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MelanesianIssue 8 Geo

The worst

weed in the A Threatened Island arc www.melanesiangeo.org Environmental catastrophies looming Pacific over ?

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6 Wedelia - invader of Melanesia: Worst Vatthe forest has been invaded. Of this weed in the Pacific? some 1,300 ha are beyond the ability to Can a pretty daisy be compared with the control and need to be replanted. likes of the Anopheles mosquito, the dreaded malaria vector; the brown tree snake that has 32 , united by a crater brought the and lizards of Guam to Prompted by several enthusiastic overseas virtual extinction; or the fire ants that threaten scientists and supported by KFPL, the endemic lizards and cause blindness in dogs in landholders decided to set up an organisation New Caledonia? that would take a lead in the conservation interests on Kolombangara on behalf of all 12 Notes on Discodeles malukuna landowners. One of the most conspicuous frogs in this area is Discodeles malukuna. Compared to 38 Empowering Communities to retain the other anurans of the upland forest of their resources Kolombangra, Discodeles malukuna are robust, This provides a model of how remote subsistence heavy bodied frogs (64.5-to-104.0 mm) with communities can realise their development wide, truncated heads. aspirations without compromising the natural resources that support them. 14 A Threatened Island Arc: Environment catastrophies looming 42 Kukuvojo: speaking from the grave over Solomon Islands? Unfortunately, large size, independent young, Drastic environmental changes are a daily and ground dwelling habits are a deadly set of occurrence on Solomon’s far northwest traits for an animal to have on an island where province. cats, rats, and dogs have been introduced.

22 Biodiversity and the incredible 43 Red-backed button quail are still on resource of local foods Diversity in Melanesian food systems is Mayr (1945) said of the sub-species of gradually declining as lifestyles change and Red-backed Button-quail (Turnix maculosa people depend less on subsistence farming salomonensis) found only on the north-coastal to provide their food. grasslands of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands, that “Most field naturalists will look Cover: The endemic Solomon 28 The fight against an invasive , in vain for these birds, even in their proper sea-eagls (Photo: Patrick big leaf Merremia peltata habitat.” Pikacha) Approximately 2,300ha (92%) of thewildernesslodge.org WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 3 Melanesian E D I T O R S N OTE Geo PRODUCTION TEAM Founder/Editor: Patrick Pikacha [email protected] [email protected] Turn the pages, and in true Melanesian style, there is a Assistant editor: Tamara Osborne contrasting set of more hopeful stories. According to [email protected] Randy Thaman, the daisies have not yet overwhelmed Contributing editor: David Boseto many areas so there is a chance to act now. G. W. [email protected] Prepress layout: P Pikacha Scoville reports on new records of giant forest frogs with previously unknown ashes of brilliant yellow ADVERTISING & DISTRIBUTION embellishing their display postures, and Sue Maturin Email: [email protected] writes that the local landowners of Vatthe are working with Forest & from to aggressively CONTACT ADDRESS address the Merremia infestation there. Just as we ache PO Box R36, Ranadi, East , Solomon Islands from the knowledge of Choiseul’s extinct Kuku’voju pigeon, we see, with another turn of the page, that In Contact: secretive little button quail, once feared extinct, still P. O. Box U26., Chris Filardi, Editorial skitter among the high grasses, ghostlike, just outside USP Laucala Campus, Suva the growing Solomon capital city of Honiara. Director, Pacific Programs, American SUBSCRIPTION Museum of Natural Historu, New York A free pdf copy is available via email. In a sweeping chronicle of his recent journeys across and long time researcher in Melanesia Email: [email protected]; osborne. the Solomons, Mel Geo founder and editor, Patrick [email protected]; or ppikacha@ Pikacha, describes with his coauthors “A Threatened gmail.com or by logging on to www. Melanesia has never been an easy place to dene. Its Island Arc,” leaving all of us asking bigger questions melanesiangeo.org diversity of cultures and environments defy meaningful about where we stand in the struggle to sustain the summary, and it seems that whenever one tries to capture richness of his Melanesian home, a place of giant rats, MELANESIAN GEO is a grassroots even a small bit of all that it is, odd exceptions spring out of miniature frogs, and one of the most diverse and magazine of society and the environment in Melanesia. It was also a student every corner of the “dark islands”. The scope of this 8th historically vibrant oceanic archipelagos on earth. Our initiated environment magazine in issue of Mel Geo is perfectly in step with this: On the cover, intrepid editor’s journeys visit projects that I have been Solomon Islands and Fiji. banner taglines of The Worst Weed in the Pacic and privileged to work with him on. Pikacha visits the Threatened Island Arc draw our eyes down from the Marovo communities of Biche and Zaira that Simon PUBLISHER piercing gaze of a remarkable animal, the Albert writes are now managing resources in ways that Melanesian Geo Publications Eagle. This eagle is found only in the Solomon Islands retain intact ecosystems within their customary lands. PO Box R36, Ranadi, East Honiara Solomon Islands where it still persists in all of its grace and seeming And also to Kolombangara, where Ferguson Vaghi and indierence to invasive weeds and threats from loss of Andrew Cox explain that after decades of conict and All article contributions may be send to: habitat. unsustainable resource extraction, landholding The Editor, PO Box R36, Ranadi, Honiara, communities have united to conserve large areas of Solomon Islands (or) by Email to Invasions and loss of habitat – two of the greatest threats forest that birthed the Ndugore people indigenous to [email protected] to island systems worldwide are looming in Melanesia. the island. Each of these stories places looming threat PLEASE NOTE THAT UNSOLICITED Across the Pacic, introductions of and animals beside grassroots hope, urging support for emerging MANUSCRIPTS ARE ACCEPTED AND from continental areas, such as rats and cats as well as wellsprings of collective action by customary SUBJECT TO REVIEW. numerous owering herbs and woody plants, have landholders. All submissions may be sent to: devastated countless island species and are a primary The Editor factor driving the highest contemporary rates of Tucked in the middle of this issue is an article that MELANESIAN GEO extinction on earth. The combination of , emphasizes why acting now to address some of these PO Box R36, Ranadi, Honiara, Solomon Islands loss of habitat from poorly managed resource extraction, threats is so critical. Growing threats to local food and the inevitable clearing of land by growing populations biodiversity sometimes referred to as agro or or in Fiji: P. O. Box U26., of islanders expanding agricultural and village sites, has ethno-biodiversity, jeopardize the security and Univesity of the South Pacific, Laucala strained fragile island systems often to the breaking point. persistence of Melanesian ways of life. Wendy Foley Campus, Suva, Fiji and colleagues provide strong evidence that the In this issue, we see that pretty little Wedelia daisies persistence of native foods within the living diversity or by email to: invading massive areas across the Fiji Islands and beyond surrounding human communities can help fortify [email protected] (or) [email protected] are replacing native coastal strand and riverine vegetation. Melanesian communities against what is lost when This favors other invasives and edges out many natives invasive lifestyles inltrate places just as invasive The articles and views conveyed by including species of high cultural and subsistence value species have. the writers are their own, and do not like the coconut crab. In Vanuatu’s last large tract of intact necessarily represent those held by the alluvial forest, the creeper Big Leaf Merremia is having In the end, Melanesia has always gained its strength publisher and editor. Articles included similar impacts within the Vatthe Conservation Area on and unique identity, its physical and spiritual in this publication may be accurate only at the occasion it was firstly acquired Santo. And on Choiseul, where one of the world’s most nourishment, from its nearly indenable diversity and from the writers. Thus some articles spectacular ground pigeons once wandered the deep thriving natural systems. This grassroots magazine may be changed whenever and with no emerald forests, the only remaining evidence of this reects this. And now that we are reminded and aware, notification. extinct bird are specimens held in a far away museum, the we can revel in its beauty, become inspired by the last of the species to be documented before feral cats and actions of its people, and invest in a future that other changes on the island led to their forever maintains all that Mel Geo seeks to give us a window MELANESIAN GEO is published at least disappearance. into – the threatened, the vibrant, the fragile, and the three tims a year for the resilient life of Melanesia. purpose of dissemination of important issues affecting society and the We would like to acknowledge the assistance of those who have supported the printing of this issue of MG. Your continual collaboration and environment in Melanesia. support in the printing of this grassroots publication makes a di erence.

4 | MELANESIAN GEO • APRIL JUNE 2012 ISSN 2222-0755 Disappearing Landscapes

River above Siruka on northeast , Solomon Islands, a nickel rich landscape soon to be altered by mining.

4 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.M e l a n e s i a n Ge o.o rG | 5 edelia, creeping oxeye, throughout tropical America, where it is which, since accidental introduction into or the trailing daisy, a found from to in Central Guam from Solomon Islands near the end of deceptively beautiful, bright America, in western and northern South World War II, has brought to extinction most emerald-green creeper with America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Columbia, of the indigenous and endemic birds and Wbright yellow daisy-like flowers, is one of the , the Guianas and ), devastated the gecko and skink populatons of world’s most aggressive weeds and is listed throughout the Caribbean (USDA GRIN Guam; miconia, the “green cancer” (Miconia among these other destructive organisms 2008), and possibly Florida (Macoboy calvescens), the small tree that has invaded and as one of the worlds 1000 worst invasive 1986). It is now cultivated throughout devastated native forests in Tahiti; African alien species. It is now firmly established in much of the tropics and subtropics as an tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata), which Melanesia and throughout the Pacific Islands. ornamental groundcover. It is closely related has invaded croplands and secondary forests It is suggested that it should be immediately to the widespread tropical strand or in Fiji; goats, cats, rats, mongoose, pigs, declared a serious noxious weed, should be beach daisy, Wollastonia biflora (formerly deer, macaque monkeys and the bushtail restricted from introduction into new islands known as Wedelia biflora), a very important possum, all of which have caused havoc on and habitats, and, where possible, eradicated medicinal plant found throughout the Pacific. islands throughout the world; the Dutch from islands, habitats and places where it is Interestingly, the Hawaiian endemic genus elm disease fungus (Ceraticystis ulmi), which yet to gain a firm foothold. If action is taken Lipochaeta is scarcely distinct from Wedelia has wiped out the totemic elm tree in North NOW, islands and communities throughout genetically, and two sections of Lipochaeta America; the Indian mynah bird (Acridotheres Melanesia, and elsewhere in the Pacific, can appear to have been independently derived tristis), which has spread so widely and is prevent the spread of Wedelia BEFORE from Wedelia-like ancestors (Wagner et al. such a nuisance in the Pacific; the rosy wolf it replaces extensive areas of indigenous 1990, Rabakonadrianina and Carr 1981). snail (Euglandina rosea), a carnivorous snail vegetation, particularly along streams, It is a creeping, mat-forming perennial responsible for the extinction of endemic drainage ditches, coastlines, swampland, herb with fast-growing, rounded stems up to land snails in French and Hawai’i; and swampland, on offshore 40 cm long or longer that root at the nodes banana bunch-top virus, which crippled islands and in plantations, grazing lands and and grow upwards (ascend) when flowering. export banana production in the Pacific; and towns and villages where it out-competes The attractive, bright shiny emerald-green, avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum), the plants of considerable ecological and cultural somewhat fleshy, leaves are regularly toothed micro-organism widely held responsible for importance. This conclusion is based on my on the margins, commonly with three shallow the extinction of endemic birds in Hawai’i studies of Wedelia over the past 30 years in lobes (hence the name trilobata). The single (ISSG 2008). Yes, this pretty little ground- most of the countries and territories of the attractive bright-yellow daisy-like flowers are hugging daisy is among these monsters of the Pacific. borne on the end of terminal and axillary invasive world! stalks. The fruit, which is rarely seen in the Wedelia (Sphagneticola trilobata) Pacific, is a 2- to 4-angled achene, with short, The Introduction of Wedelia into the Pacific Wedelia, now known officially by the scientific narrow pappus scales on the top (Whistler Islands name, Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski 1995). Although seedlings have been observed The introduction ofWedelia into the tropical (USDA-GRIN 2008), is still widely known in Hawai’i, cultivated plants seem to develop Pacific Islands, where it is now widely by its previously accepted name, Wedelia few flower heads with mature fertile seeds. cultivated as a groundcover and ornamental, trilobata (L.) Hitch.), is a member of the Wagner et al. (1990) suggest that: “If a fertile seems to be a relatively recent phenomenon. family Asteraceae (formerly Compositae), the strain develops this species could become a Whistler (1995) suggests that it was first sunflower or daisy family. The most widely serious pest.” recorded from the Pacific Islands in Hawai’i used common name in the Pacific is Wedelia“ ” It already is!! And, as suggested above, sometime before 1965. It is described in (after its former genus), although in Australia it has been listed in the French Fondation Neal’s In gardens of (1965), although it is known as “Singapore daisy”, in spite of TOTAL-funded Global Invasive Species no information is given regarding its date of its tropical American origin. Other common Database’s “One Hundred of the World’s introduction or status as a naturalized species. names include trailing or creeping daisy, Worst Invasive Species”, alongside some of the It is not listed in Stone’s Flora of Guam (1970), water zinnia, rabbit’s paw and creeping or world’s most notorious invasive organisms, Moore and McMakin’s Plants of Guam Bay Biscayne oxeye (after Biscayne Bay near which include: the Anopheles mosquito, the (1979), Smith’s Flora Vitiensis nova (1990), the southeast tip of Florida, where it grows dreaded malaria vector found in Vanuatu, Parham’s Plants of the Fiji Islands (1972), or profusely and is considered a noxious weed). Solomon Islands and Papua ; Merlin et al.’s 1992 study of the Plants of Wedelia is native to, and wide ranging the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis), Pohnpei, despite the fact that it is now widely Wedelia - Daisy invader of Melanesia: The worst weed in the Pacific? Can a pretty daisy be compared with the likes of the Anopheles mosquito, the dreaded malaria vector; the brown tree snake that has brought the birds and lizards of Guam to virtual extinction; or the fire ants that threaten endemic lizards and cause blindness in dogs in New Caledonia? I think so. Words by Randy Thaman

6 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 7 naturalized and invasive in all these islands. and its characteristics described in reasonable atolls and small uninhabited offshore islands, Similarly, it is not listed as present in detail in the revised 1986 edition. often colonizing areas from the high tide mark in Yuncker’s Plants of Tonga (1959), where it In Fiji, well-known horticulturist and to up elevations of 700 m or more in Fiji and seems to be naturalized and spreading, and owner of “Flower Power Nursery” and to 1400 m in Tahiti (PIER 2003). It is now in Sykes’ Contributions to the flora of landscaping company, Maureen Southwick, also present in all countries and territories (1970), where it seems to have only been believes it was first planted as an ornamental of Melanesia, although still absent in some introduced in the past few years, but is now groundcover at Suva Point in the mid-1970s more isolated outer islands and rural areas. the focus of a very expensive, apparently by a Mrs. Murray. Interestingly, when Mrs. In most cases, it has become a noxious weed unsuccessful, control program. Murray generously gave her some cuttings covering extensive areas in agricultural and It was listed as present in Guam, on Yap to plant in her well-known show garden, pasture lands, along roadsides and trailsides, in the Federated States of , and the long-time Fijian gardener looked at the in open lots, wasteplaces and garbage dumps on Kwajalein and Enewetak Atolls in the cuttings and quickly and firmly remarked that and other disturbed sites. Once established Marshall Islands by Fosberg et al. (1979), this was a weed that should not be planted, in moves into lawns, flower gardens, and by Lambertson (1982) in her study of the and quickly destroyed the intended gift as a disturbed sites in villages, towns, tourist plants of Eniwetak, and by Thaman et al. potential invader!! resorts and other developments. It is also (1994) in their Flora of Nauru. Fosberg et al. naturalized and invasive along streams, (1979) report that by the end of the 1970s Current Status in the Pacific Islands canals, the inner margins of mangroves and in it was present in Palau where it had come to Wedelia has been successfully introduced into coastal strand vegetation. It is usually found be known by the name ngesil ra ngebard most Pacific Island countries and territories in disturbed sites, although it also seems very (“the foreign Wollastonia biflora”). Guerin and is now widely cultivated as an easy- much at home in relatively undisturbed sites (1982) in his “The flora of the atolls of French to-maintain attractive, vigorously growing along coastlines and the margins of mangroves Polynesia” reported that it was successfully groundcover. It is commonly planted in and swampland, often out-competing native established in the by the early extensive plots and planting boxes at tourist coastal herbaceous species, most of which 1980. On South Tarawa atoll, it was not resorts, as landscaping around airports, golf have important cultural utility. recorded present by the author on four visits courses, cemeteries, government buildings, Wedelia’s potential to become invasive is between 1984 and 1991, and only first seen schools and universities, office blocks and made very clear in Macoboy’s description of present 1993. other buildings in towns, on road cuts it in the revised edition of What flower is that? This evidence clearly indicates that and river embankments to control surface (1986): Wedelia first arrived in most of Micronesia erosion and as landscaping, along road verges “. . . the rampageous Wedelia is only and Polynesia and parts of Melanesia, and in central dividers along roads and seen at its best in a truly tropical climate, sometime in the 1970s, and even later in highways, around trees in parks and lawns, where heat and humidity combine to some places like Niue, Kiribati, and in houseyard gardens, and occasionally as a help it produce great sheets of foliage Solomon Islands. It is possible that it was pot plant. Whistler (2000) in his Tropical starred with golden daisy flowers. Recent introduced via Hawai’i or from tropical Ornamentals says that it is preferred as a visitors may have admired its blanketing or subtropical Australia via Brisbane in groundcover “since it is able to crowd out of the ghastly new carparks by the Royal Queensland, either by individual flower nearly all other herbaceous species” and “does Hawaiian Hotel. In fact, it grows over gardeners, local horticulturalists or landscape well in coastal situations and large planters, quite a climatic range, though frost may architects contracted to landscape new tourist and can be grown in elevated containers so cut is back temporarily. Grow from resorts and other developments that were that its flowering stems hang down in yellow rooted cuttings in any soil, and cut back built then. Interestingly, Wedelia is not even cascades.” hard if it begins to grow too thickly. mentioned in Macoboy’s first edition of his Owing to its vigorous vegetative Best in full sun with plenty of water, well-known best-seller, What flower is that?, reproduction and wide environmental particularly in sheltered seaside gardens.” published in Australia in 1969 and reprinted tolerance, the frequent pruning and disposal Because it is a fast-growing vegetatively- many times up until at least 1980, despite of its cuttings, and its ability to float and reproducing, somewhat unruly groundcover, the fact that it was deliberately planted withstand saltwater, Wedelia has escaped one of the main reasons for its rapid spread is in Queensland as a roadside and railway from cultivation and become naturalized that it is routinely pruned or cut-back to keep embankment stabilizer, and heavily promoted and invasive in most Pacific Island countries it under control or low-growing. The easily- by nurseries in the mid-1970s (Australian and territories, including continental islands, established cuttings are then transported to Weeds Committee 2008). It is mentioned, recent volcanic islands, limestone islands, waste places, dumps (rubbish tips) or dumped

Wedelia spreading into Nabou Pine Forest, Viti Levu, Fiji. Wedelia trilobata, Nabukalou Creek, Suva, Fiji. Wedelia spreading along beach, opposite Beq Island, Fiji.

6 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 7 Wedelia spreading, behind school, Fenua Fala Islet NW of Fakaofo Islet, Fakaofo, Group (left).

Wedelia infestation, Navai Village, 400 m asl, Fiji (right).

Wedelia on isolated stretch of River, Upper Navua River, Fiji (below). along the seashore or riverbanks, or thrown in the water, where they easily establish themselves or are taken by rivers and streams, new Compact Road and is encroaching river-mouth outflows or even ocean currents on swamp taro gardens. It is now also to other potential sites, including offshore invasive in disturbed sites on Kosrae islands. and Chuuk, covering much of the area Is now common in tropical and bordering the land-ward side of the subtropical areas of the Queensland coast runways at both international airports, and spreading in New South Wales and the and is invasive in disturbed sites, and Northern Territory. It competes with native covers extensive areas of limestone on groundcover and in North Queensland forms Guam. On Nauru, although only seen dense infestations along the disturbed edges as an ornamental groundcover in the of (Australian Weed Committee early 1980s, by 1987, it had invaded 2008). In Hawai’i, it has escaped on all of the the upper beach and seaside borders of main islands and on Midway Atoll (Wagner the main coastal road near the Meneng et al. 1990). In Honolulu, it has escaped from Hotel, displacing native coastal plants, cultivation and is spreading along Manoa planted and rapidly spreading in the villages including Triumfetta procumbens (igiao), Stream near the University of Hawai’i, and of Saoluafata and Falefa to the east of Apia, a locally endangered medicinal plant, and has spread into lawns between Lincoln Hall in both cases, spreading rapidly. In Saoluafata by 2007 had infested the margins of Buada and Jefferson Hall at the East-West Center it had spread into roadside lawns forming Lagoon, the most important agricultural and and on some of the sports fields at the extensive “meadows”. In Falefa, where it was aquacultural area on the island. university. found planted along the road frontage at one On the raised limestone island of In , where it is also a recent residence, it had totally covered the roadside Niue, where it seems to be a fairly recent introduction, reconnaissance surveys in culvert and had jumped the road into the introduction, in early 1999, it was only seen September and October 1999 showed that small plot of bananas on the other side. Given in a limited number of locations, in extensive it was spreading in the capital city of Apia time, it will probably spread along the banks plantings at the Matavai Resort Hotel and in some rural villages on the island of of the nearby Falefa River to Falefa Falls, a (where it was possibly introduced) and in a Upolu. In downtown Apia, it was found in popular tourist destination and recreational few houseyard gardens. From one of these extensive plantings in the main rock-walled site. gardens at the top of the Kalaone Sea Track planter boxes surrounding the Samoa Visitors On Tahiti, Moorea and Borabora in the (path to the beach) in South Alofi,Wedelia Bureau, as a groundcover in one plot in , Wedelia is also rampant and was rapidly spreading down the borders of front and one plot in back of the recently out of control, festooning seawalls, spreading the sea track and becoming naturalized. It constructed Government Building, and in along drains and into coastal wetlands, was also present and spreading in Lakepa the parkland seaside of the building around introduced mangroves, swamp taro gardens, Village in northeast Niue. I reported this the monument to commemorate the Japanese prawn maricultural areas, grazing land and to Department of Agriculture, and, at their rehabilitation of the Apia waterfront after coconut, pine and eucalyptus plantations. request, wrote a technical paper for them the devastation caused by Tropical Cyclone On Rarotonga, it is out of control, spreading about its characteristics and the threat that Val in 1991. In the latter site, Wedelia was along the margins of beaches, swamp it posed to the island (Thaman 1999). After beginning to spread into the surrounding taro gardens and festooning abandoned, taking no immediate action and waiting lawns and parkland. It was also found partially completed houses and bankrupt over a year for funding from the Secretariat planted as an ornamental groundcover in the hotel projects. On the volcanic main island of the Pacific Community (SPC), a control “island” planter box in the centre of the main of Pohnpei in the Federated States of campaign commenced in early March 2001, waterfront road at “3-corners” where the road Micronesia it has spread from sea level where at which time it was found at 35 sites in 11 turns right towards “4-corners” and Apia Park, it is found along the coast and bordering villages. After an unsuccessful campaign to and at Mary More’s Guesthouse opposite the mangroves up to elevations of 500 meters control it in early 2001, using Roundup and U.S. Peace Corps Headquarters, from where where it has become the dominant weed in Gramoxone and costing almost $30,000, it sakau it has jumped the road. It was also found deforested areas used for kava or (Piper was then found in 52 sites in 13 villages and planted along the road fronting at the Ah Siu methysticum) planting, the expansion of which covered a total area of about 1400 m2 (14 residence on Taufusi (Vaea) Rd. in Chinatown has led to extensive deforestation. On the two ha)(Liebregts 2001). Although there was some where it is beginning to spread along the main islands of Palau, Babeldaob and Koror, sign of control in some sites, it clearly looks roadside drain. Finally, it was also seen it has escaped and now growing along the like Wedelia will probably take over Niue,

8 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 9 and have serious implications for the habitats archipelago of , it has spread complex bordering Laucala Bay, where it of the ceremonially important coconut crab into coconut plantations bordering the main has already been found (and removed by (Birgus latro) and a range of other land crabs settlement of Tuherahera. the author!) in a planted seaside plot of the that are important as bait and for food on In Melanesia, Wedelia has been seen indigenous beach morning-glory Ipomoea Niue. On Tongatapu, the main islands in out-of-control by the senior author in all pes-caprae. Tonga, it has also become naturalized and countries, except Solomon Islands, where it It is currently growing in downtown Suva now covers extensive areas of limestone and is reportedly also present in Honiara. The along the outer tidal reaches of Nabukalou disturbed sites around the main town of table is an attempt to assess the seriousness of Creek festooned on the cement channel walls, Nuku’alofa. Wedelia as an invasive in the five main areas the growing tips extending below the high In the atolls, Wedelia seems to be of Melanesia. It has been a particularly serious tide mark. At Muaivuso Village, one of Fiji’s particularly out of control. In the Marshall problem in Fiji, an increasing problem in most important coastal fishing villages, it has Islands, Lamberson (1982) reported that it Vanuatu and New Caledonia, but apparently spread from the village along a small creek was growing at the “top of the beach near pier a more recent introduction and less well- towards the coastal mangroves. It has also at northeast end of Enewetak Atoll”. In 1999, established in Solomon Islands and Papua become established and is spreading on coastal on Majuro Atoll, the author found it very New Guinea, although I have not travelled as sites and into coconut plantations on Naigani common in houseyard gardens and beginning widely in these two countries as I have in the Island, between Viti Levu and Ovalau, where to spread along some roadsides and towards others. it has undoubtedly spread from the nearby beaches on both the lagoon and ocean sides In Fiji Wedelia has become rampant in tourist resort; and on the beaches of the of the islets, expanding into wet sites in and most coastal areas, and is now found along uninhabited sand cay island of Makuluva on bordering giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma most stretches of the main highway between the Suva Barrier Reef off Rewa River Delta, to chamissonis) pits, forming extensive daisy Suva and Nadi, often forming unbroken where it was possibly dispersed, as a discarded meadow-like areas around the Royal Garden carpets, covering coastal areas out to the cutting, by accelerated river outflow from the Hotel and a couple of other sites, and taking high-water mark, extending out along the Rewa River system during heavy rains. It was over the lawn of the recently completed roadside from most villages, and up river also found in 1998 near Navai Village on Viti Capitol Building. By 2004, it had spread even banks and along drainage ditches. In the Levu, naturalized and spreading out of control

In Melanesia, Wedelia has been seen out-of-control by the senior author in all countries, except Solomon Islands, where it is reportedly also present in Honiara. The table is an attempt to assess the seriousness of Wedelia as an invasive in the five main areas of Melanesia. It has been a particularly serious problem in Fiji, an increasing problem in Vanuatu and New Caledonia, but apparently a more recent introduction and less well-established in Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea, although I have not travelled as widely in these two countries as I have in the others.

more widely. capital city of Suva, it has colonized disturbed along steam valleys at an elevation of about In Kiribati, Wedelia was not seen during areas bordering extensive areas of mangroves 700 m in the foothills of Tomaniivi, Fiji’s four surveys between 1984 and 1991, and and coastal littoral sites where it grows right highest mountain. only first recorded in 1993. By 2002, despite up to the water’s edge, often extending below In Fiji’s western Yasawa Islands, Wedelia attempts at control by both the Agriculture the high water mark. In both cases it seems to was seen planted and spreading at the Division and the Environment Unit, it had be out-competing indigenous coastal strand exclusive Turtle Island Resort and a number spread out of control in an area just south and species, such as the creepers of other resorts and villages in the late 1990s of the airport and just north of the Temaiku Ipomoea pes-caprae, Vigna marina and Derris and early 2000s. In 2000, it was seen in native milkfish ponds and was totally out of control trifoliata, the shrubby Clerodendrum inerme, coastal vegetation and spreading at Long and spreading in numerous other sites and the grass, Paspalum vaginatum, the mangrove Beach on Turtle Island, at Naisisili Village on around the Catholic Mission at Teaoraereke fern Acrosticum aureum, and the seedlings of Nacula Island, where it had spread throughout on South Tarawa. It was also seen spreading important coastal species such as Calophyllum a cemetery; on a beach south of Yaqeta Village out of control in a poorly drained site near inophyllum, Barringtonia asiatica and on Yaqeta Island, and in the beach vegetation Ukiangang Village on Butaritari Atoll in the Terminalia catappa, to mention only a few. on the east coast of Nanuya Lailai, north of north of the main Gilbert group in 2002. At The University of the South Pacific backpacker’s resorts. In Tuvalu, where Wedelia was first in Suva, in 1999, it was found planted or Wedelia has also invaded the Sigatoka seen present in 1993, by early 2003 it was invasive, in at least 40 separate locations Sand Dunes National Park, a unique and spreading out of control and naturalized on as ground cover in garden beds, around spectacular ecosystem in southwestern Viti Fogafale Islet on Funafuti Atoll in Tuvalu, trees and shrubs, bordering parking lots, Levu, and despite repeated efforts to eradicate where it was out-competing herbaceous strand along fencelines, climbing fences, covering it, it is still spreading along the beaches and vegetation on the lagoon side of the island embankments and roadcuts, invasive in dump lower dunes. It has also spread and colonised south of the main settlement; in November sites bordering roadsides, valleys, mangroves, the river banks in isolated sections of the 2006 it was seen as a serious invasive, well mangrove channels and creek beds, and in a Upper Navua Conservation Area, Fiji’s first established in gardens on all three atolls in number or disturbed, poorly maintained sites. Ramsar Wetlands Convention site, and has Tokelau and spreading from a rubbish tip It has even been planted as a groundcover become well-established and dominates onto the outer ocean beach on Nukunonu as part of the primarily indigenous coastal significant areas in the sandy herbaceous Atoll; and, on Tikehau Atoll, in the Tuamotu landscaping of the new Marine Studies outpost zone on Nasoata, a mangrove islet in

8 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 9 the mouth of the Rewa River, which is being area in the Big Bay area; and was also not are dispersed to a new site where they might considered for designation as another Ramsar seen in the village on Tangoa Island off the become successfully established. site. Finally, it also became established, south coast of Santo. It was also not seen In short, Wedelia has already shown but was fortunately eradicated from the in two weeks on , south of itself to one of the Pacific’s most serious Yadua Taba Island, a 70 ha island located Guadalcanal, nor in the Western Solomon invasive weeds, particularly in terms of its off southwestern Vanua Levu and the only Islands on Tetepare, the largest uninhabited ability to colonize coastal sites, on sandy reserve for the endemic Fiji crested iguana island in the world. Suprisingly, it was also beaches, bordering mangroves, on limestone (Brachylophus vitiensis). not seen in villages of tourist resorts on the outcrops, and penetrating along mangrove In Vanuatu, it is common in Port Vila, beautiful Isle of Pines to the south of the main channels, streams and river mouths. It clearly where it is planted as a groundcover and island of New Caledonia. deserves it ranking among the world’s worst has escaped along road cuts, roadsides and 100 invasive alien organisms. Contrary to areas near resorts. In New Caledonia, it is Present and Potential Threat of Wedelia to my previous assessment, almost a decade very common in Noumea and the main Pacific Island Ecosystems ago, when I said that it is probably most groundcover at the Jean-Marie Tjibaou The evidence is clear thatWedelia threatening on recent high oceanic volcanic Cultural Centre. It is also spreading (Sphagneticola trilobata), the daisy invader, a islands, such as Pohnpei, Samoa, Tahiti and uncontrollably along roadsides and in lawns relatively recent introduction into the Pacific Hawai’i, and raised limestone islands, such and gardens on the wetter east coast of the Islands, is spreading out of control on many as Palau, Nauru, Tonga and Niue (Thaman main island in the areas of Poindimié and islands in a wide range of habitats. It seems 1999), Wedelia is clearly a threat on ALL Yaté. It was also seen planted and spreading to be equally suited to dry and moist sites, islands, including atolls and older continental from one site next to the Paradise Hotel in and although it seems to prefer and do best in islands, such as the island of the Solomons, the Faiava area in southeast Ouvea, a raised sunny sites, survives very well in shady sites New Caledonia and New Guinea, where it limestone island in the Loyalty Islands to the under trees and bordering mangroves. It grows is probably a more recent arrival. It is a very east of New Caledonia. It is also reportedly well on almost any soil type, including bare serious threat to coastal, riverine and swampy present in Honiara, although there has been limestone, nutrient-poor sandy beaches and ecosystems, where it severely inhibits the no opportunity to carry out a careful survey atoll soils and swampy or waterlogged soils. It regeneration of indigenous herbaceous plants there. In Papua New Guinea, Wedelia was seen is also tolerant to inundation and high levels and tree seedlings of considerable cultural, present and spreading in small coastal villages of salinity. economic and ecological importance, which between Alotau and East Cape in Milne Bay Because it is very fast-growing, roots it either out-competes or prohibits from ever Province. at the nodes of fast-growing stems, and is germinating. On a positive note, there are some areas, normally vegetatively-propagated, it has Niue, as a single isolated raised limestone where Wedelia is still not present. In Fiji, it greater potential than most plants for rapid island, some 258 km2 in area, is an example was not seen present in 2007 in any of the and uncontrolled spread. Moreover, because of island that could be almost totally four villages on the raised limestone island of it is a very weedy fast-growing groundcover, overwhelmed by Wedelia, if the current Kabara in the Lau Group; on, Espiritu Santo, it is periodically pruned and cutback, and the attempts at eradication fail. The same can be the largest island in Vanuatu, it was not seen cuttings are normally disposed of elsewhere said for atolls, where it has escaped and taken present in 2002 around the Lonnoc Beach in waste places, at dump sites, are thrown over coastal areas, limited areas of wetland, Resort and Rotol Village near Champagne along the banks or margins of, or even thrown and spread like a plague through settled areas Beach and in Matantas Village and the coastal into rivers, mangroves and the ocean, where on the main atolls of the Marshall Islands, and riverine areas of Vatthe Conservation the cuttings quickly establish themselves, or Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tokelau and Tikehau in French Polynesia. The same could happen to raised limestone islands, such a Kabara, Ouvea, Isle of Pines, Bellona and many other limestone islands and atolls in Melanesia, if it is not prevented from arriving or is not eradicated or strictly controlled, if that is at all possible. The uncontrolled spread ofWedelia on extensive areas of limestone and sandy, rocky soils, which would be almost impossible to clear, could have a very negative impact on the habitats and food chains of native birds, reptiles, insects, and many other ecologically important invertebrate animals, especially the economically and culturally important coconut crab (Birgus latro) and a range of other land and hermit crabs that are either eaten or constitute an important baits on almost all limestone islands and atolls.

Table 1. Geographical extent, habitat, abundance and status of Wedelia trilobata in specified areas of Melanesia, Actions to be Taken to Stop the Spread of based on in-the-field observations by the author and communications with reliable informants between the early 1970s Wedelia trilobata and 2008 (V = very abundant, very serious, escaped and invasive; A = abundant, increasingly serious, invasive, C = The following suggestions are put forward, as common, occasionally as an escape; O = Occasional, sometimes adventive; U = uncommon; R = rare, just introduced, what I believe to be necessary priority actions not escaped; - = absent ).

10 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 11 USP student inspects Wedelia infestation, Sigatoka Sand Jone Niukula of National Trust removing Wedlia from Sigatoka Sand Dunes Dunes National Park, Fiji

to halt the spread of Wedelia in Melanesia and invasive. and transformed. Most importantly, there is other Pacific Islands: 5. Mount awareness programs to alert the urgent need to stop its spread to islands 1. Declare Wedelia (Sphagneticola trilobata) people to the invasiveness of Wedelia and areas where it still does not exist and to a noxious weed, and develop regional and the problems it can cause if people eradicate it from those areas where this is still and national protocols for its control plant it as a groundcover and dispose possible. Coincident with these efforts, it is and eradication from islands and of its cuttings indiscriminately. This hoped that other control efforts will continue habitats where it can be potentially should especially focus on groups in areas already infested and that a biological invasive and ecologically destructive. promoting it as a groundcover in major control agent can be found in the tropical 2. Prohibit its introduction to islands, landscaping schemes. American homeland of Wedelia, which can be villages and areas where it still does not In short, Wedelia (Sphagneticola trilobata), safely introduced into the Pacific to level the exist, particularly small outer islands the beautiful tropical American daisy invader, island playing field thatWedelia increasingly with tourist resorts and uninhabited may ultimately end up being considered the dominates. offshore islands or atoll islets (motu) worst weed to ever enter the Pacific Islands. where it can easily escape into the Whereas some islands, like Bellona and References surrounding coastal environments or the Pacific islands to the west of Solomon Australian Weeds Committee. 2008. Weeds take over entire small islands. This is Islands and Vanuatu are fortunate enough Australia. Singapore Daisy: Sphagneticola trilobata particularly important, because many to be free of malarial mosquitoes; and (www.wedds.org.au). of our uninhabited offshore islands are some small offshore islands throughout the Fosberg, F.R., Sachet, M.-H., and Oliver, R. relatively pest-free and, like Yadua Taba Pacific are free of rats, cats, pigs, goats and 1979. A geographical list of the Micronesian in Fiji and Tetipare in Solomon Islands mongooses or brown tree snakes, and have dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15(1-2):41-295. are critical habitats for threatened plants healthy bird, reptile and crab populations, Guerin, M. 1982. The flora of the atolls of and animals, such as seabirds, sea turtles it is our duty to ensure that as many islands, French Polynesia. In Lambert, M. (ed.), Regional and crabs, which are often threatened or villages, town, parks, conservation areas, technical meeting on atoll cultivation, Papeete, extirpated (locally extinct) on inhabited mangrove forests, swamps, river banks, Tahiti, French Polynesia, 14-19 April 1980: main islands. plantations, gardens and other areas are kept Collected papers. Technical paper no. 180. South 3. When possible, on islands, such as free from Wedelia, the daisy invader. Only Pacific Commission, Noumea. Pp. 77-89. Ouvea, where it is still restricted to through such action can we ensure that the ISSG. 2008. 100 of the world’s worst invasive only a few localities, eliminate it indigenous and long-established plants and alien species. Global Invasive Species Database. immediately, and recheck the sites animals of cultural, economic and ecological Invasive Species Specialist Group, Auckland periodically to insure that it has been value to Pacific peoples will survive for the University, Auckland (www.issg.org). successfully eradicated. This needs to be benefit our children and grandchildren. To Lamberson, J.O. 1982. A Guide to terrestrial done urgently, because, any wait, like ensure that these areas are protected from plants of Enewetak Atoll. Pacific Science Information Center, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, that which occurred on Niue, could Wedelia will require an immediate effort Honolulu. prove the difference between success to alert all people, young and old alike, to Liebregts, W. 2001. Report on the Eradication and failure. the serious threat that Wedelia poses to the of the Invasive Weed Pest. Prepared for the 4. Where possible, eradicate it, especially ecological, economic and cultural survival Secretariat of the Pacific Community bu Eco- from coastal and mangrove sites, of Pacific peoples, and the actions that must Consult, Suva. riversides, villages and other ecosystems be taken now to minimise the number of Macoboy, S. 1969. What flower is that? Summit where it seems to be particularly islands and communities that are invaded

10 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 11 Books, Sydney. Macoboy, S. 1986. What flower is that? Weldon Notes on Discodeles malukuna Publishing,, Sydney. Genus: Discodeles (Boulenger) Merlin, M., Dageo, J., Raynor, W., Keene, AMNH No.: 18300, 18301, 18326, 18330 by Gerald W. Scoville T., Juvik, J. and Sebastian, B. 1992. Tuhke en Pohnpei: Plants of Pohnpei. Department of Education, Pohnpei, Office of Historic preservation, Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei and Environment and Policy Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu. Moore, P.H. and McMakin, P.D. 1979. Plants of Guam. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Guam, Mangilao. Discodeles malukuna, Gatokae island, blending into river Neal, M.C. 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Bernice Discodeles malukuna, Kolombangara island bed. P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 50. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Parham, J.W. 1972. Plants of the Fiji Islands (revised edition). Government Printer, Suva. PIER. 2003. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk: Plant threats to Pacific ecosystems. U.S. Forest Service and Department of Agriculture (www. hear.org/Pier/). Rabakonadrianina, E and Carr, G.D. 1981. Slopes of Malukuna Village, Guadalcanal Intergeneric hybridization, induced polyploidy, highlands, where the holotype was collected. and the origin of the Hawaiian endemic Discodeles malukuna, Gatokae island Lippchaeta from Wedelia (Compositae). American Journal of Botany 68: 206-215. n May of 2004 I had the privilege to and the first and third fingers were nearly accompany the American Museum of Smith, A.C. 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new the same length. The tips of the fingers were flora of Fiji (spermatophytes only). Vol. 5. Pacific Natural History’s expedition up the rounded and not dilated, and lacked terminal Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. southwest flank of Mount Mbatuvana, circummarginal grooves. The toes were only Stone, B.C. 1970. The flora of Guam: A manual IKolombangara Island, to a small clearing in moderately webbed. The most prominent for the indentification of the vascular plans of the a mature sub-montane forest, approximately webbing was between the second and third, island. Micronesica 6 (complete): 1-659. 1,100 meters above sea level, just below the and the third and forth toes. The species came Sykes, W.R. 1970. Contributions to the edge of the stunted cloud forest. This site in two color types; dark olivaceous or buff-tan flora of Niue. Bulletin 200. Botany Division, was know as the “Professor’s Camp.” Albert with dark, irregular or broken bands or stripes. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Meek, Jared Diamond and Christopher Filardi The skin on the dorsal surface was absolutely Christchurch. have made significant contributions to our smooth, lacking warty turbecles on the Thaman, R.R. 1999. Wedelia trilobata: Daisy understanding of avian ecology and evolution dorsum or upper surfaces of the hind limbs. invader of the Pacific Islands. IAS Technical from the upland forests of Kolombangara and All four individuals that were closely inspected Report 99/2. Institute of Applied Science, this camp specifically. In contrast, I was there had various amounts of a vibrant, electric, University of the South Pacific. 12pp + to study the behavior of frogs. canary-yellow running down the lower third photographs. One of the most conspicuous frogs in the median area, between their dorsal surfaces Thaman, R. R., Fosberg, F.R., Manner, H.I. this area is Discodeles malukuna. Compared and their bellies, continuing down the median and Hassall, D.C. 1994. The Flora of Nauru. to the other anurans of the upland forest of area of their legs to the webbing of the hind Atoll Research Bulletin No. 392:1-223. National Kolombangra, Discodeles malukuna are robust, toes. Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian heavy bodied frogs (64.5-to-104.0 mm) with When cornered on land and in the water, Institution, Washington, D.C. wide, truncated heads. They were noted both all individuals exhibited the same defensive Wagner, W.L., Herbst, D.R. and Sohmer, S.H. swimming in the pools near the headwaters 1990. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawai’i. behavior posture: they pulled their heads of a cascading creek and adjacent to the Vol. 1. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop down in a ventriflexed position, touching Museum Press, Honolulu. ridges near the American Museum of Natural the substrate with their lower jaw and tucked History’s 2004 camp. These frogs are strong Whistler, W.A. 1995. Wayside plants of the their heads into alignment with their forefeet, islands: A guide to the lowland flora of the Pacifiic and powerful swimmers, plying the torrent which were extended to just below their Islands including Hawai’i, Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, waters of the cascading creek just below our eyes. Their hind legs were pulled up behind Fiji, Guam and Belau. Isle Botanica, Honolulu. camp. On land, D. Malukuna, preferred their vents, and they reduced or closed their Whistler, A.W. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: A unimpeded travel routes through open forest, eyes, assuming a flat and ovoid profile. With guide. Timber Press, Portland. with little dead or down trees or understory their heads tucked down into the substrate, Yuncker, T.G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bulletin vegetation. This species was noted moving their snouts appeared shorter than when they 220. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. intentionally along horizontal benches rather were in relaxed positions. After assuming USDA-GRIN. 2008. Sphagneticola trilobata than down cliff faces or adjacent steep terrain. this posture they proceeded to extend either (L.) Pruski. GRIN Taxonmy for Plants. U.S. In the forest this frog was deliberate in its a single leg, or both legs, revealing the yellow Department of Agrgiculture GermPlasm movements, making large saltations through webbing between their toes. This display of Resources Information Network (www.ars-frin. the forest, never seeking cover beneath rocks yellow could be either quick or slow, whereby gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl). or fallen trees. an individual would flick its webbing open Discodeles malukuna fingers lacked webs

12 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 13 Habitat of Discodeles malukuna in Western Solomon Islands

and “flash” the yellow coloration or slowly 1969). On July 2nd, 1968, T. Preston S. J. Walker. 2000. Antipreditor mechanisms of spread its toes, exposing the canary-yellow Webster, collected the first specimen (MCZ Australian Frogs. J. Herp. 34:431-to-443. skin, then abruptly close the webbing, 79462) in the central highland mountains eliminating the vibrant coloration from view. of Guadalcanal Island at approximately The brilliant yellow coloration ofD. 2,500 feet above sea level, at what is now the malukuna toe webbing suggests a number abandoned village of Malukuna. The few of possible functions. The yellow coloration specimens collected suggest this is a montane Table 1. Measurements taken on Discodeles malukuna (n=4). In the first column, ranges are given on the top was visible only when they were escaping species. This new site record on Kolombangra line with the mean ± standard error in parentheses or threatened, and never when the frog Island is over 350 kilometers from the below. In the second column, ranges are given with the was in a resting posture. This color pattern Guadalcanal central highlands. The deficient mean in parentheses. may be aposematic or function to misdirect documentation of D. malukuna is likely due to visually-oriented predators, such as birds, to lack of survey work in the highland forests and Discodeles Measurements Measurements/ malukuna (mm) Snout-vent non-lethal areas of the body. Hypothetically, not because this species is rare or difficult to Length when this frog is leaping, swimming, or find. It is also possible that the Kolombanga’s Snout-vent 64.5-104.0 assuming a defensive posture, a potential D. malukuna are a distinctly different length (87.1 ± 9.2) predator would cue upon the brilliant “flash” species from those found in the highlands of yellow. Such flash coloration is thought to Head width 29.0-50.0 0.450-0.480 of Guadalcanal? The frogs of the Solomon (40.5 ± 4.6) (0.464) disorient predators that witness a sudden and Islands surely warrant further investigations. momentary brilliance of coloration followed I was only in the forest of the Solomon Tibia length 32.5-52.0 0.470-0.513 (43.1 ± 4.2) (0.497) by immobility (Dickerson 1908; Williams et Islands for a very short period of time. As a al. 2000). When the yellow is not visible D. natural historian, I felt like a little boy just Snout length 11.0-16.5 0.159-0.171 (14.2 ± 1.3) (0.163) Malukuna’s flat ovoid posture may be a form before Christmas, there were so many surprises of crypsis, offering false cues to predators and wonderful secretes just waiting to be Ventral snout 3.0-4.0 0.034-0.050 length (3.6 ± 0.2) (0.043) (Johnson and Brodie 1975), since it mimics unveiled; I cannot wait to get back to those the shape of river stones. beautiful untrammeled forests. Tympanum 4.0-6.0 0.058-0.069 Alternately, although not exclusively, the height (5.4 ± 0.5) (0.062) yellow coloration could be used for signaling Work Citied: Tympanum 4.0-6.0 0.058-0.063 prospective mates, as a declaration of territory, Brown & Weber, 1969: A new frog of the genus width (5.3 ± 0.5) (0.061) or to warn kin of potential dangers. This frog Discodeles (Ranidae) from Guadalcanal Island. Longest front 1.0-3.0 is frequently found in or near pools below Brevioria No.: 338:1-to-9. toe (2.5 ± 0.5) cascading falls where the use of vocalizations Dickerson, M. C. 1908. The Frog Book: North Longest front 11.0-15.0 0.130-0.171 may be hindered by the sound of tumbling American Toads and Frogs. Garden City, New toe length (12.5 ± 1.0) (0.146) York, Doubleday, Page and Company, NY. water and a signaling regime may be Longest hind 4 Johnson, J. A., and E. D. Brodie Jr. 1975. The toe exceedingly useful. selective advantage of the defensive posture of Discodeles malukuna was the last and the newt Taricha granulosa. Amer. Midl. Natur. Longest hind 11.0-27.0 0.154-0.270 forth species of Discodeles to be discovered 93:139-to-148. toe length (17.0 ± 3.5) (0.192) in the Solomon Islands (Brown and Webster Williams, C. R., E. D. Brodie Jr., M. J. Tyler, and

12 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 13 Environmental catastrophies looming over Solomon Islands?

14 | Melanesian Geo • may - august 2011 Words by Patrick Pikacha, Myknee Sirikolo, David Boseto, Tyrone Lavery, and Edgar Pollard

Photographs by Patrick Pikacha, Myknee Sirikolo, David Boseto, and Tyrone Lavery

aking our way up the old garden sites and abandoned human Kolombangara River we settlements. Apart from secondary forests enter Sirebe land, the name distributed along areas with histories of interchangeably used as human occupation, both native lowland and MPisuku, and refers to a stream and a bivalve hill forest types surround the gentle and steep shell that people suppose is only found in this ridges and overlap so often that the forest stream and nowhere else. Sirebe Rainforest complexity and general structure often merge. and Biodiversity Conservation Area (SRBCA) The rainforest here is very rich in is roughly 750ha and located in the upper commercial timber trees of all age classes, reaches of the Kolombangara River on with the understory a wealth of shrubs, herbs, southwest Choiseul, one of many customary creepers and climbers ascending back into areas stewarded by indigenous landholding the canopy. Native and endemic orchids that communities wishing to protect their forests are either epiphytic or terrestrial in nature from industrial logging and large scale forest are distributed randomly in treetops and on loss. the forest floor. An endemic flowering herb, Traveling upstream by boat, or by hiking only known to exist on some islands in the for a few hours inland from Sasamunqa Solomons, Spathiphyllum solomonensis, is Village, southwest Choiseul, one can access also quite common here. The herb is both the land. Composed of lowland and ridge terrestrial and epiphytic in nature and is forests, the area is an extension of rolling a close relative of the more common and forested hills. Palms and ferns dominate the widespread genus Scindapsus that includes valleys transected by streams, whilst large several species. These evergreen blossoming trees including strangler figs are abundant and perfuming plants with large leaves are on the slopes and the ridges. There is an old common under the forest shade, and do not abandoned village at the entrance to Sirebe receive much sunlight, or water. In other land, which is now being re-inhabited, and parts of the world, some species have been a research station has been established here. cultivated, and sold as houseplants. The flat lands around the station are now The forest overstory is dominated by gardens or beetle nut groves, with some Pometia pinnata, a variety of hardwood areas overgrown with shrub and secondary species with distributions through south-east trees. Just above the research station, along and . Vitex cofassus, Flueggia the upper reaches of the eastern bank of the flexuosa, and many Syzygium spp, are also Kolombangara River, trees, mostly the large large timber trees whose towering canopies hardwood Pometia pinnata or akwa as it’s reach for the sky, as Canarium salomonense locally known, are being felled to build local whose delicious and wholesome edible nuts classrooms and homes at Sasamunqa. are used extensively in local cooking dishes. Two main types of natural forest appear Alstonia scholaris a flowering plant with to dominate the lower elevations here as medicinal properties, Amoora cucullata a elsewhere in the Solomon Islands. These are hardwood tree used for timber, and Burckella tropical lowland rainforest, punctuated by obovata a large tree that releases a white The endemic Spathiphyllum solomonensis (top). Rarely hill forest on the steeper slopes and more gluey sap from broken branches or leaves seen Bougainville giant rat (Solomys salebrosus) exposed ridge tops. A third forest type is also dominate the forest structure and are (center above), and the upper Kolombangara River Calophyllum peekellii catchment, Choiseul Island (center) an important ordered by mixed composition of old and common here. and biodiversity area for many rare (above) and endemic secondary growth vegetation occurring in Campnosperma brevipetiolata whose large species.

WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 15 buttresses supports these towering evergreen Frogs – forest thermostats trees that grow to 50m in height, and are also Known to scientists as biological indicators habitats of many forest species. Locals have due to the responsive disposition of some noted Terminalia calamansanai, and several species to environmental changes, frogs have other minor rainforest trees to be the habitat been used as a tool for conservation planning of the extremely rare giant rats of Choiseul. and prioritization, employed as a monitoring These giant rats,Solomys salebrosus and P. group to investigate changes in the nature ponceleti, have been rarely spotlighted in of the forest, or as thermostats in examining overhanging vegetation along stream-ways. changing climates over time. Consequently, making this forest very rich in Solomon Islands have a very distinct timber stocks per unit area, which is typical assemblage, with some frogs restricted to of lowland forested areas in the Solomon specific forest types like montane forests. Of Islands, yet supporting exceptionally rich and the 23 species of frogs currently known in the unique biodiversity. Solomon Islands, 19 are found on Choiseul Another striking feature of the rainforest Island. Choiseul and Isabel have the highest flora is the typical balance in the abundance diversity of frog species. Yet new species and distribution of native palm species continue to be discovered in less explored throughout the reserve area. Only certain islands around the archipelago, especially islands in the Solomons Archipelago would in high tropical montane cloud forests. boast of such a good mixture of different Interestingly even small pockets of forest plant species in one particular plant group or remnants are popping up unknown species, family covering an extensive area. The delicate which goes to show how little we know about balance of rich species compositions of floral this fauna. Lush lowland forests along the Rendova corridor (top right) are today rare and disappearing at alarming rates. assemblages are today severely threatened by a Most of frogs of the Solomon Islands are These habitats are home to many species of frogs such as number of factors. oviparous, the eggs guarded by the female or Solomons eyelash frog (Ceratobatrachus guentheri) (top), Drastic environmental changes are a male frog. Once the eggs hatch little froglets and the endemics Solomon palm frog (Palmatorappia daily occurrence on Solomon’s far northwest emerge. Frog egg masses are easy to spot solomonis) (below top) and Solomon Islands tree frog (Litoria lutea) (above center). Giant webbed frogs are province. Logging leases cover the largest land once recognized. Small sticky- toed frogs common along streams and waterways. Sometimes they area here than any island in the country and of the genus Batrachylodes lay egg masses in may be found high up on ridgelines, like this individual is by far the most damaging to forest habitats. small shrub plants, while the giant tree frog (above) found feeding on a land crab Cardisoma carnifex Mining prospecting has begun on the Platymantis guppyi lays their eggs in birds nest at 600m a.s.l on Gatokae Island. southeast Choiseul in the hope that mining epiphytes and other large epiphytic plants. will one day replace the logging industrial Native frogs do not depend upon standing as the country’s foremost revenue earner. pools of water to complete the reproductive A growing human population, the clearing cycle except for Rana kreffti, which lay of land for gardening or agriculture, and to tadpoles in pools of water. make way for new villages has also placing Our surveys have show that species pressure on these ancient forests. richness is driven by history, geography and

16 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 17 geology, where islands like Choiseul, Isabel the freshwater fauna. The field surveys have and Guadalcanal have more species diversity unearthed a dozen dragonflies that are new to compared to the more recently isolated science. Also, the first endemic freshwater fish volcanic islands of the group called Lentipes solomensis was described and or the ancient isolates of and a number of new records of freshwater fishes Islands. Landform patterns, vegetation including Lentipes kaaea that was previously type, and varying disturbance regimes are thought to be found in New Caledonia only also correlated with species richness and have now also been recorded in Fiji, Vanuatu the relative abundance within many frog and now Solomon Islands. communities across the Solomons. Further Recent, freshwater fish surveys have been land alteration, poor land use planning, and carried out on Choiseul Island, Tetepare persistent disturbance regimes especially by Island and the New Georgia Island groups. second entry large scale industrial logging, The mysterious buzzard freshwater fish that the introduction of invasive species, and was discovered on made opening of canopy shade cover to make way headlines in local, regional and international for gardens which effect changes in forest media. Yet, there are many more new micro-climates are today threatening these freshwater fishes from the family Gobiidae vulnerable taxa in the Solomon Islands. that are waiting to be described. These damaging development options have Freshwater fish is just one of the many inspired the communities of Sirebe and different biotas that live and use the rivers, other communities around the Solomon creeks, streams and freshwater lakes for their Islands to take action to halt destructive life cycle. Our current knowledge is restricted and exploitive practices and to pursue more only to freshwater fishes but the freshwater sustainable opportunities. These reactions by ecosystem still has more species from other communities are critical to saving not only organisms to offer. We can only assume for Sampling up catchment of the Kolombangara River, unique frog assemblages, but a host of other the moment that other freshwater fauna can southwest Choiseul (top left). Kolombangara River is an amazing wildlife populations. produce amazing findings. important habitat for many medium size freshwater fish like The excitement about the discovery of the Papuan Spotted Bass (Lutjanus fuscescens) (top), Freshwater and aquatic communities new freshwater fish species on Tetepare Island Mangrove Jack (Lutjanus argentimaculatus) (below top), Tapiroid grunter (Mesopristes cancellatus) (above center). The freshwater biota research in the Solomon and other parts of the country will be short Many cryptic and yet to be discovered fishes and aquatic Islands was revived in late 2004. Since lived. The Solomon Islands Government has organisms are yet to be discovered along isolated streams then, freshwater fishes have been a major embarked on introducing the Genetically and water catchment areas on the large islands (above). component of ecology surveys. The freshwater Improved Farm Tilapia (GIFT) variety biota survey in 2004 and 2005 served as of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus from the basis of the freshwater research in the Malaysia into the country for aquaculture. Solomon Islands. These studies recorded more GIFT tilapia intends to be distributed on than 60 species of freshwater fishes and have Malaita and Guadalcanal Islands only. increased our knowledge of the diversity of However, sooner or later, this introduced fish

16 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 17 will find its way to the other islands before for its accessibility to tree stocks, and the future. the government or responsible authorities density of log volumes. Civil strife and the During a visit to , we may realize. Historical records show that the economic collapse precipitated the most examined the corridor from Rendova Peak invasive tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus was recent large scale push to liquidate timber to the coast at Elomana and Ughele villages. introduced Malaita and Guadalcanal in 1957, here. Agricultural deforestation, and the Although having a history of logging and and has now spread to most islands in the introduction of invasive animals particularly deforestation the area is rich in vertebrate country. cats, dogs and rats have further impacted the species. Lower slopes and forests have been Past and recent studies concur that indigenous flora and fauna of the province. cleared to make way for gardens and some introduced species such as mosquito fish and This has resulted in steep declines and forests to the east have been cleared logging. tilapia have had negative effects on native fish extirpation of some mammals, and birds, Yet major areas of unlogged and natural species. Introduced species usually feed on and has altered or threatened numerous forests exist in the upper reaches of the island. other native aquatic biotas and also alter the herpetofaunal, bird and mammal assemblages. Secondary forest were habitats of some aquatic habitat for their own benefit. Our The New Georgia Group of islands endemic fauna such as the frogs Platymantis studies showed that freshwater systems that oriented in a northwest trend across 235 km weberi, and P. solomonis. Species richness had tilapia recorded zero to two species of of ocean in the Western Province are of more although was lower, yet given the history of native species compared to an aquatic system recent Plio-Pleistocene volcanic origin. The forest resilience, high rainfall and sunshine, without tilapia, which recorded six to ten islands form a matrix of connected cones, the forest is able to grow to support an species per site. Consequently, the diversity of interspersed with isolated eroding volcanoes increasingly abundant vertebrate richness. the freshwater fishes and other aquatic fauna often separated by only a few kilometres A total of 9 species of frogs were collected in the Solomon Islands may well be a thing of water. Dominated by lowland rainforest and observed on the island, including the of the past as an additional alien species is only three islands, Rendova, and invasive , Bufo marinus. Surprisingly introduced and takes over. Kolombangara, have peaks above 1000 m asl, a single cane toad was discovered at 700 m asl whist three others, , Gatokae and on the trail to Rendova Peak and on another Western Solomon Islands and The New New Georgia ranged from 800 – 900 m asl. occasion was seen at 660m on Malaita. It Georgian islands The islands have attracted many scientists, the is likely more stranglers have made it to the As across most of the Solomon Islands, most famous being Jared Diamond and Ernst summits of other high islands. Cane toads Western Province has had a long history Mayr, who studied patterns of speciation have spread extremely wide in the Solomons of human disturbance. Of the 5,475km2 among groups of birds. Today, not all is good with poorly known impacts on native species, land area in the province at least 93.2% in the . Extensive logging though it is incidentally clear that cane toads was forested in 1960. Following the continues to decimate forest communities, extirpate many native species along lowland Governments forestry act in 1960, serious with timber companies entering more than river courses. industrial logging commence in 1963, and once to remove remnant stands of trees, and Climate and environmental variables the Western Province was targeted, perhaps now with mining a real threat in the near affect the activity patterns of vertebrates.

18 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 19 During periods of heavy rainfall most nosed bat (Nyctimene bougainville). They herpetofaunal communities are silent and have interesting tube-shaped nostrils, and it not as active, and birds are hard to observe. is unknown what their exact purpose is. Two Canopy birds were easily spotted with species - Fardoulisi’s blossom-bat (Melonycteris binoculars, yet within the understory the fardoulisi) and northern blossom-bat overcast continually threw a constant shadow (Macroglossus minimus) were caught in the making it hard to detect birds. understory at Rendova Peak. Nectar from flowering plants attracts Bats on New Georgian islands blossom bats, and in turn they assist the A discovery of a monkey-faced bat (Pteralopex pollination process for some plants. Fruit taki) on Vangunu in 1993 showed gaps in our bats eat seeds and aid seed dispersal, whilst The lush rainforest understory of the Waisisi ranges (top knowledge of mammals. Ecological data is insectivorous bats control certain insect left), intersparse with bamboo groves (top). Ground frogs lacking for these rare and spectacular bats in populations. Platymantis weberi, and butterflies (above left & center) the insular Pacific. Today, large Pteropids are threatened are abundant in the understory, and were studied from field At places like Kukudu School on worldwide by a number of factors including research sites (above center). South Malaita has one of the most spectacular coastlines dominated by waterways Kolombangara and Viru Harbour on New habitat loss, hunting and disturbance by and lagoons buffered by extensive mangrove forests. Georgia and Ughele on Rendova on the other humans, and diseases. Low populations and hand, the large, noisy camps of flying foxes short breeding potential, as females often Facing page: Tube-nose bat (far left) roosting, and a are a familiar sight. Bats are crepuscular, give birth to only one or two individuals may colony of Solomon Island fruit bat ( rayneri) at becoming active at twilight. Species such as also place pressure on some bat populations. Kukudu, Kolombangara (top center). The New Georgia islands have attracted researchers and conservationist the large Rayner’s flying-fox Pteropus( rayneri) In parts of the Solomon Islands, Pteropids alike (below center), in an effort to save some of the last can be seen leaving their day-time camps, persist in communities that actively choose to stands of left on earth. flying overhead and away to forage. Before co-exist with them without harassing them. Cucurma longa a flowering ground herb of lowland forests heading for the forest, they will often first fly (below right). The endemic Solomon monkey-tailed skink low over the ocean and scoop up mouthfuls Waisisi – the Green centre of the Malaita (Corucia zebrata) (top right), the largest arboreal skink in the world is less common in areas of forest harvest and of water to drink. The island of Malaita known more for its disturbance. In some areas it may be extirpated due to Closely related to flying foxes but less cultural heritage, high population densities deforestation. obvious, are the smaller blossom bats. These and logging ravished landscapes is rarely are very common in lowland primary forest placed in the same sentence with biodiversity and can often be seen at night along the and conservation but if you know where to forest edges where ginger plants and village look, green fragments still do remain. One gardens provide food. Perhaps the most such fragment is the accessed through the fascinating of these is the Solomon tube- Waisisi harbour, on the western coast of

18 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 19 the southern end of Malaita. Ascending to significance to the people of Malaita and the Solomon Islands, and the high levels the peak at 670 m asl the trail goes through though this majestic species is forced to of biodiversity loss occurring almost on a a rich array of microhabitats from poly- increased vulnerability due to the loss of its daily basis, there are optimistic accounts of cultured gardens, Canarium groves reflecting habitat and prey, it still soars as a symbol of communities coming together to protect and the agroforestry history and culture of the hope that once the descendents of the area utilizing their natural resources wisely. area. Bamboo thickets and Cyathea ferns worshiped, revered and respected nature. Perhaps a model of community dominate gullies and ridgelines, with palm Yet even, in this last pocket of true conservation has been the uncommon speckled slopes, and strangler fig ridges and greenery not all is well. There are plans to partnership between a forestry company, covered undergrowth. The horned convert this landscape into a monoculture Kolombangara Forests Plantation Ltd and a eyelash frog (Ceratobatrachus guentheri) and landscape by establishing an oil palm community non-government organization, Batrachylodes sp., dominate the frog fauna. plantation. With consideration to Vangunu Kolombangara Island Biodiversity and Yellow-bibbed lories (Lorius chlorocercus), Islands failed palm oil venture in the Western Conservation Association, and partners like Blythes hornbills (Aceros plicatus), yellow- Province, it is probable that this undertaking Solomon Islands Community Conservation faced mynah (Mino dumontii kreffti), Red- may end the same way. In both cases, logging Partnership, American Museum of Natural knobbed Imperial pigeons (Ducula rubricera was the main stimulus for clearing out the History, and World Wildlife Fund for Nature, rufigula) and Megapode birds (Megapodius forest. to protect at least 20,000 ha of upland forests. eremita) were abundant and apparent with Also worthy of note are the lakes of The forests of Kolombangara are their calling and striking plumages. Many Haurakeni, intricate mangrove arched amazingly diverse and intact, notably the species of butterflies fluttering around the waterways, still brackish lakes and crater forests beginning at the base valley understory were also encountered indicating dozing crocodiles make this hidden gem below the Imbu Rano Lodge, and bearing that this pocket of diversity still has an adventurers dream. But again these northwards into the crater centre. Upland something to share with the world. treasured wetlands are not without struggles montane forests are spectacular, and comprise Camping at an old village site there is a as they face the strain of an increasing some of the last stands of unscathed tropical sense of stepping back in time as we follow population encroaching into the mangroves, montane cloud forests in the insular South the unique stone-laid walls that would have overharvesting of fishes and removal of key Pacific. Elfin forests here are stunted, with acted as walls restricting access only to those mangrove species for building materials and ridgelines exposed and dominated by sedge or allowed. At the peak after climbing over at firewood. grass. These are habitats to a few threatened least three root-entwined walls the view is Mangrove ecosystems are not only species like the Kolombangara white-eye majestic and the feeling is one of serenity and ecologically important but also act as a rich (Zosterops murphyi), pale mountain pigeon anguish as you look down to the beautiful supermarket to locals in terms of nutrition (Gymnophaps solomonenis), leaf warblers Are’Are lagoon (longest in Malaita) and the and material and not to forget the significant (Phyloscopus trivirgatus and P. amoenus), blue- almost evenly spaced log ponds situated along environmental role of protecting and faced parrot finch (Erythrura trichroa), island it. The thought that not more than a century nurturing the coast and its diverse species thrush (Turdus poliocephalus), and a possible ago the very site that we were standing would assemblage. The loss of the mangrove forests endemic form of the peregrine falcon (Falco have only been accessed by the high priest can be viewed as one of the greatest losses to peregrinus). of the clans as he would make his traditional future generations. Diversity of birds is incredibly high for pig offering to his ancestors embodied in an oceanic island, with more than 50 species the form of a giant eagle. The Solomon Sea Kolombangara’s Cloud Forest Reserve easily observed from the decking of the Imbu eagle (Haliaetus sanfordi) still holds cultural Despite the remarkable biodiversity of Rano Research Station. This accounts for

20 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 almost 50 percent of the birds recorded on shrubs and low trees, and palms. Batrachylodes the island. Included are the Kolombangara then dominate the high elevation forests, endemics and others that are restricted to a replacing Platymantis species. There are still few islands in the Solomon Islands. Many many species new to science, and molecular of these species are found in primary forests, and acoustic data may reveal cryptic species. with a few forest generalists. Conservation of habitats is a priority on Mammals of Kolombangara are analogous Kolombangara. Particularly important will be to the other New Georgian islands, which the conservation of the 400m asl contour as included fruit bats, and tubenose bats. a protected area. As habitats in the lowlands The multiple endemicHippisideros species are fast disappearing, except for pockets of inhabiting these forests are globally significant corridors that extend to the sea, most have and likely occurred in these assemblages been altered. Whilst biodiversity values are across intact forests of the New Georgia group high on Kolombangara, still many species are historically. Insect bats are abundant, and unknown, in particular the frogs and reptiles common around the power lights of Ringgi of montane environments. station at dusk hunting for insects. There was Like elsewhere in the Solomon Islands, a total of 8 species including 2 introduced rat forest removal and logging threats now species and two prehistoric introductions on extend above 400 m asl on Kolombangara. the island. In desperation companies are swathing high Montane cloud forests of Mt Veve slopes (top center Reptile faunas of Kolombangara are land forests, and will do anything to extract left), habitat of many rare and endemic species like the dominated by the Emoia skinks, including round logs. Even if this means, clearing unidentified Batrachylodes frog (top), Kolombangara white Emoia nigra, E. schidti, E. cyanura, and E. extremely steep slopes, or entering forests eye (top center), Meek’s lorikeet (above center), and many species of Emoia skinks (above). pseudocyanura. Giant skinks, Corucia zebrata previously inaccessible by law. Whilst there are cryptic, occupying mostly strangler figs are many threats to biodiversity, there still Extensive mangrove systems of the south Malaita area, and large trees with Epipremnum creepers. remain opportunities and potential partners extending from Waisisi (top far left) to the island of South Solomon tree snakes are observable inside in industries that endeavour to strategically Malaita. the crater with light green variations spot in plan land use development in a way that montane forests. Pythons or sleeping snakes minimizes the ecological footprint on as they are locally referred to may occasionally these fragile island arcs, and ensures that be chanced upon on the trail curled up in a biodiversity and humans can co-exist. snake-ball. Little is know of the ecology of many reptiles. Acknowledgement Due to the extreme habitat variation on We thank WWF’s Sustainable Forest and Kolombangara, the frog fauna is also rich and Conservation Project in the Solomon extremely diverse. Lowlands are dominated Islands. Ruffords Small Grants for Nature by Platymantis sp, with riverine habitats along Conservation also supported ecology studies the crater floor occupied byDiscodeles water on frogs. Equipment was provided by Idea frogs. Most abundant are the Platymantis Wild. and Batrachylodes species, the latter found on

WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 21 Biodiversity and the incredible resource of local foods Words by Wendy Foley, Lois Englberger, Graham Lyons, Jeff Daniells

There is a dynamic relationship between biodiversity and local food systems, which are rich and varied across the Melanesian countries.

ood serves many purposes. While produced, processed, stored and how far it is A deficiency, because many of the imported it fills bellies and contributes to transported. Biodiverse local environments foods do not provide the high nutritional health, it also is used in ceremonial provide both employment and food. It is value that local foods do. exchanges, provides income to imperative to value the wealth of the diverse Furthermore imported foods can place a its producers and impacts on the national F foods that comprise Pacific food systems. significant burden on family budgets as well economy. Some food is specific to the place Diversity in Melanesian food systems is as the economy of small islands countries. it is grown; but with increasing globalization gradually declining as lifestyles change and As people have become more dependent of food supplies, foods around the Pacific people depend less on subsistence farming on imports, there has been less production are reflecting less of the local specialty foods. to provide their food. Many imported and marketing of traditional foods, making While biodiversity is important for foods can be stored more easily and are people in Melanesian countries more supplying a wide variety of local foods, quicker to prepare and eat, which makes vulnerable to food insecurity. The global this is often not adequately appreciated. It them popular. As imported foods such as food crisis arising from a combination of is not taken into account in calculations rice and wheat flour products are used more poor harvests, competition with biofuels, of economic indicators such as Gross in Melanesian diets, some traditional foods higher energy prices, surging demand for Domestic Product, for example. Yet are being neglected - their delicious flavours grains and meat, and a blockage in global biodiversity protects food security and and health values unappreciated. As diets trade has driven food prices up worldwide. provides a basis for living and eating that and lifestyles have changed, there has been In Melanesian countries, price rises in is in harmony with the environment. Food a related increase in overweight and diseases imported foods such as rice has made it production, processing and distribution such as diabetes and problems due to low harder for people to buy enough good food. can have a significant environmental intake of micronutrients, such as Vitamin Research in the Federated States of impact, depending on how the food is

22 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 23 Biodiversity and the incredible resource of local foods

Ripe and unripe banana bunches displayed in feast house Arohane Village, Makira, Solomon Islands (top left).

Dorothy Tamasia, Curator of the Bauro highland banana collection, Makira, Solomon Islands (Photo’s by Jeff Daniells)

22 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 23 These highly nutritious Fe’i bananas are found almost exclusively in the Pacific and are characterized by unusual erect and semi-erect bunches, red-purple or purple sap and a deep yellow, yellow-orange or orange flesh.

Micronesia (FSM) by Dr Lois Englberger disease and night blindness, and weak blood describes findings from a project designed and colleagues has shown that many Pacific (anaemia). Carotenoid-rich foods also help to identify and raise awareness of the high plant foods have outstanding health-giving protect against certain cancers, diabetes nutritional value of orange- and yellow- properties compared with the imported and heart disease. The work in the FSM fleshed sweet potatoes and bananas in rice, noodles, biscuits, bread, sugar and showed that the Pohnpei Karat banana, Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea. commonly available processed and packaged a Fe’i banana of the Australimusa series Food diversity – the wealth of foods foods, which provide lots of energy but (Musa troglodytarum) contains exceptionally provided by divine beings – has in past less of the health protecting nutrients that rich concentrations of riboflavin (Vitamin generations been explained by legend. On are found in abundance in the colourful B2) in addition to beta-carotene and total Bellona in Solomon Islands, for example, Pacific plant foods. Since the imported carotenoids. legend has it that the Ghabaghaghi banana foods have been widely consumed in FSM, These highly nutritious Fe’i bananas (a Fe’i variety) was thrown down to the diseases including diabetes, stroke, heart are found almost exclusively in the Pacific island from the invisible heaven by a culture disease, some cancers and blindness have and are characterized by unusual erect and hero, Mautikitiki, but because the plant increased. The FSM Go Local campaign semi-erect bunches, red-purple or purple was reluctant to go down to earth, the fruit promotes the ‘CHEEF’ benefits of eating sap and a deep yellow, yellow-orange or bunch always stands upright, pointing local foods, which include Culture, Health, orange flesh. The ripe orange-coloured towards its place of origin. In the 1960s, a the Environment, the Economy and flesh of these bananas provides up to 100 Danish researcher on Bellona, an uplifted Food security. Many FSM banana, taro, times as much beta-carotene as the common atoll of only about 20 km2, reported 6 Fe’i breadfruit and pandanus varieties have been white-fleshed Cavendish banana. Melanesia banana varieties (Ghabaghaghi, Kangisi’ibai, analysed in laboratories and found to be has a great diversity of Fe’i bananas, but Paunao, Takape, Tapipiingi, Tongaka) were very high in nutrients and therefore very there has been very little documentation being used, in addition to about 10 other rich in health-giving properties. The more or assessment of these varieties. Sweet banana varieties. Just two generations later, colourful yellow and orange-fleshed varieties potato is another important staple food in the Fe’i bananas have almost disappeared were found to contain greater amounts Melanesian countries and a great diversity from this island, due to repeated cyclone of provitamin A carotenoids, the most of sweet potatoes has developed there. destruction compounded by replacement of important of which is beta-carotene. This Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes also provide the lost varieties by imported foods such as substance is changed in the body to vitamin high levels of beta-carotene and contribute rice and by neglect of these varieties. The A and helps protect against infections, eye to protecting good health. This article Fe’i banana varieties have become rare and

24 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 25 These highly nutritious Fe’i bananas are found almost exclusively in the Pacific and are characterized by unusual erect and semi-erect bunches, red-purple or purple sap and a deep yellow, yellow-orange or orange flesh.

younger generations are now unfamiliar healthy planting material to replace species with them. that are lost due to pests, diseases or natural In Melanesia, cultural groups differ in disasters, such as destructive cyclones which their use of Fe’i bananas. On Malaita in often devastate gardens in small Pacific Solomon Islands, Fe’i bananas, which are communities. Banana samples collected often referred to as ‘wild’ bananas (eg Ba’u on Makira were collected specifically to kwasi in Kwara’ae language), are not usually be conserved for the communities that cultivated in domestic gardens and little supplied them and permission from the used. In the in Western Premier of the province and local farmers Solomons, the old people reportedly used was obtained before collecting samples. to describe Fe’i type bananas as ‘medicine Formal permission for the export of the food’, but nowadays people there do plant material for conservation and testing not use them as much as before. Some was obtained. This included phytosanitary people report being afraid of eating Fe’i certificates from the SI Ministry of bananas because after consumption, the Agriculture and Livestock to accompany the urine becomes an unusually bright yellow samples and import permits from Fiji. colour. Jokes abound about this effect and A participatory, inter-agency multiple modern myth suggests that this is a sign methodology approach (including of disease – maybe yellow fever. However, ethnography, key informant interviews, the urine effect is harmless, and is due to informal focus group discussions, the rich riboflavin (vitamin 2B ) content in photography, market survey, and literature Fe’i bananas. The body excretes the excess review) was used to study the varieties of riboflavin in the urine when it has absorbed banana and sweet potato and their uses. enough. In 2007 two areas in Makira Island were On Makira in Solomon Islands, visited, Kirakira on the northern coast and bananas, including many Fe’i varieties are a more remote area on the weather coast, an important staple food and the island reached by flying to Santa Ana, and then is known for its banana diversity. Makira going by canoe to Manivovo, Mami, and was therefore chosen for the first field site Mwakorukoru villages. Local partners to investigate bananas in Solomon Islands. provided great support in arranging for data We aimed to identify orange- and yellow- collection and the awareness workshops. fleshed bananas and sweet potatoes rich Around 700 participants took part in the in beta-carotene, as well as other essential seven workshops. Over 460 photographs nutrients, and to raise awareness of the value were collected for a visual record. In 2008 of growing and consuming these foods. further awareness workshops were held on A main focus was on collecting samples Malaita in Solomon Islands, at Malu’u, of bananas and mature sweet potato and Basakana Island, Gou’ulu, Royal Harbour sending these to laboratories for analysis and Kolofe and attended by around 320 (Institute of Applied Sciences/University of people in total. Further workshops were Fe’i banana, cv Bonubonu (top), showing bunch growing upwards (Photo by Jeff Daniells). Orange sweet potato the South Pacific (USP) in Suva, Fiji, and also conducted in Papua New Guinea. collection growing (above) at Kastom Gaden Association, University of Adelaide in Australia) assessing A visit to West Taraka (now known as Honiara (photo by Lois Englberger). for carotenoids, riboflavin and essential “Newest”) on the outskirts of Lae was a minerals, as well as collecting germplasm highlight of our Morobe stay. TheFamily Dramatisation of the nutritional benefits of orange fleshed sweet potato (far left), West Taraka, PNG (Photo by Gra- material for conserving in tissue culture. A Poverty Rehabilitation Association Mama, ham Lyons). Local champion Francis Wehi (left) protects regional germplasm genetic resource bank is Newest provides an inspiring example food futures by teaching children about the value of local maintained by SPC Centre for Pacific Crops of what a women’s group can achieve in foods using the Pohnpei banana posters, Mami village, and Trees in Suva, Fiji so that it can provide making positive steps in alleviating extreme Makira (Photo by Wendy Foley).

24 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 25 These highly nutritious Fe’i bananas are found almost exclusively in the Pacific and are characterized by unusual erect and semi-erect bunches, red-purple or purple sap and a deep yellow, yellow- orange or orange flesh.

adversity and improving the lives of those about 65 banana varieties, and recorded food habits are changing rapidly. They are in their community. The group has a common names, cultivation details, culinary repositories of food diversity, which may local food growing and plant distribution uses and cultural value. We also heard of otherwise be lost to future generations, and program which includes orange-fleshed about 20 other varieties, although time can enhance utilization of these plant foods sweet potatoes. After the visit, members of did not allow fuller investigation of these. which can contribute to good health of the Newest community conducted a local About 9 or 10 of the banana varieties we people in Melanesian communities. food/nutrition workshop of their own at the saw were different Fe’i cultivars, which Sweet potato collections are also being local primary school. ranks Makira as one of the most important maintained in diverse locations: in the During our time on Makira, a locations for diversity and abundance of Solomons at Kastom Gaden Association customary Houra feast was being prepared Fe’i banana anywhere. Banana diversity in (Honiara), International Potato Centre in Arohane village, close to the capital Melanesia far surpasses that in its nearest (CIP)’s Binu Farmer Field Trial site (35km of Kirakira. This feast demonstrated the big neighbour, Australia, where 99% of E of Honiara), Star Harbour and Bauro cultural significance of traditional foods, commercial bananas come from just two (Makira), Busurata and Takwa (Malaita) including bananas. For days leading up to varieties which are not as rich nutritionally and in Papua New Guinea at the National the feast, a feast house was gradually filled as many Melanesian varieties. Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) with a cornucopia of bananas, including Great diversity of sweet potato varieties in Bubia (Morobe Province) and Aiyura Fe’i varieties, known on Makira as Toraka, was also observed. Some people reported (Eastern Highlands Province). Around together with other culturally valued foods having more than 20 varieties of sweet 15 local orange-fleshed sweet potatoes including yams, fermented taro pudding in potato growing in their gardens – to varieties which combine the traits of high enormous wooden bowls and pigs, tethered maximise production and resistance to pests beta-carotene, high yield, pest resistance, outside, awaiting the feast day. and diseases as well as providing a variety of acceptable flavour and texture have been Although Fe’i bananas clearly are still tastes, textures and ripening times. identified in Solomon Islands. Several of important in ceremonies on Makira, their Very important conservation work these are being bulked and distributed in limited use as an everyday food reflects is being carried out by local champions Makira, Malaita, Guadalcanal and Santa dietary changes happening all around the who actively maintain community based Cruz (). Pacific: the use of old traditional staples conservation sites – collections planted Despite difficulties due to transport like Toraka is declining in most areas. to preserve the biodiversity of food and quarantine regulations with both Despite its high cultural value in feasts, the crops. The two community based banana the samples for nutrient analysis and Toraka fruit is now infrequently used for conservation sites visited on Makira, in the the plant materials for tissue culture, we family consumption and is rarely sold in Bauro Highlands and on the weathercoast successfully collected 16 banana samples, markets. One woman, who had learned at Manivovo, contained at least 52 including some Toraka varieties, for nutrient about the health benefits ofToraka at the banana varieties. The Manivovo banana analysis at USP and also 18 samples to be awareness workshop before the Houra feast, collection, however, is currently untended maintained in a tissue culture collection encouraged people during the feast food and some varieties originally established held by SPC’s Centre for Pacific Crops and distribution not to waste Toraka, but to eat there are no longer growing. Some of Trees in Suva, Fiji, although several of these them because they are so healthy to eat. We this collection is being reestablished at died during delays. In addition to bananas, found that people often feel empowered by Nana and Wairogurogu. Although there 23 orange-fleshed sweet potato samples were the message of how rich their local foods are significant challenges in maintaining collected for nutrient analysis. Many of are. these remote living collections, they are these proved to be very nutritious, especially As we travelled around Makira, we saw particularly important at this time when when compared with rice.

26 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 These highly nutritious Fe’i bananas are found almost exclusively in the Pacific and are characterized by unusual erect and semi-erect bunches, red-purple or purple sap and a deep yellow, yellow- orange or orange flesh.

This project brought together in boarding schools and in towns and often intersectoral collaboration in agriculture prefer to consume food from a narrow and nutrition, government and non- selection of imports that are high in cost but government, to work with local nutritionally inferior. A result of this is the communities to raise awareness about the neglect of very rich, diverse and delicious value of local food varieties in comparison local foods. As Melanesian countries with many of the popular imported adopt yet more imported foods, it is of foods. This work is important as it has vital importance to evaluate and publicise the potential to help communities become the foods that grow in local environments aware of the cultural, health, environmental, before it is too late. This investment in economic and food security benefits of local Melanesia’s food future will help to protect food resources. The awareness campaign, food security, ensure local food biodiversity, has so far involved 21 workshops in celebrate the superior food value of many communities in Solomon Islands and 7 in Pacific plant foods and make them widely PNG. The Go Local message has been taken available for people to grow, buy and eat, up enthusiastically by people in all walks of so they can enjoy healthy lives into the life in both countries and also highlighted in future with all the benefits of traditional and articles in national newspapers. However, locally grown foods. the lack of knowledge of the health- promoting properties of the rich local foods Acknowledgments remains widespread. Contributors to the work reported in this Diversity Fairs held in local areas also article are acknowledged for facilitating provide an opportunity for promoting this study and awareness project. They awareness of the wealth of local food crop include: Island Food Community of varieties to both local people and visitors. Pohnpei, HarvestPlus, Secretariat of the These events enable the dissemination of Pacific Community (SPC), the Australian important agricultural information, such Centre for International Agricultural as improved banana and sweet potato Research (ACIAR), International Potato planting methods and how to minimize Centre (CIP), in Solomon Islands the pest damage to crops. They also serve Kastom Gaden Association, Ministry of to enhance villagers’ pride in their local Agriculture and Livestock and Ministry of foods and highlight their advantages over Health and Medical Services, in PNG the Variety of Fe’i banana (Toraka) fingers (top), Makira, imported processed foods. Events like this National Agricultural Research Institute Solomon Islands (photo by Lois Englberger). Suria, one are great celebrations of community and (NARI) and local communities in both variety of Fe’I banana, showing both the unpeeled and food biodiversity. countries. Special thanks go to Dr Mary peeled fruit (above centre) to show the rich orange flesh Taylor (SPC), Belden Taki, Pita Tikai, John coloration.Orange-fleshed sweet potato (centre) and sweet potato leaves (above). Conclusion and Joyce Murray, Peter Warito, Francis While there is a wonderful diversity of plant Wehi and Lawrence Atu in Solomon Islands Preparing delicious, local food. Caroline and Elsabet foods in the Pacific, younger generations are and Maria Linibi, Elick Guaf and, Rosa cooking Fe’i bananas Manivovo, Makira, Solomon Islands frequently exposed to limited food varieties Kambuou in PNG. (Photo by Wendy Foley) (top left, page 26) The fight against an invasive vine, big leaf Merremia peltata Vatthe Conservation Area, Santo, Vanuatu

Words by Sue Maturin atthe the largest Conservation Vanuatu NGO partner EcoLifelihood Area, and most extensive lowland Development Associates (EDA) who will alluvial forest left in Vanuatu, take over management of the project. The is under threat from an invasive two organizations have gained a $US 50,000 Vvine, big leaf (Merremia peltata), which is grant from UNDP/GEF/SGP to develop invading previously uninfested forest, and landowner capacity to control the invasive Approximately 2,300ha is causing the death of large numbers of vine, Merremia peltata. The project involves (92%) of Vatthe forest canopy trees. trialing hand cutting and herbicide methods The Royal Forest and Bird Protection aimed at reducing the extent and density of has been invaded. Of this Society of New Zealand (Forest & Bird) the vine to a level that can be controlled by some 1,300 ha are beyond has been working with the local landowners hand cutting in the future. Initial trial work of Vatthe Conservation area to investigate was funded by Forest and Bird, NZ Quakers the ability to control and options for controlling the vine infestation. and the Pacific Development Trust. need to be replanted. Initial small scale trial work suggests that it may be possible to eradicate the vine from Herbicide Trial Results Effective control is small newly established infestations and Our first trials indicated that cutting and possible in the remaining control it to manageable levels over larger pasting all climbing stems with Vigilant gel areas by injecting glysophate into large in June achieved kills of upto 70% of 800ha surrounding a core stemand cutting all small stems. the smaller stems. Approximately 2,300ha (92%) of However this method did not reliably area of 200ha which is free Vatthe forest has been invaded. Of kill stems greater than 5cm dbh. We also of big leaf. this some 1,300 ha are beyond the ability trialed scrapping larger stems 20cm along to control and need to be replanted. both sides with a 10cm overlap, (not a full Effective control is possible in the ring bark) and applying vigilant gel to the remaining 800ha surrounding a core area of scraped surface. This method killed all the 200ha which is free of big leaf. trialed however we suspect that Vigilant Forest & Bird has teamed up with a may have been responsible for causing

28 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 Looking over Vatthe Conservation Area and Matantas Village (above). Vatthe’s diverse wildlife includes the globally endangered, Gallicolumba santaecrusis and three vulnerable endemic bird species, Megapodius layardi, Erythrura trichroa, and Todiramphus farquahari. Vatthe is on the Vanuatu Government’s tentative site list for World Heritage nomination.

Approximately 2,300ha (92%) of Vatthe forest (top) damage to a large Dracontomelon vitiense kg 4 amino, 3,5,6 – trichloropicolinic has been invaded by the invasive vine. Cutting and (Anacardiaceae). Scrapping is also time acid picloram) and Ultimate (active applying vigilant gel (above left) killed only 70% consuming and not feasible over hundreds of ingredients; 25g/litre metsulfuronmethyl & of treated vines. This method over a large area hectares. would be expensive, and time consuming. Emily 75g/litre triclopyr). Tasale (EDA) (above) using dyed water to test an Further trials were established by the Due to the possible impacts of injector fitted with a blind needle. These will be Vatthe Landowners with the assistance of vigilant and the good results obtained used to inject undiluted glysophate (Weedmaster) Forest & Bird volunteers in July 2009, by injecting Weedmaster, which is easily into large stems. to test the effectiveness of four different obtainable in Vanuatu, is cheaper and has herbicides applied by injecting 10ml (50:50 significantly less environmental and human water) into the main stump of large vines risks than Vigilant (picloram), we have (>4.5cm dbh) vine. decided to proceed with a larger trial Of the four herbicides trialed, area using 5ml injections of undiluted Weedmaster Duo active ingredient weedmaster (glysophate), to all main stems 360g/L glyphosate was the most effective greater than around 4cm dbh. In addition completely killing all four injected vines. all stems less than 4cm will be cut at the Victory Gold (active ingredient 50g/ point they climb into the canopy. No litre picloram plus 100g/litre triclopyr) herbicide will be applied to these cut ends. killed most but not all. Least effective As it is cheaper and quicker to were Vigilant gel (active ingredient 43g/

WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 29 The results have surpassed everyone’s expectations. The forest canopy has recovered, with many previously unhealthy trees regenerating their crowns.

30 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 31 apply lesser amounts of Weedmaster be two years before the vine recovered we established further trials to test sufficiently to reach the canopy. However the effectiveness of injecting 2.5ml assessments this year suggest that it may of undiluted Weedmaster in August be even longer and that those reaching 2010. We also trialed injecting 5 x the canopy are likely to come from 1 ml undiluted Weedmaster at random missed vines rather than from extensive intervals in the ground running stems of re-growth of cut stumps. We found large vines. The herbicide takes 9 or more very few examples of multiple re-growth months to completely kill a vine, so the of stems from cut stumps, despite a very effectiveness of these trials can not be wet season. assessed until next year. It is possible that The vine cutters began work in the herbicide may work faster if applied earnest in June and July 2010 with six in the wet season, but this has not been teams and more than 30 people cutting. tested. They have now cut more than 100ha of Ideally, given more time and resources, densely infected forest. There are thousands we would have had significantly larger of vines per ha. The focus for the rest of this trials with more intensive monitoring, year will be on applying herbicide. Over and would have trialed differing application the next two years we plan to re-cut the methods and timing. However our trials to ‘cut only’ areas to test the effectiveness of date give us an indication of what can be two and three cutting cycles as this may achieved. There remain many questions to be enough to create unfavorable growing be answered, and further research is needed. conditions and sufficiently weaken the vine. Work program for large scale herbicide Vine Cutting application developed Forest & Bird Due to the extent of large tree deaths caused volunteer, John Dodgson has developed by the vine and the time it was taking to find specialized tools for herbicide application. a herbicide method we decided to do a large These include a hole punch with a slide scale cutting only trial. All climbing stems hammer to puncture the larger vine stems in some 50ha of forest were cut twice; at which enables the shoulder height and ground level, where herbicide to be injected by injectors they climbed into the canopy in July attached to drench packs. A walking 2009. stick stem injector (using disposable parts) The results have surpassed everyone’s has been developed and trialed. This expectations. The forest canopy has concept works and will be developed for recovered, with many previously unhealthy use with more robust parts. This will trees regenerating their crowns. Large deliver 1ml injections to ground running canopy trees that last year looked on the stems. verge of death have recovered. The death The Vatthe landowners and members of the mass of vine stems covering the from Matantas and a nearby village forest floor seems to have also enabled – Talatas, have been trained in safe the development of a dense understory of herbicide handling and the specific young seedlings of the canopy species and methods of application developed for a diversity of understory shrubs. This may Vatthe. Workshop materials were prepared be due to the death and decay of the mass of in bislama (Vanuatu’s national language) Maena Tavue a local cutting small big leaf stems, which is already having dramatic results ground stems creating more space for plants and will be used to train other communities. (top).Emily Tasale, John Dodgson and Bill as well as enriching the soil. Death of The herbicide application began on Tavue trialing the walking stick injector which the vine in the canopy has temporarily August 9 2010, and is now in full will be developed to enable 1ml injections of weedmaster to ground running stems (above). increased the sunlight reaching the forest swing with 50 people working. The Whilst Donna Kalfatak (previous page) floor which may also be contributing to the development and training phase of this – Department of Environment and Conservation and Rosina from Matantas surveying understory increased shrub growth. This new shrub project has been completed. The focus re-growth of canopy seedlings in the Vine cut growth appears to be sufficient to prevent now will be on the operational control of area. large amounts of the vine re-growing. the vine and monitoring the impacts, to We had anticipated that it would continually refine herbicide application.

The results have surpassed everyone’s expectations. The forest canopy has recovered, with many previously unhealthy trees regenerating their crowns.

30 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 31

Kolombangara United by a Crater On Kolombangara a new chapter in conservation is unfolding.

Words by Andrew Cox and Ferguson Vaghi

Photographs by Andrew Cox & Patrick Pikacha High ridgeline of Mt Rano (top), falling sharply into the n Kolombangara in the Western Land History crater and it’s many streams (above) and waterfalls (far Solomon Islands, a new chapter Solomon Islands has been subject to many right). Ferguson Vagi coordinator of Kolombangara Island Biodiversity and Conservation Association (at right) with in conservation is unfolding. outside forces since British rule and this has ranger (top center) at a custom site on the trail to Mt Kolombangara Island is had a big impact on the natural environment Tapalamengutu (1710m). Bulbophyllum sp orchid (below Oimmediately appealing because the dormant of Kolombangara Island. center), and Dendrobium sp (below right) in montane volcano has a classic volcanic cone shape. The When the early colonists claimed Solomon forests. cone rises from a circular 30km base to a crater Islands as a British Protectorate in 1893, they rim 1,780m above sea level. The last eruption found few people on Kolombangara. They was about 10,000 year ago and the cone were not seen by the British because they were has since heavily eroded, leaving a stunning mostly living on the slopes and in the deep The crater and the shattered crater, with a major gash in one side valleys of the volcano crater, out of sight of where the Vila River drains the crater centre. aggressive headhunting raiding parties from mountain slopes are The crater and the mountain slopes are neighbouring islands. revered in Indigenous revered in indigenous culture. More recently The British, thinking it was largely scientists starting to venture there have uninhabited, acquired most of the island as culture. More recently discovered many other secrets. State land and in 1905 granted a 999-year The indigenous people of Kolombangara, occupation licence to Levers Brothers from scientists starting to the Dughore people, have been actively the United Kingdom to establish coconut supporting the scientific studies. They have plantations to produce oil for Levers’ soap. venture there have also begun to re-establish their connection From about 1968, Levers Pacific Timber discovered many other with the high mountains of Kolombangara Plantation, a subsidiary of the larger Unilever after a century of living on the coastal shores. Company, began extensive logging of the secrets. Most importantly, despite the alienation rainforests of the lower slopes, largely below of most of Kolombangara island during 400m altitude. Very few trees were left standing colonization, the Dughore are regaining a on the coastal lands of Kolombangara. management role for the forests brought about After Solomon Island’s Independence in through a shared vision for conservation. 1978, the Levers holding was converted to a 75-year lease and many of the operations converted to plantations. In 1989, the

34 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 35 Government took over the former Levers lease lands and granted it to a new independent forest plantation company, Kolombangara Forest Products Limited (KFPL). The KFPL lease covered 66% of the island. KFPL, while either fully government controlled, or like now, 60% owned by a Tiawanese investor, adopted a constructive relationship with the indigenous people. Most of the employees are Kolombangara people, and KFPL has built good consultation practice with island communities on the lands.

Drawing on the Respect for the Crater Land issues on Kolombangara, like elsewhere in Solomon Islands, have caused deep-seated conflict. Landowners regularly fight each other for timber rights and land claims in the High Court. There are different views over which descendant group should prevail in decision- making for the island. There is no easy answer. Several attempts to set up a body of ‘chiefs’ on Kolombangara has created splits and little real progress. These conflicts were amplified with the disruption and breakdown of many of the traditional decision-making structures. Compounding matters was the intense pressure

34 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 35 from toxic logging deals and the accompanying of the Kolombangara people. bribes of alcohol, cash and hollow promises of While the people could not agree on how community services like schools, roads and best to organize themselves to resolve the land water tanks. issues, they could agree on preserving the Once the log ships departed, villages were Kolombangara crater and the forests above often left with few trees for building houses 400m altitude. or shade and dried up water supplies. Many people felt a deep hurt from both the bitter KIBCA – a Uniting Force conflict before the logging and a hard lesson Prompted by several enthusiastic overseas learnt after the logging. The claimed benefits scientists and supported by KFPL, the rarely materialised. landholders decided to set up an organisation Against this roadblock, the landowners that would take a lead in the conservation of Kolombangara quickly realised that their interests on Kolombangara on behalf of all ancestors and the stories of their recently landowners. deceased elders held the key to the future. So in 2008, Kolombangara Island The Dughore believe that all their ancestors Biodiversity Conservation Association came from a man and a woman who lived inside (KIBCA) was formed. the Kolombangara Crater, Kongu Rano. Over KIBCA represents landowners via time, the people moved out of the crater to live representatives from 10 zones that come in villages further down the slope, in the major together for an AGM, and regular Executive river valleys of the Vila, Kukundu and Rei meetings that have at least one representative One of many waterfalls in Kolombangara’s crater (top). rivers. More recently, as the headhunting wars per zone. Blue-faced parrot finch (above center), only found on between islands stopped, the Kolombangara For the first time since about 1900, KIBCA the summit of Kolombangara in the Western Province but occurs also on Guadalcana and Bougainvilles’ high people settled around the coast, leaving behind provided a realistic way for Kolombangara mountains. Macodes sp orchid (above), a ground orchid old village sites, burial places and other tambu indigenous people, long alienated from their found on ridge and montane forests. sites in the mountains and the crater. land, to be involved in managing at large part The Kolombangara elders had a deep of their island. Facing page: Dawn at the Imbu Rano Lodge, a research and eco-tourist lodge found nestled at 400 m over looking respect for and tradition of protecting the high the crater forests and the high ridge of Mt Tapalamengutu mountain forests and the crater, the birthplace (1710 m).

36 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 37 Strong Steps Forward Science a Fundamental Plank altitudinal monitoring of bats and frogs. KIBCA has moved ahead in leaps and bounds. The overseas scientists had readily understood KIBCA has secured a long-term funding the significance of the crater and its mountain Tourism commitment to pay scholarships to parents areas. Kolombangara hosts two high altitude Tourism has great promise for the future of of high school and tertiary school students, endemic birds, the Kolombangara White-eye Kolombangara. It has the potential not only in return for landholders signing a pledge and the Kolombangara Leaf Warbler. At least to put this jewel of an island and KIBCA’s not to log above 400m altitude. In 2011 it two frogs endemic to the high cloud forests conservation efforts in the international distributed 110 scholarships to Kolombangara were found by scientists from the American spotlight, but also to generate long-term parents worth a total of SBD$94,000 (about Museum in October 2010. More surprises are revenue, both for KIBCA and small family-run USD$12,000) likely to be found. businesses servicing tourists. While tourism often promises more than it It has conducted awareness workshops with KIBCA has formalised its relationship with delivers, KIBCA is careful to offer something villages to help them find alternative forms of International scientists. This ensures that the unique to adventurous and wildlife loving income to logging, such as from honey-making studies undertaken on the island do not repeat work already done, that they answer the most visitors. and local nut harvesting. pressing scientific questions and that benefits Already KFPL has come to the party and To take advantage of the spectacular scenery clearly flow to the local people. built a well-appointed lodge close to the 400m on Kolombangara, it has begun to promote the Scientists fear that the tropical forests will elevation as a springboard for walks into the island to overseas visitors. suffer greatly under the impact of global climate Kolombangara Crater and to the crater rim. In June 2011 KIBCA held a festival to change. Something as seemingly benign as a KIBCA has recently set up a network of celebrate the 400m conservation area. The area one-degree temperature rise will put animals walking track, two huts a few hours walk from was formally dedicated by the Prime Minister under greater heat stress and cause the tropical the lodge and a basic shelter deep inside the and the Minister of Environment. The clouds to form at a higher altitude. Then there crater. festival included sporting and other contests, are predictions of lower rainfall and longer but popular amongst the local people was a drought periods. This will spell profound Visit Kolombangara Yourself walking tour to the crater centre. Up until this change for Kolombangara’s mountains and the All the information you need to visit time, few indigenous people had the chance to cool climate and high rainfall specialists living Kolombangara Island can be found at www. go inside the crater and reconnect with their there. kolombangara.org. Daily flights from Honiara birthplace. KIBCA is planning to set up long-term go to either Gizo or Munda airports. remote weather modeling stations and is working with several scientists on long-term Ferguson Vaghi is Coordinator and Andrew Cox is Technical Officer at KIBCA.

36 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 37 Empowering communities to retain their resources Words by Simon Albert Photographs by Simon Albert & Fred Olivier

ommunities the traditional subsistence “This provides a model of across Marovo way of life of the people. The how remote subsistence Lagoon in the environment provides almost communities can realise their Western Solomons all their needs: housing, water, Chave recently endured food, canoes and medicine. development aspirations industrial scale harvesting of There is however an increasing without compromising the their marine and terrestrial need for cash to pay for natural resources that support resources. Due to a complex essentials such as education, combination of unscrupulous kerosene, transport, soap them.” companies, selfish landowners and an increasing desire for and poor governmental cash to pay for many other management this resource items. For many people the extraction has yielded little only asset that can yield cash if any development benefits is their natural resources. for the people of Marovo. Hence for the past couple As the companies pack up of decades the natural and sail for the next port the resources in Marovo and Marovo people are left to elsewhere in the Solomons achieve their development have been sold off cheaply to assisting communities to communities that have been aspirations through other international (predominately market their natural resources able to market their intact means. Some communities Asian) companies. Finding without extracting and ecosystems to outside donors continue to attract companies alternatives to resource destroying them. without destroying them. to extract new resources extraction has been difficult Communities that Biche village has used the (mining, oil palm) and with agriculture, tourism and resisted temptations to sell modest funds received from continue the pattern of failed carving industries providing their resources cheaply to the donor to finance a range promises and environmental limited and unreliable overseas companies are of small scale development degradation. Meanwhile sources of income. Recently beginning to realise the long projects aimed at removing other communities are NGOs such as WWF, The term benefits of having an the community’s dependence exploring a new path through University of Queensland, intact terrestrial and marine on cash and external goods. environmental management American Museum of Natural ecosystem. Increasingly One such project in 2007 and sustainable development. History and Solomon Island developed nations are was the installation of solar The rich environment of Community Conservation interested in supporting lighting in every household. the Marovo region supports Partnership have been community based efforts to This was able to remove the preserve their environments community’s dependence on for the biodiversity, carbon kerosene which had been a storage, food security, water major component of a family’s catchment, aesthetic and expenditure. In addition a cultural services they provide. scholarship program has been Clockwise from top left: James Jino and The Zaira community established that subsidises son, Gerald exploring the still intact south Vangunu bush. Coastal village of Biche, on Vangunu and Biche school fees for Biche students south Gatokae. Exploring the lush south community on Gatokae are attending primary and high Vangunu crater ridgeline. Intact coastline of two leading examples of schools. Funds have also Gatokae and, lush Vangunu crater interior.

38 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 39 38 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 39 40 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 41 Sustainable Development Opportunities marovo

been used to repair schools for washing and kerosene Realising that donor funding and churches. The modest for lighting. The oil has of this kind may not be funding ($20-50,000 SBD been deriving a significant perpetual into the future, PA) that these communities income for both families and have received has not come the community who market Biche have also invested in from large companies, aid it locally to other villages developing a small scale organisations or governments. and eco-lodges. The Biche coconut oil production It has been provided by small community coconut co- scale private, philanthropic operative has been established business to provide long term and corporate donors that to ensure economic benefits sustainable income. have a strong connection are distributed at individual, to the Solomons and are family and community interested in supporting the levels. Families can harvest, people to retain their natural grate, dry and press their resources whilst realising own oil for personal use or modest development goals. sell it into the co-operative Realising that donor at $16 SBD ($3 AUD) per funding of this kind may not litre. From there the oil is be perpetual into the future, bottled, labelled and sold ensure both the motivation has made this job of looking Biche have also invested outside the village at $24-35 and obligations of community after land and sea more in developing a small scale per litre depending on size. and donor are clear from difficult. It is critical that coconut oil production The profit is then returned the outset. In this case this external agencies interested business to provide long term to the community for use community consultation has in supporting conservation sustainable income. Using on development projects. been made possible through efforts realise and engage with a simple hand press the This provides a model of a grant from the John D the need for a modest cash Biche community coconut how remote subsistence & Catherine T MacArthur income in modern Solomon co-operative turns their communities can realise their Foundation. society. After the disastrous abundant coconuts into high development aspirations In Biche and Zaira last few decades of industrial grade organic coconut oil for without compromising the the past couple of years of scale logging in the Solomons, sale locally. The oil has also natural resources that support experience with ‘conservation’ communities are motivated reduced the need for cash them. This model relies has led to a realisation in the to find alternative ways to in Biche as it has replaced on a robust and thorough community that in many realise their development palm oil for cooking, soap community consultation to ways the western concept aspirations. To date the only of conservation or resource groups offering development management is no different and income opportunities from what they have been have been logging, fishing doing for millennia. Solomon and mining companies. Islanders have a long tradition Communities in Marovo are Clockwise from top left: Children of Biche of looking after their land providing important lessons village, south Gatokae. Coconut press mill a sustainable venture in Biche Villlage. and sea in a way that sustains of how development can be Drying out coconut before pressing. their lifestyle. Clearly the achieved though conservation Scraping out rich flesh of coconut before transition to a cash economy of natural resources. drying out in sun.

40 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 41 Kukuvoju: Speaking from the Grave Words by Brian Weeks

forest floor in the Solomons. Given its impacts of a changing culture as European unique characteristics and place in local influence expanded. There were six birds lore, Kukuvoju must have traveled the and one egg that were collected by Meek rainforest understory beyond all human in 1904, and five of these specimens are memory. still housed at the American Museum of Unfortunately, large size, independent Natural History in New York, USA (the young, and ground dwelling habits are sixth skin and the egg are at the Natural a deadly set of traits for an animal to History Museum, Britain). Recently have on an island where cats, rats, and David Boseto, a scientist from Choiseul dogs have been introduced. Kukuvoju who is studying in the United States, likely co-existed with dogs and pigs dropped by the Museum to work on (which probably arrived with the earliest his freshwater fish research and also to ) for millennia, and even lived collaborate on an education project that with cats for several generations. However, is underway in the Solomon Islands (the the later introduction of rats, continued Network of Conservation Educators introduction of cats, and increases in dog and Practitioners; NCEP). He took the numbers all may have increased pressure chance to see what are probably some on the Kukuvoju. As well as shifts in of the last individuals of his island’s he Solomon Islands lie at these introduced species, the collapse of extraordinary pigeon. This sad story can a crossroads: they connect native peoples’ spirituality that followed serve as a cautionary tale as the Solomon biologically rich Australia increased European influence may have Islands thinks about introducing non- and Asia to the sprawling made areas of remote forest, which had native species for various reasons, and Tislands of the South Pacific. Their unique to that point been protected by kastom, indeed served as the example Mr. Boseto location and extraordinary biological and more accessible to humans. This may have used in talking about the risks to native geological history have made for levels exposed Kukuvoju that were previously freshwater fish that would come with the of bird diversity that are famous around protected by their isolation to increased introduction of tilapia as a food fish. It the world. One of the earliest foreign human consumption and the indirect also demonstrates the value of continued expeditions that came to study birds in impacts of introduced animals associated scientific study of the natural world and the country was in 1904, and was led by with people like cats and rats. In 1927, the role that museum specimens can play a man named Albert Meek. Meek was only about twenty-three years later, the in protecting the natural heritage of the a British scientist who collected birds Whitney South Sea Expedition from the Solomon Islands; Kukuvoju may be gone, throughout the Solomons, and in 1904 American Museum of Natural History, but it should not be forgotten. on the northwest coast of Choiseul, he returned to Choiseul to re-survey the captured what is regarded by some as birds on the island. Although locals the most remarkable endemic bird of reported having seen the Kukuvoju, none Northern Melanesia: the Kukuvoju, also could be found. Jared Diamond, an known as the Choiseul Crested Pigeon, or American ornithologist, returned in 1974, Microgoura meeki. Its name reflects how and again no Kukuvoju. More recent spectacularly unique this bird was; no efforts to look for Kukuvoju on Choiseul known relatives existed, so it was named and on other islands have not met with Microgoura, or “small crowned-pigeon” any success - so what happened? after similar looking crowned pigeons in Unfortunately, it seems fairly certain New Guinea. This large ground-dwelling that this iconic bird from Choiseul is now pigeon, with its strange crest and brightly extinct – forever gone from the earth. colored facial skin and bill, most likely Although it is impossible to tell for sure, lived on Choiseul and nowhere else on the prevailing theory is that Kukuvoju’s earth. It is believed to have nested on the nesting habits and ground-dwelling young ground or in low branches in swampy made it easy prey for cats, dogs, and lowland areas and its offspring likely people. The best guess seems to be that would have left the nest at a very small the continued introduction of European size to head out into the bush to fend for cats was the main driver in its extinction, The extinct Choiseul ground pigeon (above), not seen since themselves, searching out the rich crops though it is difficult to rule out the 1904, with five specimens lodged at the American Museum of possibility of disease or to quantify the Natural History, one of which is held by local scientist, David of fallen fruit and seeds that litter the Boseto (top left).

42 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 43 Red-backed Button-Quail are still on Guadalcanal Words by Mike Tarburton

ayr (1945) said of the extinction. sub-species of Red-backed In spite of this prediction Cain & Button-quail (Turnix Galbraith (1956), who spent four months on maculosa salomonensis) found Guadalcanal in 1953 only found these birds Monly on the north-coastal grasslands of among crops, commenting that they would Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands, that probably be hard to flush in the tall Kunai “Most field naturalists will look in vain for grass. Were they looking in the heat of the these birds, even in their proper habitat.” day or had the birds become more difficult Since then much clearing of this area has to locate than in earlier days? That the only reduced their habitat and Doughty (1999) report of their presence since that time has says they are endangered. Other references been from the 1970’s (Pacey pers com), to their rarity or obscurity may be found at: indicates the importance of looking out for www.birdsofmelanesia.net/solomons7htm/ this bird and reporting any findings. guadalcanal.pdf The two predated wings that I found This means there is some significance were adjacent to a large pineapple patch in to the finding of two sets of depredated the Betikama Adventist College gardens, wings with some of the distinctive wing just south of Honiara. They were on a ridge, coverts of this species in August 2002, such as a bird of prey would use to eat its (pictured). The same black markings on catch, and between the pineapple patch and the wing coverts that can be seen in the a remnant patch of rainforest. photo can also be seen in Mayr (p. 59, 1945, The good news is that two live birds were Fig 2). Further, Galbraith & Galbraith flushed at one of these ridges in the night at (1962) make the following observations Betikama by Patrick Pikacha while looking when comparing the 10 specimens held in for frogs in 2007. Patrick also found hatched museums in the UK & USA: “All specimens egg shells of button quails in 2011 in the have the black markings well developed on same area. In November 2011, a photograph the under parts”. They also point out that of a button quail was taken by Guy Dutson, the females have more barring on the breast who says a healthy population live around than the subspecies on New Guinea, and these grasslands. With settlement and more barring on the sides of the breast than village expansion occurring around north the subspecies on Cape York Peninsular Guadalcanal, let us hope enough grasslands (Australia). They add that the males have remain for this striking subspecies. the sides of the breast and wing coverts heavily “spotted”. These bent bar-shaped References: spots can be discerned on the wing covert Beecher, W.J. 1945. A bird collection from the feathers attached to the primaries in the Solomon Islands. Fieldiana (Zool) 31:31-37. photograph. Cain, A.J. & I.C.J. Galbraith. 1956. Field notes Doughty’s (1999) comments are on birds of the eastern Solomon Islands. Ibis 98: contrary to those of observers in the 1940’s. 100-134, 262-295. Beecher (1945) found the species was not uncommon in 1943-45. Pendleton (1947) Doughty C. 1999. The birds of Solomons, Evidence of breeding Red-back button quails, with eggshell worked in the grasslands 8-10 hours a day Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Christopher Helm, closest to the thumb having an even edge right around (top). for eleven months in endeavours to eradicate London. This indicates that the egg has hatched successfully. Two sets or at least control mosquito numbers in of depredated wings with some of the distinctive wing coverts Galbraith, I.C.J. & E.H. Galbraith. 1962. Land of Red-backed button quail (above center). A female bird the grasslands of northern Guadalcanal (above) (Photo: Guy Dutson). for eleven months of the Second World birds of Guadalcanal and the San Cristobal War. He found that the birds were active group, Eastern Solomon Islands. Bull. Brit. Mus. Zool. 9(1): 1-86. only early morning and late afternoon, but would freeze if disturbed between those Mayr E. 1945, Birds of the South-west Pacific. times and was most difficult to see, even 1968 Reprint by Wheldon & Wesley Press, New when they were only “one foot” from his York. foot. Because of the birds behaviour and the fact that he regularly found them within Pacey, 1979, Resident List for 1974-1979. 30 yards (metres) of US army camps over a Pendleton, R.C. 1947. Field observations on ten month period he was confident that this the Spotted Button-Quail on Guadalcanal. Auk bird was not in any immediate danger of 64: 417-421.

42 | Melanesian Geo • April - june 2012 WWW.MELANESIANGEO.ORG | 43 The best and most accessible overland bush trek in Solomon Islands,Kolombangara kolombangara.org