stereotyped without being labelled a scarlett letter 42. A whore, a Bitch a psycho 43. I deserve to be equal to be respected to be treasured 44. But more than anything, I deserve to be free

90 Appendix C. CHRISTINA MARTINEZ “MY CHICANA”

1. My Chicana 2. Sounds like mommy, sounds like girl you talk to fast you must be running from something 3. Is it? Is it la Migra? sounds like say lil Mama could you call mi Papi tonight? 4. Tastes like a bed of roses you forgot had thorns 5. Looks like a fashion trend 6. Am I Selena Quintanilla enough for you? 7. Is it Kim Kardashian enough for you because they’re the same, right? 8. Smells like barbacoa y carnitas domingo con la familia 9. And seduction at the same time 10. Whisper sweet nothings in my ear Chica am I just your sweet nothing Chico did you know 11. that speaking two languages literally makes your brain stronger 12. Overheard a conversation between two adult males 13. The question was What do you call a man who can’t handle a Latina, a Chicana or anybody brown for that matter 14. His answer: weak. 15. Weak? As if I am something that needs to be dealt with 16. As if all I have been bred to embody is disaster. 17. As if all my culture can offer you 18. can offer you as a frozen buzz with salt, sometimes sugar and around the rims of a headache 19. there after brain freeze 20. Like your impression of my Mexico has been frozen in time 21. You made up your mind about not wanting us years ago and you stuck with it America 22. A country of its word a stagnant breed if it ain’t broke don’t fix it type a creature of habit 23. All the while my America, our America, this America is imploding, hating itself to death 24. I am you and you are me how is this so difficult to understand 25. Check Point they inspect our luggage at the border and decide what they allow across 91 26. Like the food, the liquor the language of love at a time our effort and labor our hands provide but quickly reject and send our seeds or in this case our people away 27. For in this case fruit bearing seeds are an invasive species in the land of opportunity 28. They have no natural predators and thrive solely of the love of the land 29. They don’t allow my Dad home 30. Why buy the cow when you can milk the life out of it in color of corruption for free white whale 31. Why pay more for the original when you can buy the photocopy of the photocopy of pennies to the Dollar 32. Screenshot the conversation you heard I had my mother as we have a conversation about how we are gonna get him home in one piece 33. Looks like an invasive species all you really want to do was thrive of the love of the land this country so often takes for granted 34. Looks like an invasive species 35. Welcome home, sounds like bills sounds like dethroning a king 36. Smells like the blood and sweat it takes for him to blend in every single day 37. Works harder than any man I’ve ever met so forgive me, forgive me Mami when I do not submit to a man who only half-ass does have to chip my father my father has proven to me that I am worthy of 38. Prove to me that you are worthy or get the fuck out of my face

92 Appendix D. AMALIA ORTIZ “XICANA POET”

1. I have been doing some research among Chicana writers and I discovered that I could be a Chicana poet 2. I can serve latino food in your window by describing my tetas as melones your pan dulche as und chilly my mothers milks is Aguas frescas my panocha es pan si pan dulce 3. And I could squeeze out the obligatory orgasm explaining how sex with a latin lover would of course be like spicy salsa 4. Salsa, caliente, tomatillo, picante, Ei 5. I could cook mi cultura like comida as if the nuances of my experience could be digested in a XXX de flan 6. OH, but somehow I feel like I was talking a whole lot of masa all the same 7. I think I could be a Chicana poet and reveal my inner most family secrets 8. I could be candid enough to let all the chesse man fly as if you really deserve to know about my broken home, my unfaithful wife beating father my victimized, exploited Step - Mama 9. My brain washed gang banger hermanitos mis Primos en la pinta 10. And hell, I could even tell you how my cousin Norma really made her money back in the day 11. I could be a Chicana poet because I can represent XXXX hanging out XXX comic liga por que 12. I think I can be a Chicana poet because “Ahahiiii”- I can speak only in vowel sounds 13. I can be a Chicana poet because I am not afraid of getting angry and exposing all the raw emotion of just how much my Raza has struggled 14. And I’m not afraid to say “Soy una macha” “Una Chingona” “Und fatotototototodosa” 15. And the movimento is so thick boiling in my XX that I’m not afraid to use un pinch 16. I could be a Chicana Poet because I know my history and I'd whip out allusion after allusion faster than Malinche can be Malosa faster than Cortez can conquer faster than Frida can feel 17. And I think I could be a Chicana Poet because . . .I have a spiritual side 18. yes, I could pimp my culture use all the expected tools box myself even further into a stereotype of an old archetype I can't even remember 93 19. And I could ignore other realities circling my brain with breakbeats breaking all the XX down 20. Like transdancers transcending this labeling land of illusion 21. But you really don’t want to know about me, do you? Just see me do that Latino thing? 22. I am Chicana, I am a poet – some people may never put the two together 23. Me Vale!

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