DOCSLIB.ORG

Draftfebruary 16, 2021-- 02:14

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Draftfebruary 16, 2021-- 02:14 Exactification of Stirling’s Approximation for the Logarithm of the Gamma Function Victor Kowalenko School of Mathematics and Statistics The University of Melbourne Victoria 3010, Australia. February 16, 2021 Abstract Exactification is the process of obtaining exact values of a function from its complete asymptotic expansion. This work studies the complete form of Stirling’s approximation for the logarithm of the gamma function, which consists of standard leading terms plus a remainder term involving an infinite asymptotic series. To obtain values of the function, the divergent remainder must be regularized. Two regularization techniques are introduced: Borel summation and Mellin-Barnes (MB) regularization. The Borel-summed remainder is found to be composed of an infinite convergent sum of exponential integrals and discontinuous logarithmic terms from crossing Stokes sectors and lines, while the MB-regularized remainders possess one MB integral, with similar logarithmic terms. Because MB integrals are valid over overlapping domains of convergence, two MB-regularized asymptotic forms can often be used to evaluate the logarithm of the gamma function. Although the Borel- summed remainder is truncated, albeit at very large values of the sum, it is found that all the remainders when combined with (1) the truncated asymptotic series, (2) the leading terms of Stirling’s approximation and (3) their logarithmic terms yield identical valuesDRAFT that agree with the very high precision results obtained from mathematical software packages.February 16, 2021-- 02:14 arXiv:1404.2705v3 [math.CA] 13 Feb 2021 Keywords: Asymptotic series, Asymptotic form, Borel summation, Complete asymp- totic expansion, Discontinuity, Divergent series, Domain of convergence, Exactification, Gamma function, Mellin-Barnes regularization, Regularization, Remainder, Stokes dis- continuity, Stokes line, Stokes phenomenon, Stokes sector, Stirling’s approximation 2010 Mathematics Subject Classification: 30B10, 30B30, 30E15, 30E20, 34E05, 34E15, 40A05, 40G10, 40G99, 41A60 email: [email protected] 1 1 Introduction In asymptotics exactification is defined as the process of obtaining the exact values of a function/integral from its complete asymptotic expansion and has already been achieved in two notable cases. For those unfamiliar with the concept, a complete asymptotic ex- pansion is defined as a power series expansion for a function or integral that not only possesses all the terms in a dominant asymptotic series, but also all the terms in fre- quently neglected subdominant or transcendental asymptotic series, should they exist. The latter series are said to lie beyond all orders, while the methods and theory behind them belong to the discipline or field now known as asymptotics beyond all orders or exponential asymptotics [1]. One outcome of this relatively new field is that it seeks to obtain far more accurate values from the asymptotic expansions for functions/integrals than standard Poincare´easymptotics [2]. These calculations, which often yield values that are accurate to more than twenty decimal places, are referred to as hyperasymptotic evaluations or hyperasymptotics, for short. Hence exactification represents the extreme of hyperasymptotics. In the first successful case of exactification exact values of a particular case of the 3 generalized Euler-Jacobi series, viz. S (a) = ∞ exp( an ), were evaluated from its 3 n=1 − the complete asymptotic expansion, which was given in powers of a. Although it had been found earlier in Ref. [3] that there couldP be more than one subdominant series in the complete asymptotic expansion for the generalized Euler-Jacobi series, the complete asymptotic expansion for S3(a) was found to be composed of an infinite dominant algebraic series and another infinite exponentially-decaying asymptotic series, whose coefficients resembled those appearing in the asymptotic series for the Airy function Ai(z). In carrying out the exactification of this complete asymptotic expansion, a range of values for a was considered with the calculations performed to astonishing accuracy. This was necessary in order to observe the effect of the subdominant asymptotic series, which required in some instances that the analysis be conducted to 65 decimal places as described in Sec. 7 of Ref. [3]. In the second case [4] exact values of Bessel and Hankel functions were calculated from their well-known asymptotic expansions given in Ref. [5]. In this instance there were no subdominant exponential series because the analysis was restricted to positive real values of the variable. However, unlike Ref. [3], different values or levels of truncation were applied to the asymptotic series. Whilst the truncated asymptotic series yielded a different value for a fixed value of the variable, when it was added to the corresponding regularized value for its remainder, the actual value of the Bessel or Hankel function was calculated to within the machine precision of the computing system. The level of truncation was governed by an integer parameter N, which will also be introduced here. In fact, the truncation parameter as it is called will play a much greater role here since it will be set equal to much larger values than those in Ref. [4]. Because a complete asymptotic expansion is composed of divergent series, exactifica- tion involves being able to obtain meaningful values from such series. To evaluate these, one must introduce the concept of regularization, which is defined in this work as the removal of the infinity in the remainder of an asymptotic series in order to make the series summable. It was first demonstrated in Ref. [6] that the infinity appearing in the remainder of an asymptotic series arises from an impropriety in the method used to derive it. Consequently, regularization was seen as a necessary means of correcting an asymp- 2 totic method such as the method of steepest descent or iteration of a differential equation. Regularization was also shown to be analogous to taking the finite or Hadamard part of a divergent integral [6]- [9]. Two very different techniques will be used to regularize the divergent series appearing throughout this work. As described in Refs. [4, 7], the most common method of regular- izing a divergent series is Borel summation, but often, it produces results that are not amenable to fast and accurate computation. To overcome this drawback, the numerical technique of Mellin-Barnes regularization was developed for the first time in Ref. [3]. In this regularization technique divergent series are expressed via Cauchy’s residue theorem in terms of Mellin-Barnes integrals and divergent arc-contour integrals. In the process of regularization the latter integrals are discarded, while the Mellin-Barnes integrals yield finite values, again much like the Hadamard finite part of a divergent integral. Amazingly, the finite values obtained when this technique is applied to an asymptotic expansion of a function yield exact values of the original function, but with one major difference com- pared with Borel summation. Instead of having to deal with Stokes sectors and lines, we now have to contend with the domains of convergence for the Mellin-Barnes integrals, which not only encompass the former, but also overlap each other. So, while Borel sum- mation and Mellin-Barnes regularization represent techniques for regularizing asymptotic series and yield the same values for the original function from which the complete asymp- totic expansion has been derived, they are nevertheless completely different. Moreover, they can be used as a check on one another, which will occur throughout this work. In the two cases of exactification mentioned above only positive real values of the power variable in the asymptotic expansions were considered, although it was stated that complex values would be studied in the future. As discussed in the preface to Ref. [3], such an undertaking represents a formidable challenge because as the variable in an asymptotic series moves about the complex plane or its argument changes, a complete asymptotic expansion experiences significant modification due to the Stokes phenomenon [10]. This means that at particular rays or lines in the complex plane, an asymptotic expansion develops jump discontinuities, which can result in the emergence of an extra asymptotic series in the complete asymptotic expansion. Thus, a complete asymptotic expansion is only uniform over either a sector or a ray in the complex plane, which means in turn that in order to exactify a complete asymptotic expansion over all arguments or phases of the variable in the power series, one requires a deep understanding of the Stokes phenomenon. This understanding entails: (1) being able to determine the locations of all jump discontinuities, and (2) solving the more intricate problem of their quantification when they do occur. Because of the Stokes phenomenon, it becomes necessary not only to specify a com- plete asymptotic expansion, but also the range of the argument of the variable in the power series of the expansion. The combination of two such statements are referred to as asymptotic forms in this work. In particular, it should be noted that if the same complete asymptotic expansion is valid for different sectors or rays of the complex plane, then in each instance the original function being studied will also be different. A major advance in enabling asymptotic forms to be evaluated over all values of the argument of the power series variable occurred with the publication of Ref. [7], which began
Load more

Recommended publications
  • On the Continuability of Multivalued Analytic Functions to an Analytic Subset*
    Functional Analysis and Its Applications, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 51–59, 2001 On the Continuability of Multivalued Analytic Functions to an Analytic Subset* A. G. Khovanskii UDC 517.9 In the paper it is shown that a germ of a many-valued analytic function can be continued analytically along the branching set at least until the topology of this set is changed. This result is needed to construct the many-dimensional topological version of the Galois theory. The proof heavily uses the Whitney stratification. Introduction In the topological version of Galois theory for functions of one variable (see [1–4]) it is proved that the character of location of the Riemann surface of a function over the complex line can prevent the representability of this function by quadratures. This not only explains why many differential equations cannot be solved by quadratures but also gives the sharpest known results on their nonsolvability. I always thought that there is no many-dimensional topological version of Galois theory of full value. The point is that, to construct such a version in the many-variable case, it would be necessary to have information not only on the continuability of germs of functions outside their branching sets but also along these sets, and it seemed that there is nowhere one can obtain this information from. Only in spring of 1999 did I suddenly understand that germs of functions are sometimes automatically continued along the branching set. Therefore, a many-dimensional topological version of the Galois theory does exist. I am going to publish it in forthcoming papers.
    [Show full text]
  • Universit`A Degli Studi Di Perugia the Lambert W Function on Matrices
    Universita` degli Studi di Perugia Facolta` di Scienze Matematiche, Fisiche e Naturali Corso di Laurea Triennale in Informatica The Lambert W function on matrices Candidato Relatore MassimilianoFasi BrunoIannazzo Contents Preface iii 1 The Lambert W function 1 1.1 Definitions............................. 1 1.2 Branches.............................. 2 1.3 Seriesexpansions ......................... 10 1.3.1 Taylor series and the Lagrange Inversion Theorem. 10 1.3.2 Asymptoticexpansions. 13 2 Lambert W function for scalar values 15 2.1 Iterativeroot-findingmethods. 16 2.1.1 Newton’smethod. 17 2.1.2 Halley’smethod . 18 2.1.3 K¨onig’s family of iterative methods . 20 2.2 Computing W ........................... 22 2.2.1 Choiceoftheinitialvalue . 23 2.2.2 Iteration.......................... 26 3 Lambert W function for matrices 29 3.1 Iterativeroot-findingmethods. 29 3.1.1 Newton’smethod. 31 3.2 Computing W ........................... 34 3.2.1 Computing W (A)trougheigenvectors . 34 3.2.2 Computing W (A) trough an iterative method . 36 A Complex numbers 45 A.1 Definitionandrepresentations. 45 B Functions of matrices 47 B.1 Definitions............................. 47 i ii CONTENTS C Source code 51 C.1 mixW(<branch>, <argument>) ................. 51 C.2 blockW(<branch>, <argument>, <guess>) .......... 52 C.3 matW(<branch>, <argument>) ................. 53 Preface Main aim of the present work was learning something about a not- so-widely known special function, that we will formally call Lambert W function. This function has many useful applications, although its presence goes sometimes unrecognised, in mathematics and in physics as well, and we found some of them very curious and amusing. One of the strangest situation in which it comes out is in writing in a simpler form the function .
    [Show full text]
  • Various Mathematical Properties of the Generalized Incomplete Gamma Functions with Applications
    Various Mathematical Properties of the Generalized Incomplete Gamma Functions with Applications by Bader Ahmed Al-Humaidi A Dissertation Presented to the DEANSHIP OF GRADUATE STUDIES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN MATHEMATICS KING FAHD UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM & MINERALS DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA May, 2011 \l'.r..41gzi4r-,1*-414444.4-14444:4414r.14p414.1.4.4*4(4,444 4 VARIOUS MATHEMATICAL PROPERTIES OF THE GENERALIZED INCOMPLETE GAMMA FUNCTIONS 4 WITH APPLICATIONS 4 4 4 BY is BADER AHMED AL HUMAIDI A Dissertation Presented to the DEANSHIP OF GRADUATE STUDIES 4 KING FAHD UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM & MINERALS DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA fit,. in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In 4 MATHEMATICS **. 4 MAY 2011 •> 4 ;4`19PV't4 W4.Lc L'Ff KING FAHD UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM & MINIRALS DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA DEANSHIP OF GRADUATE STUDIES this dissertation, written by BADER AHMED AL HUMAIDI under the direction of his thesis advisors and approved by his thesis committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of Graduate Studies, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN MATHEMATICS. Dissertation Committee Prof. M. A. Chaudhry Dissertation Committee Chairman Prof. S. M. Zubair Co-Chairman Prof. M. A. EI-Gebeily Member Dr. Hattan Tawfiq Prof. A. H. Bokhari Department Chairman Member Dr. Salam Zummo Prof. M. T. Mustafa 10, sr Dean of Graduate Studies i- .eiPiKOY ..;:.-- Member /.0„ ." vtGRADOos" ► 2-1-6 I" Date To my parents, wife, kids, brothers and sisters iii Acknowledgements First, praise be to ALLAH who helped and guided me to accomplish this work.
    [Show full text]
  • Digitally Continuous Multivalued Functions, Morphological Operations and Thinning Algorithms
    Digitally Continuous Multivalued Functions, Morphological Operations and Thinning Algorithms Carmen Escribano • Antonio Giraldo • María Asunción Sastre Abstract In a recent paper (Escribano et al. in Discrete Introduction Geometry for Computer Imagery 2008. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 4992, pp. 81-92, 2008) we have in­ The notion of continuous function is a fundamental concept troduced a notion of continuity in digital spaces which ex­ in the study of topological spaces. For dealing with digital tends the usual notion of digital continuity. Our approach, spaces, several approaches to define a reasonable notion of which uses multivalued functions, provides a better frame­ continuous function have been proposed. The first one goes work to define topological notions, like retractions, in a far back to A. Rosenfeld [19] in 1986. He defined continuous more realistic way than by using just single-valued digitally functions in a way similar to that used for continuous maps continuous functions. in W1. It turned out that continuous functions agreed with In this work we develop properties of this family of con­ functions taking 4-adjacent points into 4-adjacent points. He tinuous functions, now concentrating on morphological op­ proved, amongst other results, that a function between digi­ erations and thinning algorithms. We show that our notion of tal spaces is continuous if and only if it takes connected sets continuity provides a suitable framework for the basic oper­ into connected sets. Independently of Rosenfeld, L. Chen ations in mathematical morphology: erosion, dilation, clos­ [5, 6] seems to have developed the same notion of continu­ ing, and opening.
    [Show full text]
  • On the Lambert W Function 329
    On the Lambert W function 329 The text below is the same as that published in Advances in Computational Mathematics, Vol 5 (1996) 329 – 359, except for a minor correction after equation (1.1). The pagination matches the published version until the bibliography. On the Lambert W Function R. M. Corless1,G.H.Gonnet2,D.E.G.Hare3,D.J.Jeffrey1 andD.E.Knuth4 1Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada, N6A 5B7 2Institut f¨ur Wissenschaftliches Rechnen, ETH Z¨urich, Switzerland 3Symbolic Computation Group, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada, N2L 3G1 4Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA 94305-2140 Abstract The Lambert W function is defined to be the multivalued inverse of the function w → wew. It has many applications in pure and applied mathematics, some of which are briefly described here. We present a new discussion of the complex branches of W ,an asymptotic expansion valid for all branches, an efficient numerical procedure for evaluating the function to arbitrary precision, and a method for the symbolic integration of expressions containing W . 1. Introduction In 1758, Lambert solved the trinomial equation x = q +xm by giving a series develop- ment for x in powers of q. Later, he extended the series to give powers of x as well [48,49]. In [28], Euler transformed Lambert’s equation into the more symmetrical form xα − xβ =(α − β)vxα+β (1.1) by substituting x−β for x and setting m = α/β and q =(α − β)v. Euler’s version of Lambert’s series solution was thus n 1 2 x =1+nv + 2 n(n + α + β)v + 1 n(n + α +2β)(n +2α + β)v3 6 (1.2) 1 4 + 24 n(n + α +3β)(n +2α +2β)(n +3α + β)v +etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Multivalued Functions in Digital Topology, Journal of Mathematical Imaging and Vision 55 (3) (2016), 370-377
    Multivalued Functions in Digital Topology Laurence Boxer ∗ Abstract We study several types of multivalued functions in digital topology. Key words and phrases: digital topology, digital image, multivalued function 1 Introduction A common method of composing a movie or a video is via a set of “frames” or images that are projected sequentially. If a frame is an m × n grid of pixels, then a transition between projections of consecutive frames requires reading and then outputting to the screen each of the mn pixels of the incoming frame. Since many frames must be displayed each second (in current technology, 30 per second is common), a video composed in this fashion uses a lot of memory, and requires that a lot of data be processed rapidly. Often, consecutive frames have a great deal of resemblance. In particular, there are many pairs (i, j) such that the pixel in row i and column j is unchanged between one frame and its successor. If, further, one can efficiently compute for all changing pixels how they change between successive frames, then it is not necessary to use as much storage for the video, as the pixels not changed between successive frames need not be subjected to the i/o described above; and a larger number of frames or their equivalent can be processed per second. E.g., this approach can be taken in computer graphics when the changes in the viewer’s screen is due to the movements or transformations of sprites. Thus, the world of applications motivates us to understand the properties of structured arXiv:1703.01700v1 [math.GN] 6 Mar 2017 single-valued and multivalued functions between digital images.
    [Show full text]
  • Much Ado About Functions
    Much Ado about Functions Alan L. Selman Department of Computer Science State University of New York at Buffalo Buffalo, NY 14260 Abstract questions about NP search problems and about the dif®- culty of inverting polynomial-time computable functions. This paper surveys basic results on complexity classes Most importantly, by studying complexity classes of par- of partial multivalued functions. We stress basic inclusion tial multivalued functions, we directly illuminate interest- relations, interesting hierarchies, and results that demon- ing questions that otherwise would not surface. We will see strate that hierarchies are extant. that properties of complexity classes of partial multivalued functions may be identical to or may differ from those of their corresponding well-known complexity classes of lan- 1 Introduction guages. There are several hierarchies of function classes: a query hierarchy that closely re¯ects the query hierarchy of language classes, a difference hierarchy that only super®- The fundamental data type that a nondeterministic pro- cially resembles the difference hierarchy for languages, and cess computes is a partial multivalued function, partial be- at least one new hierarchy that seems not to correspond to cause nondeterministic computations do not necessarily ac- any collection of language classes. We will see that sev- cept every input, and multivalued because nondeterminis- eral of the interesting questions remain open. In brief, we tic computations may output different values on different will see that studying the complexity of partial multivalued accepting paths. As understanding the power of nondeter- functions is not much ado about nothing. minism is one of the fundamental goals of complexity the- ory, surely, we must study the computational complexity of partial multivalued functions.
    [Show full text]
  • 2. Complex Analytic Functions
    2. Complex Analytic Functions John Douglas Moore July 6, 2011 Recall that if A and B are sets, a function f : A ! B is a rule which assigns to each element a 2 A a unique element f(a) 2 B. In this course, we will usually be concerned with complex-valued functions of a complex variable, functions f : U ! C, where U is an open subset of C. For such a function, we will often write w = f(z) = f(x + iy) = u(x; y) + iv(x; y); where u(x; y) and v(x; y) are the real and imaginary parts of f. We can think of the complex-valued function f as specified by these two real-valued functions u and v. For example, if f : C ! C is defined by w = f(z) = z2, then ( u(x; y) = x2 − y2; z2 = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy ) v(x; y) = 2xy: We can think of this as defining a transformation u = x2 − y2; v = 2xy from the (x; y)-plane to the (u; v)-plane. Our goal is to study complex analytic functions f : U ! C, functions which have a complex derivative at each point of U. We will see that the existence of a complex derivative at every point is far more restrictive than the existence of derivatives of real valued functions. We will also see that a function f : U ! C is complex analytic if and only if its component functions u and v have continuous partial derivatives and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations @u @v @u @v = ; = − : @x @y @y @x Moreover, u(x; y) and v(x; y) automatically have arbitrarily many derivatives and satisfy Laplace's equation: @2u @2u @2v @2v + = 0; + = 0: @x2 @y2 @x2 @y2 These equations have many practical applications.
    [Show full text]
  • CHAPTER 4 Elementary Functions Dr. Pulak Sahoo
    CHAPTER 4 Elementary Functions BY Dr. Pulak Sahoo Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics University Of Kalyani West Bengal, India E-mail : sahoopulak1@gmail:com 1 Module-3: Multivalued Functions-I 1 Introduction We recall that a function w = f(z) is called multivalued function if for all or some z of the domain, we find more than one value of w. Thus, a function f is said to be single valued if f satisfies f(z) = f[z(r; θ)] = f[z(r; θ + 2π)]: Otherwise, f is called as a multivalued function. We know that a multivalued function can be considered as a collection of single valued functions. For analytical properties of a multivalued function, we just consider those domains in which the functions are single valued. Branch By branch of a multivalued function f(z) defined on a domain D1 we mean a single valued function g(z) which is analytic in some sub-domain D ⊂ D1 at each point of which g(z) is one of the values of f(z). Branch Points and Branch Lines A point z = α is called a branch point of a multivalued function f(z) if the branches of f(z) are interchanged when z describes a closed path about α. We consider the function w = z1=2. Suppose that we allow z to make a complete circuit around the origin in the anticlockwise sense starting from the point P. Thus we p p have z = reiθ; w = reiθ=2; so that at P, θ = β and w = reiβ=2: After a complete p p circuit back to P, θ = β + 2π and w = rei(β+2π)=2 = − reiβ=2: Thus we have not achieved the same value of w with which we started.
    [Show full text]
  • ON the TOPOLOGY of N-VALUED MAPS
    ON THE TOPOLOGY OF n-VALUED MAPS Robert F. Brown Department of Mathematics University of California Los Angeles, CA 90095-1555 e-mail: [email protected] Daciberg Lima Gon¸calves Departamento de Matem´atica- IME Universidade de S~aoPaulo CEP 05508-090 - S~aoPaulo - SP - Brazil e-mail: [email protected] January 1, 2018 Abstract This paper presents an exposition of the topological foundations of the theory of n-valued maps. By means of proofs that exploit particular fea- tures of n-valued functions, as distinct from more general classes of multi- valued functions, we establish, among other properties, the equivalence of several definitions of continuity. The exposition includes an exploration of the role of configuration spaces in the study of n-valued maps. As a con- sequence of this point of view, we extend the classical Splitting Lemma, that is central to the fixed point theory of n-valued maps, to a charac- terization theorem that leads to a new type of construction of non-split n-valued maps. Keywords and Phrases: n-valued map, Splitting Lemma, continuity, graph of a function, configuration space, braid group Subject Classification: 54C60, 55M20, 57M10, 20F36 1 Introduction An n-valued map φ: X ( Y is a continuous multivalued function that associates to each x 2 X an unordered subset of exactly n points of Y . The fixed point theory of n-valued maps φ: X ( X has been a topic of considerable interest in recent years and there is much research activity at the present time [3] - [12], [15], [16].
    [Show full text]
  • Branch Differences and Lambert W
    2014 16th International Symposium on Symbolic and Numeric Algorithms for Scientific Computing Branch differences and Lambert W D. J. Jeffrey and J. E. Jankowski Department of Applied Mathematics, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada N6A 5B7 Email: [email protected] Abstract—The Lambert W function possesses In fact, this has already been noticed in a branches labelled by an index k. The value of W variety of contexts, with some instances pre- therefore depends upon the value of its argument dating the naming of the Lambert W function. z and the value of its branch index. Given two branches, labelled n and m, the branch difference For example, in [10], Jordan and Glasser, ap- is the difference between the two branches, when parently working independently, used a substi- x both are evaluated at the same argument z. tution equivalent to W (xe ) to evaluate the It is shown that elementary inverse functions definite integral have trivial branch differences, but Lambert W ∞ √ u has nontrivial differences. The inverse sine func- e−w/2 w u, w , d where = −u tion has real-valued branch differences for real 0 1 − e arguments, and the natural logarithm function has purely imaginary branch differences. The a problem posed by Logan, Mallows & Shepp. Lambert W function, however, has both real- Karamata [11] derived a series expansion for valued differences and complex-valued differ- W as part of his solution of a problem posed by ences. Applications and representations of the branch differences of W are given. Ramanujan. Definite integrals containing the tree T function, a cognate of W , used branch Keywords -complex analysis; special functions; differences in [3].
    [Show full text]
  • 2.4 Branches of Functions
    2.4 I Branches of Functions 79 2.4BRANCHESOFFUNCTIONS In Section 2.2 we defined the principal square root function and investigated some of its properties. We left unanswered some questions concerning the choices of square roots. We now look at these questions because they are similar to situations involving other elementary functions. 80 Chapter 2 I Complex Functions Inour definitionofa functioninSection2.1,we specified that each value of the independent variable in the domain is mapped onto one and only one value in the range. As a result, we often talk about a single-valued function, which emphasizes the “only one” part of the definition and allows us to distinguish such functions from multiple-valued functions, which we now introduce. Let w = f (z) denote a function whose domain is the set D and whose range is the set R.Ifw is a value inthe range,thenthere is anassociated inverse relation z = g (w) that assigns to each value w the value (or values) of z in D for which the equation f (z)=w holds. But unless f takes onthe value w at most once in D, thenthe inverse relation g is necessarily many valued, and we say that g is a multivalued function. For example, the inverse of the function 2 1 w = f (z)=z is the square root function z = g (w)=w 2 . For each value z other than z = 0, then, the two points z and −z are mapped onto the same point w = f (z); hence g is, in general, a two-valued function.
    [Show full text]