Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

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Habitat International

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Planning mega-event built legacies e A case of

* Ying Deng a, , S.W. Poon a, E.H.W. Chan b a Department of Real Estate and Construction, The University of Kong, Pokfulam, b Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong article info abstract

Article history: Mega-events are popular catalysts for launching area-based urban renewal. However, their built legacies Received 9 June 2015 are problematic due to a lack of planning. Besides a much-needed shift in mindset, legacy planning Received in revised form methodology holds the key. This chronic issue is gaining renewed attention with the recent rise of new- 19 November 2015 generation hosts such as where massive event-led construction was fast-tracked in a top-down Accepted 20 November 2015 fashion. What remains less understood is the impact and implications of such a forceful paradigm on Available online xxx legacy planning and urban renewal. This paper aims to address this gap with an in-depth case study of Expo 2010 China. The central theme is to investigate how this paradigm has been adopted to a Keywords: Built legacy previous dockland selected as the Expo 2010 site and a catalyst for city-branding oriented urban renewal. Legacy planning methodology Data was sourced from 2004 to 2015 from personal observations, strategic policies, planning documents, Top-down paradigm photo documentation, and meetings and interviews. This study identifies both the merits and drawbacks Mega-event strategy of this controversial paradigm to caution about its mixed impact on mega-event built legacies. It is Urban renewal concluded that future event cities should shift their mindset from super-developers to guardians of built legacies, and strike a balance between the top-down and bottom-up thinking. A new categorization centering on the legacy planning process is proposed, with guidelines to improve legacy planning methodology for future event cities. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Background introduction Its greatest challenges emerge after the transition of this duality: how to fulfill the longstanding mandate after the cessation of the 1.1. Defining built legacies ephemeral role? Since the 1960s, there has been a global prolifer- ation of mega-event built legacies by scale and complexity. Taking ‘Event legacy’ is an umbrella term most used in the context of World Expos for example, Table 1 categorizes related built legacies global mega-events like Olympic Games and World Expos. It de- into two main types e standalone and area-based. They can be scribes structures which are produced for these short-lived events further divided into several sub-types with examples ranging from and will have long-term implications for host cities and nations. spectacular buildings to advanced infrastructures to revitalized These structures can be planned (environmental improvement), districts. This proliferation has intensified the paradoxical duality of unplanned (sporting ethos), positive (tourism boom), negative built legacies. It is hence necessary to review its causes and prob- (financial deficit), tangible (upgraded infrastructure) or intangible lems before going into the case study. (elevated global status) (Clark, 2008; IOC, 2013b; Hall in Murphy, 1997; Preuss, 2007). Among others built legacies are a focus of 1.2. Mega-event led urban renewal interdisciplinary debate but seldom clearly defined. A mega-event built legacy is a physical structure possessing an In the 1950s, urban renewal was characterized by slum- inborn duality of temporality and permanency. It is purpose-built clearance and engineering megaprojects to revive the economy of to facilitate the holding of an ephemeral mega-event, and will industrialized cities (Altshuler & Luberoff, 2003; Healey, 1992). This function as an enduring urban asset thereafter (Deng & Poon, 2011). infrastructure-based strategy was largely abandoned in the late 1960s due to lacking social and environmental considerations (Roberts & Sykes, 2000). In the 1970s, positioning selective de- * Corresponding author. molition and image-enhancing projects on urban fringes became a E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Deng). more acceptable compromise to ease the tension between http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.11.034 0197-3975/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 164 Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

Table 1 A non-exhaustive list of World Expo built legacies (1962e2010).

Built Types Sub-types Examples legacies

Standalone Symbolic Memorials, monuments The Space Needle e 1962 Seattle; the tower of the Sun e 1970 ; the Skyneedle e Brisbane 1988; the Nepal landmarks Peace Pagoda e Brisbane 1988 Flagship Museums, library, The Pacific Science Center e 1962 Seattle; the knowledge Pavilion (a science museum) e 1988 Brisbane; the China buildings science centers Pavilion, the Expo museum e 2010 Shanghai Conference center, The San Antonio Convention Center e 1968 San Antonio; the Spokane convention center e 1974 Spokane; the exhibition centers Knoxville convention center e 1982 Knoxville; the Brisbane convention and exhibition center e 1988 Brisbane; the Lisbon international exhibition center e 1998 Lisbon; the Expo center, the theme Pavilion e 2010 Shanghai Performing arts centers, Performing arts centers e 1962 Seattle; the Imax movie theater e 1974 Spokane; the Mercedes-Benz Arena e theaters 2010 Shanghai Tourist/recreational The Montreal Casino e 1967 Montreal; the Riverwalk Marketplace (an upscale shopping mall) e 1984 Louisiana; facilities The Casino Lisboa e 1998 Lisbon; A regional shopping mall e 1998 Lisbon; 20 hotels e 1992 Seville Transport Subways An expressway network (redevelopment) e 1967 Montreal; Modernization of the transportation systems e 1992 infrastructures Seville; Ten new subway lines e 2010 Shanghai Water works An artificial island; a boat pier e 1967 Montreal Roads, Expressways A New expressway e 1970 Osaka; A 80-km ring road e 1992 Seville Bridges; tunnels 9 bridges e 1992 Seville; the Vasco da Gama Bridge e 1998 Lisbon Airports A New airport e 1992 Seville; the Centrair Airport e 2005 Aichi; two expanded international airports 2010 Shanghai Railways The Seattle Monorail e 1962 Seattle; the redevelopment of railways e 1967 Montreal; A new railway and an intercity railway line e 1970 Osaka; A railway station e 1992 Seville; expansion of three railway stations e 2010 Shanghai Multi-modal terminals The Gare do oriente (for trains, metro, buses, and taxis) e 1998 Lisbon Meglev train line Megleve train line 2005 Aichi Area- Prominent Parklands; gardens, The Montreal Parkland e 1967 Montreal; the Hemis Fair Park and the river walk e 1968 San Antonio; the Expo based urban districts promenades Commemoration Park e 1970 Osaka; the south bank Parklands e 1988 Brisbane; three riverfront Parks e 2010 Shanghai Theme/amusement The Seattle Center e 1962 Seattle; the Expoland e 1970 Osaka; the World's Fair Park e 1982 Knoxville parks Central business A Premier CBD e 1998 Lisbon districts Science and technology A high-tech R&D center e 1992 Seville; center of information technology, design, media and arts e 2000 parks Hannover Adaptive reuse Reuse of existing exhibition site and facilities e 2000 Hannover Renewed industrial belts Louisville and Nashville Railroad yard and depot e 1982 Knoxville; the Old warehouse district - 1984 Louisiana; Southwest section of the Huangpu riverfronts e 2010 Shanghai Residential/New-town developments The Habitat ’67 converted apartment block e 1967 Motreal; Suita new Town e 1970 Osaka; A residential district for 25,000 people e 1998 Lisbon; the Expo village and the Sanlin Expo Homeland e 2010 Shanghai

economic growth and social frictions (Couch, 1990). In this Due to exorbitant expenditures for staging a mega-event, Essex connection, Expo 1962 in Seattle, USA set a precedent. The Expo and Chalkey's (2004) predicted that mega-events would not be was staged on a peripheral site long reserved for civic uses. About affordable outside developed countries. Nevertheless, the 21st 75% on-site structures were kept as a basis for gradually developing century has so far witnessed mega-events moving from traditional the area into Seattle's most vibrant civic center (Rydell, Findling, & bases in the West to emerging economic powerhouses. By estimate, Pelle, 2000). This first post-war Expo led to a paradigmatic shift China spent USD44 billion on Beijing Olympics (Flyvbjerg & from treating an Expo site as an ephemeral fantasyland to incor- Stewart, 2012) and USD55 billion on Shanghai Expo (Waldmeir, porating the site's renewal process into the city's. Many host cities 2010). Sochi, a small Russian resort, paid USD51 billion for the  modelled on this, leaving behind wide-ranging built legacies as 2014 Winter Olympics (MuGller, 2011); while the total costs for exemplified in Table 1. 's 2018 World Cup was expected to exceed USD30 billion In the 1980s, place competitiveness was underlined by (Bray, 2011). Free from the affordability concern, these new hosts neoliberal urbanism as a driving force behind economic growth seemed determined in using spectacular construction to (Hall & Hubbard, 1998; Swyngedouw, Moulaert, & Rodriguez, strengthen national prestige. But are they fully immune to the post- 2002). Construction megaprojects regained ground due to their event pitfalls after Expo 1992 in Seville or Olympic 2004 in Athens symbolic and substantial roles as economy generators (Getz, 1991; [see for example (Lentz, 2007; Panagiotopoulou, 2013)]? This Lehrer & Laidley, 2008). The staging of influential mega-events emerging phenomenon is now gaining renewed attention. became unmissible catalysts for launching them (Cuthbert & & ebrary, 2011). However, this mega-event strategy (Chalkley 1.3. Downplayed legacy planning Essex, 1999) is a double-edge sword. The prioritizing of interna- fi fi tionally oriented projects were often justi ed not by scienti c As an indispensable link between the pre- and post-event evidence but by mere speculations of tourism boom, employment timeframes, legacy planning focuses on critical issues of ‘What's increase and rising land and property values (Cashman, 2003; next’ beyond ‘What now’, such as reusing event facilities, redevel- Olds & Ley, 1988). The momentary glory entailed chronic prob- oping vacated land parcels, and reconnecting the site to the city. ‘ ’ ‘ lems of underused white elephants or even isolated urban International experience suggested a common lack of interest islands’. Furthermore, there could be collateral damages such as among host cities in developing a legacy plan than a bid plan. displaced local residents (Olds, 1998), ignored livelihood de- Reasons for this lopsidedness vary. They may include: no urgency velopments (Lenskyj, 2000)orgentrified districts (Andranovich, for handling long-term issues, considering legacies as extra costs & Burbank, Heying, 2001). than a good chance to recoup event investment, no hard-and-fast Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177 165 rule to follow, and lacking systematic knowledge transfer In China, eliminating labor-intensive industries has become a (Cashman, 1998; Deng & Poon, 2011). top priority over the past two decades. Such economic restructur- However, counting on a legacy plan might not be enough. As ing is often associated with grand spatial restructuring metaphor- part of a previous study (Deng & Poon, 2014), the performance of ically nicknamed as “empty and fill” by city authorities. This built legacies in four Expo cities e Seville (1992), Lisbon (1998), infrastructure-based strategy is to replace rusty bird cages (dilap- Hannover (2000) and (2008) were reviewed. All four idated industrial belts) with new ones (new commercial districts made detailed legacy plans for launching city-branding urban and office towers) awaiting the arrival of better species (service- renewal, but three fell short of their specific objectives 5e10 oriented industries). However, its implementation met with a years after the closure of respective events. Major problems dilemma in many cities: the ‘old cages’ were emptied but the ‘new included disconnected uses between different zones of the site, birds’ have yet to come. Worth noting is that, this government-led an oversupply of exhibition facilities, and a longer lag time for strategy has been adopted in an unprecedented pace and scale via merging built legacies into existing fabric due to unexpected the staging of Beijing Olympics and Shanghai Expo among other economic slowdown. The findings showed great differences be- major urban events. What remain less understood are some tween developing an event site and developing an ; interesting questions about the event version of this top-down and indicated that changes would be the norm for legacy paradigm. How it is realized from conceptualization to imple- planning. mentation? What is its strength and weakness that might have Rectification measures have been introduced by international significant impact on the process and production of legacy plan- sanctioning bodies of mega-events. The International Olympic ning? And what might be its implications for the broader urban Committee considered sustainable legacies as one of the 11 key renewal? criteria in determining the next host city (IOC, 2013a). The Bureau This paper aims to bridge the gap in understanding the spatial- International des Expositions passed a resolution on “the condi- temporal complexity of legacy planning by studying the case of tions of introduction and reuse of the site” in 1994, underlining the Expo 2010 Shanghai China. The focus is on the Expo site as a obligation of host cities to reuse the Expo sites and built legacies catalyst for launching a citywide riverfront renewal program be- (BIE, 2008). Nevertheless, if the decision-making of host-right tween 2000 and 2015. A previous industrialized dockland of 5.28 bidding continues to be heavily weighted towards advanced sq.km, the site accommodated over 300 new-build and adaptation venues and infrastructures, new-generation hosts would be more projects. About 50% of the 2.3 million-sq.m construction is kept as susceptible to serious hangovers of “staged globalization” (Short, legacies in the form of building flagships, conserved heritage, 2008). For instance, Brazil already faced a quandary of inheriting adapted industrial facilities, landscaped parks, and restored river- underused and high-maintenance sporting stadiums in a number front eco-system. These legacies have formed a spatial platform for of co-host cities after FIFA World Cups 2014 (Watts, 2013). more massive developments to unfold. Another major reason for downplaying legacy planning is the Following a commonly adopted categorization, the 15-year fixed timeframe for preparing a mega-event e about seven years legacy planning process of Expo 2010 is divided into four steps as after the announcing of the bid result until the event's opening day. shown in Fig. 1. The focus is on identifying major challenges and When overwhelmed by a plethora of construction schedules, a city strategies to fulfill the key tasks at each step. Worth noting is that, could hardly spare time for anything beyond meeting the un- in theory, a city-branding vison should reflect the perceptions and equivocal event deadline. Paradoxically, this short timeframe is expectations of the majority of citizens (Kavaratzis, 2004; Lynch, longer than one office term for most local governments. Changes in 1960). The public sector shall play a leadership role in the pre- administration may lead to changes in policy. The adoption of Expo timeframe (BIE, 2008), while various market forces will centralized decision-making seems necessary to avoid unwieldy gradually take over the site redevelopment after the Expo. Hence, bureaucracy which easily poses financial or legal risks. To fast-track city-branding visions hereby mainly refer to the city image and event construction, not a few city authorities chose to sidestep identity promoted by city authorities, upon which support policies, fundamental planning prerequisites, disregard comprehensive organizational arrangements and site-specific strategies were impact assessments, or dodge genuine public consultation developed. (Andranovich & Burbank, 2011; Owen, 2002). If this structural Data has been sourced by various means since 2004: dilemma remains, the making of built legacies would become a zero-sum game, with the event duration as a winner and the post- Participant and field observations in major legacy planning ac- event duration a loser. tivities listed in Fig. 1 (2004e07); Site visits and regular communications with key management 2. Aims and approaches and professional personnel (2008e15); Official records, public media, and promotional pamphlets Due to its one-off nature, the legacy planning process is an (2004e15); and understatement in the mega-event related research. This not only Face-to-face or telephone interviews with people who have prevents constructive lessons to be transferred from one host city been involved in the post-Expo development (December to another, but retards the improvement of legacy planning 2014eJanuary 2015). methodology particularly in host cities from emerging economies. This provides an initial thrust for conducting an in-depth case The selection of interviewees relied on both personal connec- study, because the value of case research is not for statistical tion and the snowballing technique. To collect attitudinal evidence, generalization e to increase predictability; but for analytic gener- preference was given to those who were involved in the Expo ation e to generate or expand theories (Yin, 2013). This paper is preparation and are still working for the post-Expo development. intended to contribute to future practice and research in twofold: Some of them further recommended their colleagues to provide more information through briefing sessions, site visits and informal To help mega-event hosts appreciate the values of legacy interviews. Table 2 lists the background information of informants planning when adopting the mega-event strategy. and interview details. Data collection of the post-Expo stage To provide methodological insights for launching mega-event centered on the following questions which were sent to those in- led urban renewal in the form of legacy planning guidelines. formants before interviews: 166 Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

Fig. 1. Analytic framework of the legacy planning process of the Expo 2010 site.

Table 2 A list of informants and interview details (as at January 2015).

Interviewee Present position (post-Expo 2011-) Previous position (Expo preparation 2004 Interview approaches Interview Interview duration code e10) venues (hours)

1 Business Development Deputy Director, Senior Officer, SEB Face-to-face, One-on- Office 2.5 ESG one 2 Secretary of Internal Ethics Committee, Deputy Director of Human Resources, SEB ditto Office 1.5 ESG 3 Business Development Director, ESG Director of Planning Department, Expo Land ditto Office 0.5 4 Business Development Officer, ESG Planning Department Officer, SEB ditto Meeting room 1.5 5 President, ESG Deputy Director (Construction), SEB ditto Office 2 6 Vice President, ESG Head of Project Management Department, ditto Office 1.5 SEB 7 Creativity Development Senior Officer, Senior Researcher, SEB Via phone calls / 0.5 ESG 8 Chief Editor of Expo Annals, ESG Director of Research Center, SEB Face-to-face, one-on- Meeting room 1 one 9 Deputy Chief Editor of Expo Annals, ESG Media Officer, SEB Face-to-face, Group ditto 0.5 10 Officer of WOE, ESG Liaison Officer, SEB 11 ditto Logistics Officer, SEB 12 ditto Research Officer, SEB 13 Deputy Director of WOE, ESG Senior Planning Officer, SEB Via emails / / 14 Government officer Senior Researcher, SEB Face-to-face, One-on- Office 2 one 15 Freelancer Expo Liaison Officer of Foreign Consulate ditto Restaurant 1 16 Urban Planner Urban Planner (for the planning of the Expo ditto Office 1 site)

Notes: ESG e Expo Shanghai Group (2011-); SEB e Shanghai Expo Bureau (2004e10); WOE e wholly owned enterprise.

What are the major similarities and differences between the up- 3. The case of Expo 2010 to-date legacy plan (after 2010) and the preliminary legacy plan (before 2010)? And why? 3.1. Historical profile What is the relationship between the post-Expo site develop- ment and the new city-branding visions? One of China's most populous mega-cities, Shanghai is now What is the latest progress of reusing on-site built legacies and home to over 23 million residents. This international port city is redevelopment of the vacated land parcels? divided by the into two parts e (River West) What are the implications of the post-Expo development for the and (River East) (Fig. 2). At the turn of the 20th century, renewal process of its vicinity? Shanghai was colonialized with a concentration of foreign settle- ments alongside the Puxi riverfront. In the 1930s, in Puxi Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177 167

Fig. 2. Location map of the Expo 2010 site in Shanghai, China. accommodated many of the world's major banks and trading identify a place suitable for both staging the Expo and catalyzing houses. Between 1950s and 1970s, Shanghai was repositioned as a urban renewal (Linden, Creighton, Rogers, & Deseure, 2011). national base for petrochemicals and steel industries following the Because of perceived development potentials, heritage areas or planning philosophies of the former Soviet Union. With increas- industrial waterfronts are first-choice locations for prestigious ingly industrialized riverfronts, the city's aura as a financial center property developments or influential urban events (Craig-Smith & of the Far East was buried in oblivion. While the densely-populated Fagence, 1995; Healey, 1992). In 1999, Shanghai Municipal Gov- Puxi consolidated its central-city status, Pudong remained dormant ernment (SHG) selected a cross-river dockland in the southern edge with vast tracks of farmland. of the city center (Fig. 2) for staging Expo 2010 themed under The decision of Chinese Central Government to develop Pudong “Better city, better life”. in 1990 became a watershed for Shanghai to be back on track. Three This proposed site initially covering a land area of 5.4 sq.km. The decades of cultivation at Luijiazui e the tip of Pudong right opposite Puxi site was mainly occupied by a shipyard established in 1865, a the Bund, has resulted in a crop of futuristic skyscrapers housing coal-fired power plant, and other industrial premises. The Pudong hundreds of multinational financial corporations. However, envi- site was packed with steel mills, warehouses, factories and resi- ronmental quality was placed secondary to economic growth in the dential quarters. As the birthplace of China's national industry in investment-driven plan of . The transfer of the financial the 19th century, the site was imbued with industrial heritage district from the Bund to the Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone (FTZ) including an 1872 dockyard and a 1931 hanger. Yet, the area had also marked the advent of massive urban sprawl. As shown in Fig. 2, long been haunted by issues of aging housing, lagging in- the city has been sprawling from its previous boundaries (within frastructures, insufficient amenities and heavy pollution. This the Inner Ring Road) to the two concentric peripherals (within the typified a daunting task for the whole city to regenerate its 113-km Middle and Outer Ring Roads). Shanghai currently occupies a land long riverfronts, most of which had been industrialized. In 2001, a area of 6340 sq.km, almost a tenfold increase since 1949 year before the host-right bid result came out, SHG launched The (Shanghai.gov, 2015). A rush to modernization has come at the 11th Five-Year Plan for Comprehensive Development of Both Banks of price of diminished historic traces and deteriorating old neigh- the Huangpu River (2006e2010). Among the planning area of 74 borhoods. The opportunity for bidding Expo 2010 provided a good sq.km, the proposed Expo site was in its south section e a 22.9- justification for reclaiming the city's lost identity. sq.km industrialized belt.

3.2. Host-right bidding (1999e2002)

At this point of departure, a top priority for a candidate city is to 168 Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

3.3. Post-announcement (2002e03) 3.4. Expo preparation (2004e10)

3.3.1. An urban catalyst 3.4.1. Citywide overhaul After securing the host right for Expo 2010, SHG started The accumulative attendance of Expo 2010 in its six-month concretizing the rebranding vision of this riverfront renewal touted duration was targeted at 70 million. The intention was to surpass as “the century project to enhance the competitive edges of the historic high of 64 million set by Expo 1970 Osaka . This Shanghai” (SHG, 2002). Expo 2010 became a desirable impetus at daunting figure entailed such unprecedented logistic pressures as all levels. to justify a significant enhancement of transportation capacities from air to rail, as reflected in the extended version of Shanghai's Strategic level. The 11th Five-Year Plan (2006e2010) (SHG, near-term urban construction plan (2003e2007). After an initial 2006)defined Expo 2010 as a catalyst for expediting the investment of estimated USD 73 billion by 2008, a follow-up worth development of Shanghai towards an international financial of USD 22 billion were allocated by SHG as part of Chinese Central center by 2020. According to The Master Plan of Shanghai Government's 2008/9 fiscal stimulus plan. The city-wide infra- (1999e2020) (SHG, 2001), the Expo site was an urban catalyst structural upgrade was realized with an estimated price tag of over for city branding. USD95 billion (JLL, 2010). Program level. The site was among four priority areas to be renewed along the southern section of the riverfronts renewal 3.4.2. Site-specific strategies program aforementioned (OBHR, 2002). The site would also The premier status of the Expo site development was reflected expedite the transforming of this underdeveloped region into a in SHG's official motto: mobilizing the resources of the entire service-oriented sub-center. nation and assembly the wisdom from around the globe. Since early Site level. To facilitate a better understanding of the site and its 2004, SEB in collaboration with dozens of competent government vicinity, post-announcement surveys were extended to Houtan agencies began to adjust the site boundaries, pay visits to previous e a 1.03-sq.km riverfront west of the (Fig. 2). mega-event cities, initiate international consultations on built Literally meaning the Rear Bund, Houtan was scattered with legacies, and launch design competitions. As the Pudong site unauthorized structures and had remained a no-man's-land for occupied about 75% of the site, the vision to forge a service-oriented almost a century. It would be visually out of place once the Expo sub-center was also embedded in the near-term development plan site was renewed. New survey findings also revealed a sporadic of the Pudong New District (2004e2009). While Houtan was offi- distribution of built heritage and remaining industrial uses on cially included in the site boundaries, a 1.40-sq.km peripheral of the the site, indicating that its renewal process would be far more site was designated as “the planning coordination area” for legiti- complicated than erecting a concrete jungle on the flat Lujiazui. mizing coordinated beatification programs. Study visits and international consultations resulted in adhering to a pre-post planning principle e prioritizing the post-Expo needs upon satisfying the Expo needs. The target was to release about 40% of the site area after the Expo. By the end of 2004, a preliminary 3.3.2. A super-developer master site plan (SEB, 2006) was approved by the State Council. By Establishing an event organization is pivotal to kick-start the integrating the area's long-term prospects into the event demand, event preparation. This ad hoc agency will play a super-developer this legacy plan 2004 (Fig. 3) laid the foundation for the seven-year role in steering the whole renewal process which lasts at least 20 process of legacy planning as follows: years (Lynch & Hack, 1984). This “super-developer” should be large and stable; occupy a permanent site for its intended development; Functional specialization. The site was divided into five func- and be capable of exercising long-term control to minimize spatial- tional zones from A to E, each designed with a unique devel- temporal uncertainties (Lynch, 1962). This theory rationalizes, to a opment theme shown in Fig. 3. certain extent, the adoption of a top-down paradigm in Expo-led Spatial clustering. The four building flagships were grouped urban renewal. together and linked by multimodal transportation means to In late 2003, the Bureau of Shanghai World Expo Coordination maintain good connectivity with the rest of the city. Special (SEB) was established as the Expo organizer and executive arm of attention was paid to their functional compatibility and adapt- the Expo 2010 Organizing and Executive Committees at the na- ability, economic viability, and environmental sustainability in tional and local levels. To encourage consensus building among anticipation of a synergy effect. cross-sector agencies, SEB was led by a Vice Mayor and staffed by an Adaptive reuse. About 20,000-sq.m heritage buildings and over eclectic mix of people. All positions of the steering committee were 400,000-sq.m industrial structures were preserved or repur- concurrently held by municipal officers from various agencies. Most posed for event uses. This accounted for 1/5 of the overall on- in-house staff members were either transferred from municipal site construction volume. On the historical shipyard, cultural government agencies or recruited from professional and academic values were introduced to a memorial sculpture park, open institutions. The red tape of China's construction supervision sys- spaces and promenades. tem presented a unique challenge to this megaproject. Without a Environmental sustainability. Compared with the Lujiazui wide industry network and strong leadership, it would be impos- development, the Expo site renewal adopted a more environ- sible to push forward hundreds of projects of different natures. mentally conscious approach to turning the polluted dockland Hence, the Deputy Chief supervising on-site planning, design and into a ‘green lung’ of the downtown Shanghai. Different stra- construction was concurrently held by a Deputy Director of tegies were formulated to restore the 8.2-km riverfront eco- Shanghai Construction and Communications Committee e the system through the creation of three riverfront parks, six pas- city's supervising agency for primary capital construction. A panel sengers' quays, and various riverfront amenities. of experts from the academic, industry and government sectors was appointed to lead the site planning work. Two state-owned enter- Experience from previous host cities such as Seville and Hann- prises (SOEs) e Expo Land and Expo Group, were assembled and over showed that their site plans were revised every half a year over entrusted by SHG for project financing and site development. four years. Shanghai was on a par with them: four major versions of Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177 169

Fig. 3. The Expo site legacy plan 2004 (initial). site plans and numerous partial revisions from 2004 to 2007. to develop the post-Expo site on behalf of SHG, ESG is mainly staffed by the remaining people transferred from SEB. Regarding 3.5. After the Expo (2011e15) the impact of such organizational arrangements on built legacies, interviews with the 13 ESG informants provided some interesting An important step towards the post-event era is the designation insights as numerated below. of “guardians” (Cashman, 1998) for built legacies. “We are a function-oriented state-owned enterprise, that is, to implement the post-Expo site redevelopment based on the direction 3.5.1. A new Expo Region and instructions set by SHG.” (Senior management) During the period of the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011e2015), the deadline to transform Shanghai into an international financial “There is a mismatch of human resources. We have enough people center by 2020 was reconfirmed by the Chinese State Council to ‘issue orders’, but are short of good people for execution. This was (2009). One of the local responses by the Pudong New District not a problem before, because of the full support from all external was the birth of a new Expo Region in 2011 - a 25-sq.km land area municipal agencies and state-owned companies.” (Senior comprising the former Pudong Expo site and three adjacent management) neighborhoods (Fig. 4). This was followed by the announcement of “… It's different now … We are gradually losing footholds. Previ- fiscal policies to support transforming the Region into a “world- ously, we did not have to worry about the issue of self-sustaining, class civic center” (ERMO., 2012). Prioritized agenda included the and we had our own ‘feet’ to do the actual stuff e the two com- development of headquarters economy, commerce and trade, panies. But not any more … .” (Senior management) advanced services, and creative industries. Government slogans of “world-class” and “high-end” frequently appeared in investment “We are just a company now, not a government agency which can guides for this Region. If Lujiazui is a modern version of the Bund, order people around. When you talk business with another com- this post-Expo Region is designed to become the ‘Lujiazui Version pany, no one buys your account. It's equal.” (Business Development 2’. While the intention is clearly to change the single financial sector) center model to a twin model, what remains unclear is how this “Those state-owned enterprises who intend to build an office tower ‘Version 2’ would differentiate itself from ‘Version 1’. on the Expo site are all with strong backgrounds … .” (Business Development sector) 3.5.2. A new organization To ensure a smooth transition, SHG set up the Leadership Panel “The Expo is no longer the top priority in the mind of decision- for the Post-Expo Development of the Expo Site (the Panel) and the makers.” (Various staff members) Expo Shanghai Development Corporations Limited (ESG) after SEB was disbanded in 2011. This two-tier organizational model has long been adopted as a project-based advisory mechanism for devel- oping major projects in China. The Panel is headed by a Vice Mayor and composed of competent municipal agencies. ESG is by nature a state-owned enterprise (SOE), and profiled as a “modern service- sector flagship enterprise” on its website (ESG, 2014a). Missioned 170 Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

Fig. 4. From the Expo site to the Expo Region.

“Now the hot topics are the Shanghai Disneyland and the Great sq.km, or 42.6% of the 5.28-sq.km site area, largely meeting the Hongqiao Area.1 The Expo is just a passing interest.” (Various staff target of vacating 40% of the site area set out in the legacy plan members) 2004. In 2011, a new legacy plan was announced, envisaging the post-Expo site as “the 21st century landmark municipal-level civic center of Shanghai”. Three key themes were underlined e a Clearly, there was a consensus on weakened internal capacity headquarters of international corporations, a world-class green and external support. Fig. 5 tries to explain this from the differences business community, and a low-carbon demonstration zone (ESG., between SEB and ESG: 2014b). As shown in Fig. 6, the site development is based on the spatial structure of “Five Zones and One Belt” in the legacy plan SEB (2003e2011), the designated Expo organizer, was a for- 2004 (Fig. 4). purpose public agency. Expo 2010 was seen by the national A millions-sq.m construction schedule has been underway by and municipal governments as the topmost priority. SEB hence stage, with the first phase on Zone B and A to be completed in three enjoyed government supports at all levels and by all means. It to eight years. During the 12th Five-Year Plan period (2011e15), ESG had its own subordinate companies e Expo Land and Expo is to develop an estimated construction volume of 3.15 million Group, for project financing and development. sq.m, including open space, pedestrian circulations, riverfront ESG (2011- present), a state-owned enterprise, has to be finan- landscape, and underground utility ducts and facilities. Fig. 7 traces cially self-sustained. Apart from bearing all the running costs of the evolution of legacy planning by comparing the initial (2004) the site development, ESG possess limited resources in gener- and final (2011) legacy plans. Major functions of each zone have ating revenues. The site redevelopment is just one of many been either retained, combined, changed or shelved. Greater details ongoing major projects at the municipal level. are explained below. Zone B. Redevelopment started with Zone B with five flagships shown in Fig. 6. Nicknamed “One Axis” and the “Big Four”, they 3.5.3. A new legacy plan totaled over 850,000 sq.m. Expo Spine, formerly a major pedestrian After 2010, the redevelopable land area reached about 2.25 walkway linking to the “Big Four”, has been revamped and renamed in 2014 as River Mall - Shanghai's largest shopping and leisure complex with a retailing area of 130,000 sq.m. The “Big Four”, with 1 After 2010, a new wave of constructing large convention and exhibition venues an average floor area of 150,000 sq.m, are designated places for among other transportation infrastructures has been underway in the Great Hon- holding large public events. Expo Center serves as a convention gqiao Area (i.e. the Hongqiao Comprehensive Transportation Hub). Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177 171

Fig. 5. Comparison between the organizational models of the Expo and post-Expo development. Note: SOE: state-own enterprise. center for high-level political events, brand-named conventions but no one raised the issue openly ……” (Business Development and large public events. Theme Pavilion becomes a commercial sector) exhibition center for large-scale trade shows and exhibitions. China Pavilion is transformed into . Expo Performing Zone A, Zone C and the Outparcel. Zone A is to be merged with Arts Center is renamed as Mercedes-Benz Arena hosting large-scale Zone B by functioning as an international business district. The live performances, sports events, and recreational activities. outparcel of Expo village was planned as an international resi- The vacated land parcels to the west of River Mall were sub- dential community. Except for some chain hotel facilities still in divided and transferred to 13 state-owned enterprises (SOEs). operation, the rest buildings have been gradually taken up by Twenty-eight office buildings of about 600,000 sq.m are under government agencies. Zone C (Houtan) was reserved for retail, construction to form a SOE headquarters. The land parcel between trade and office uses in legacy plan 2004. Due to a functional the convention center and the exhibition center is reserved for a overlap with Zone A and B, it is now idled and named as the Houtan 325,000-sq.m hotel cluster comprising two upscale hotels and two expansion zone. boutique hotels. Scheduled to be in operation in 2018, this cluster is Zone D and E. The Puxi Expo site is redeveloped in line with a targeted at high-spending conventioneers and business travelers to new branding vision articulated in the 13th Five-Year Plan the “Big Four” e a market position initially proposed during China's (2016e20) e to shape Shanghai into a culture metropolis. Zone D stimulus program worth over CNY4000 billion since 2008. At the went through its temporary adaptive reuse before the Expo, and is end of 2014, two auctions for selling this parcel bundled with hotel now entering into its longer-term adaptive reuse. Functional design schemes were suspended due to a cold market response. combination and consolidation are also taking place. Previous Expo This result was unexpected for ESG: pavilions converted from industrial buildings are now being “Money was not a problem at that time. So the more deluxe, the transformed into permanent cultural venues: a modern arts better … Just like the whole nation …” (Business Development museum, a children's theater and an Expo museum. The vison is to sector) make the area a high-end arts and culture district comparable to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. and Berlin's “Nobody expected that the market changed so quickly”. (Business Museumsinsel. Zone E is to be revamped into a mixed-use com- Development sector) munity titled the “Dynamic block”, which is promoted for small “The high-end position was supported by the municipal level. Later, businesses of creative industries and for low-end catering and lei- we felt it might be a bit risky because of the economic slowdown, sure uses. However, the Puxi side is facing a similar dilemma as the 172 Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

Fig. 6. The Expo site legacy plan 2011 (implemented) with images of major built legacies. Photos sources: the author's own and ESG.

Pudong side, as cautioned by an urban-planner interviewee: government-designated large events, according to one informant who has a wide network in Shanghai's cultural sector. The River “I couldn't see any reason to support the mass market. The need to Mall, which is co-managed by ESG and other joint-stock companies, recoup heavy investments in revitalizing this rundown area means was mentioned as the most-visited place among all built legacies. only one thing to me: why not introducing international designer Besides the profit center of the catering sector, most retailing space brands? How can a small arts workshop survive with the land- has remained empty in short of either customers or tenants since price hike?” the Mall's opening in early 2014. Within the fenced area, also kept were most of the national and corporate pavilions. Some were among the most visited venues 3.5.4. Site visits during the Expo. After reopening in 2011 and 2012, visitor flows Besides meetings and interviews at ESG, three site visits to the dwindled significantly due to lacking new exhibitions. The sur- post-Expo site were made in December 2014, January 2015 and roundings of empty pavilions and support facilities appeared March 2015. All trips were made by interchanging between old and lacking proper maintenance. Much of the open space was used for new subway lines. Within the city-center boundaries, the trains temporary storage. During the last site visit, unauthorized street were always full even in off-peak hours. But there was a sudden vending appeared along the side lane of some main access roads to drop in the number of passengers upon reaching this urban-edge the site in early morning. area. The renewed site was too huge to walk by foot, so car trips were arranged by ESG. The car could stop any time for photo taking because of light traffic on the newly built roads. No major cultural or exhibition events took place during the site visits. The spacious front yards of the “Big Four” were inaccessible and appeared as idle 4. Discussions as the surrounding access roads. Besides Mercedes-Benz Arena as a joint-venture between an Since the top-down paradigm is the focus, its positive and SOE and foreign corporations, the other three of the “Big Four” are negative impact on mega-event built legacies is drawn from the run by different SOEs. A big portion of their businesses came from study's findings. Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177 173

Fig. 7. The evolution of legacy planning for Expo 2010.

4.1. The bright side 4.2. The shadow side

The evolution of city-branding visions, support policies and The proposal to develop the luxury hotel cluster epitomized that development themes over the past 15 years is summarized in Fig. 8. a host city experienced an economic boom time would be prone to The whole process typifies a tailored version of China's top-down scope creep. The grand scheme left little leeway for any market- paradigm for planning major projects. Its strong feature is repre- oriented developer to rectify, due to a combination of an ill-timed sented by the government-promoted visions, policies and themes market position, an inflexible development scheme, and a tight from the national and municipal levels to the district and site levels. delivery timeframe. In the advent of economic slowdown, it is risky Its major strength lies in the stability in policy, finance, manage- to aim exclusively at the high-end market by providing such a large ment and organization as specified below: volume of office, hospitality and cultural spaces. The slower-than- expected intake of oversupplied legacies was also reflected in the Maintaining policy consistency at various administration layers. “reserved” Houtan which has been idled for five years. Secure timely financial support to any contingency or cost On the building level, conventional wisdom always rationalizes overage. the size of a purpose-built event venue should meet the peak de- Guarantee high efficiency of enforcing comprehensive mand from a mega-event. However, large public buildings are developments. normally gated communities which strictly follow the principle of Ensuring a smooth transfer of authority between critical “no admission except on invitation”. This will certainly discourage periods. potential users. The most dynamic streets in the world are always those have numerous small shops with interesting openings and Through recycling the 5.28-sq.km dockland, this Expo-driven free entry. The slogan of a world-class civic center seems a urban renewal has set the foundation for an emerging sub-center continuation of the Expo theme “Better city, better life”, but what to complement the functions of the city center. The area's histori- kind of “world-class” is aimed at? As the site redevelopment is cal traces, vernacular eco-system and heritage values have been projecting an image of a gigantic Wall-Street, it is hard to find any selectively preserved and integrated in its modernized landscape. trace of street life and local culture. Affordability would become a The two-stage adaptive reuse of industrial heritage is an innovative major issue for existing and new residents, potential property interpretation to the duality of temporality and permanency in buyers, and tenants of smaller businesses. Livelihood developments built legacies. Establishing the Expo Region is both part of the still remain a policy vacuum. comprehensive riverfronts renewal program since 2001 and a logic start to continue the place rebranding momentum of the site's vi- cinity after 2010. The experience will have a transforming effect on 5. Conclusions future practice of recycling a vast stock of brownfield in Shanghai and other cities in transition. This paper reports the 15-year legacy planning of the Expo site in Shanghai. Expo 2010 was used for boosting the sub-center development and citywide infrastructural overhaul. A snapshot 174 Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

Fig. 8. A top-down paradigm for the Expo 2010 led urban renewal (2001e2015). overview of the site's major planning milestones is illustrated in of innovative ways to reuse major venues and open space Fig. 9. The physical transforming effect was significant from an during the absence of organized events. outdated dockland in 2003 to a modern sub-center which is rapidly taking shape. Such an unprecedented pace and scale of event- 5.2. From developers to guardians driven construction, as reflected in this and other recent cases, would be a strong sign that the infrastructure strategy has made a City authorities obsessed with showing its competitiveness comeback under the mega-event guise. might be spatially shaped by meeting construction deadlines one after another for materializing its branding visions. However, the case indicated the risk of an oversupply of upscale developments in 5.1. Top-down versus bottom-up in the face of economic slowdown. Rather than a continuation of projecting an image of global corporations luring external investors This site renewal possesses a spatial-temporal duality e its and visitors, inspiring local demand is a more realistic way to secure production of the 2.3 million-sq.m built environment and its pro- continued interests in maintaining area vibrancy. From a manage- cess as an urban catalyst for the riverfronts renewal. Although this ment perspective, ESG is designed to continue the role of the Expo duality distinguished it from other conventional ones, this event- organizer (SEB) as a super-developer. The pace and scope of rede- based urban renewal epitomized China's well-trodden approach velopment is no less significant, albeit with less public attention. A to fast-tracking megaprojects. This top-down paradigm is attached major reason is because the post-Expo redevelopment has been with high predictability over time due its strong administrative “downplayed” from a national top priority to one of the local major enforcement and stable financial provision. Even so, the renewed projects. Without smart ideas to inspire future uses, buildings do region has to face the greatest problems from Athens to Brazil e to not automatically deliver higher economic values or lead to better reinvigorate empty venues with new uses and to attract investors quality of life. How to find ways to survive the Expo and thrive in for developing vacated land. As shown in Fig. 5, state-owned en- the post-Expo market is a big challenge for such a government-led terprises (SOEs) were entrusted with the mission to develop all on- super-developer. The prosperity of event sites relies more on a site built legacies from new and adapted facilities to landscaped paradigmatic shift in mindset from super-developers to smart parks. These SEOs are now entrusted to manage these built legacies guardians of built legacies. and develop new buildings which are to be owned by other SOEs. Despite plenty of reusable facilities and developable land on-site, the majority of development themes bear little irrelevance to 6. Recommendation local residents or smaller businesses. A glaring insufficiency re- mains the true market force and community engagement as the With the mega-investments at stake, it is more important to Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177 175

Fig. 9. A graphic timeline of major milestones of the Expo 2010 site evolution. Photo courtesy: SEB and ESG. create a methodological framework than just a spatial shell. The fundamental principle is to identify the site's development Drawing from this and other international cases, recommendations potentials and define the future uses of built legacies: are made to facilitate improvement in legacy planning methodol- ogy at the end of this paper.

6.2.1. Site level 6.1. A new categorization Consider the site's relations to the rest of the city, including its Fig. 1 is tailored made for analyzing the legacy planning process accessibility to and from established urban areas and long-range of Expo 2010, but this widely-used categorization centers on the functions. key word “event”. Based on the study's findings, a new way of Survey the site thoroughly to identify development potentials categorization is proposed from a legacy perspective. As shown in and constrains. Fig. 10, legacy planning centers on two key tasks e making and Recognize and respect the site's existing fabric with significant management e with a clear aim to fulfill the long-term mandates of cultural, historical and vernacular values. built legacies and ensure the prosperity of the event site. Create site-specific renewal objectives in line with the city- branding visions as well as reflecting the unique history, cul- 6.2. Legacy making ture and resources of the site and its vicinity. Encourage the co-existence between existing, adapted and new Legacy making in theory comprises of conceptualization and built environments. construction. The guidelines below only cover conceptualization for Integrate fiscal planning into physical planning to avoid scope three reasons. Firstly, legacy conceptualization is the most dynamic creep especially during an economic boom time. part as in any other project process. Secondly, it is often done in an Plan the site and its vicinity holistically to maximize the cata- itinerant or phased manner due to the duality of built legacies. lytic effect of a mega-event led urban renewal both before and Finally, the construction of major built legacies can be omitted after a mega-event. because it is largely identical with that of major event venues and Produce a framework plan that can withstand future modifica- infrastructures. Conceptualization should ideally start from host- tion yet still generate good outcomes by increasing functional right bidding and continue in most time of the pre-event stage. compatibility and connectivity but avoiding too specific zoning. 176 Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177

Fig. 10. Legacy planning guidelines.

Pay attention to two key ratios: one between temporary and thereafter. Its scope may include: permanent construction; and the other between new-build and adaptive reuse. Establish a longstanding agency in supervising the management of built legacies and the development of the site. Seek and secure facility managers, investors and developers for 6.2.2. Building level legacy reuse and site redevelopment. Reuse purpose-built venues and support facilities temporarily Avoid rigidity in functional definition and increasing high flex- (e.g. memorial events immediately after the closure of a mega- ibility (change to the internal layout but not to the building event). shell). Dismantle temporary structures and vacate related land parcels. Maintain a reasonable level of adaptability [change to the Sub-divide the vacated land and provide infrastructures for building shell (shape, style, size, etc.), and hence will be rela- redevelopment. tively costly]. Transfer the land-use rights to future developers and the rights Adopt phased development in the face of a high degree of of use to future tenants. economic/industrial uncertainty. Focus on the provision of multipurpose facilities by minimizing The key to accomplish this long-range task lies in the following those one-off components in a single facility. major dimensions: Improve functional compatibility and complementarity among a fi cluster of public facilities. Design an organizational model for equality, synergy and ef - Lower the risk of underuse in a large purpose-built facility, such ciency by balancing different demands and perceptions be- as developing smaller mixed-use facilities nearby to help it tween community representatives, local residents, facility users, merge with its surrounding. investors, developers, facility managers and tenants. Consider multifaceted factors that will affect the area's future including local needs, physical conditions, economic constraints, 6.3. Legacy management and available resources. Legacy management, in practice, should start parallel with the construction of those permanently kept structures, and continue Y. Deng et al. / Habitat International 53 (2016) 163e177 177

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