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Home , Imperialism

Land Qing and Ottoman Empires in the Age of 1800-1870 Ottoman : Age of Imperialism

c. 1800 : Age of Imperialism Tanzimat Reforms both Reflected and Influenced: - growing/changing role of Muslims in military - impact on relations between Muslims, non- Muslims (Orthodox and Armenian Christians, Jews) - tensions between ethnicity, , ideas of ‘’ - degree/directions of Western influence

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism “Nationalist” Movements: ‘tearing Empire apart’ (Text) -general argument: ideas of ‘nationalism’ drawn from Europe influenced several western provinces to fight for Independence - drew support European powers - marked End of Empire in all but name Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Alternate Interpretation: - reflected ethnic, economic and especially religious tensions Tanzimat reforms intended to address - exacerbated, facilitated by Europe’s Imperialist interests - [Quataert] ‘these independence movements were not ‘nations’ seeking political (state) autonomy but ‘states’ who only later struggled domestically to create nations’ : “States preceded Nations” Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Case Study: Greece

- First Balkan rising in Greece, 1821 - among Greeks, many educated, wealthy – benefiting from position in Ottoman empire - no desire to lose what they had - Greek Orthodox clergy: autonomous (millet system), powerful, wealthy

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Greek of Independence, first year 1821 - 1822 Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Religion (not language, residence), distinguished wealthy Orthodox Greeks from Muslim Ottomans:

-"Greece" not a definable place: - 2 million Greeks in modern mainland Greece - 2 million scattered in towns along coast Anatolia, Black Sea, Mediterranean. - some Anatolian Greeks did not speak Greek

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Who were the Leaders? - members of ‘secret society’ founded Odessa (Black Sea) 1814, included: - son of Greek fur trader living in Moscow, also lived in Paris -merchant from Odessa belonged to anti- Turkish society - merchant in Ionian Islands, close links British - others: notables, priests, teachers, students, professionals

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

OTTOMAN EMPIRE Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Significant: ties to among leaders much stronger than any ties to ‘Greek’ culture, language: - provoked/planned uprising in Romania: failed - locals ignored intended target: Ottoman peasants - attacked local notables: many of whom were property-owning Greeks

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Class divisions among Istanbul Greeks undermined uprising: - church leader hanged for supporting: new leader backed notables condemned revolt

Only ‘success’ in south: - local leaders joined in fear - Ottoman towns destroyed, Ottomans massacred - they retaliated with a bloodbath Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism [ George Finlay, contemporary account]

“In the meantime the Christian population had attacked and murdered the Mussulman population in every part of the peninsula. The towers and country homes of the Mussulmans were burned down, and their property was destroyed, in order to render the return of those who had escaped into the fortresses hopeless. From the 26th of March until Easter Sunday, which fell, in the year 1821, on the 22nd of April, it is supposed that fifteen thousand [Muslims] souls perished in cold blood and that about three thousand farmhouses or Turkish dwellings were laid waste." Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism War in South Continued -- 1823-25:

- Armed peasants’ interests clashed with those of wealthy assembly members - these were businessmen in international shipping, commerce - by 1823: more properly described as -- not ‘independence’ war! - By 1825: south in stalemate Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism ‘Great Powers’: conflicting concerns over instability - successful Greek independence would provide potential for exerting more influence (political, economic) in region but - a threatened Ottoman stability (would this lead to such movements?) upset current geo-political balance -- possibly give Russia ‘upper-hand’ (obviously Russia’s ‘concerns’ differed from Britain, France)

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Britain backed insurrection 1823: - considerable public support (Text) - war portrayed as ‘Terrible Turks’ (Muslims) against ‘Cradle of Western (Christian) ’ - Lord Byron (poet) organized funds, supplies - travelled to ‘front’: wrote about atrocities - died of fever 1824: added to spreading sympathies for Greeks - other Western Powers entered fray

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

IMAGES of WAR:

Massacre at Chios [Delacroix Fr. Painter] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

IMAGES of WAR

“Liberty Leading the People”

[Delacroix Fr. Painter] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

IMAGES of WAR:

Ottoman Painting (left) Greek Painting (below) Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism 1825: - Ottomans engaged Mohamed Ali () - modern navy, army invaded successfully 1827: - Great Powers sent fleet to defeat him - mediated , destroyed Egypt’s navy 1828-30: - Russia invaded Ottoman empire, threatened Istanbul - Ottomans submitted

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism 1828: - small state (population 800,000) created - ruled by former minister, assassinated 1831 1832: - “London Protocol” created small ‘independent’ Greek kingdom: to be ruled by German Prince - agreement approved by all ‘Great Powers’

Greece first province to withdraw successfully from Ottoman Empire: but nationalism? Independence? Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

“Greece” c. 1832 Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ruled as until 1844 when conservative constitution put in place: in interim… - Conservative elite/ increased power - intermediary of no longer present - Ottoman property gradually redistributed to Greek peasants: most Greeks had some land by 1870 - but many Greeks remained part of Ottoman empire . . .

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Russia: imperialism and the

- problems generated by Russia’s internal ‘imperialism’ almost as important as those created by Russia’s desire to gain Ottoman territory and access to the Mediterranean

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism The Armenian Question: : - Armenians scattered throughout Caucuses, Eastern Anatolia: territories disputed between Russia, Persia, Ottomans 1828: - Russia defeated Persia, annexed Erivan: created heart of today’s Armenia - established peace: developed commerce, invested in industry, railroads, urban growth - region prospered

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Black Sea Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism 1000s Muslim Ottomans Expelled (back to Ottoman territory): - their property, wealth forcibly left in hands of (mostly) Russian Armenians - created hatred between Ottomans, Armenians in empire - Armenians well represented in Ottoman cities (merchants, financiers): exercised influence

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Longer Term Legacies:

-1863 recognized ‘special rights’ for Armenians: renewed resentment among Ottomans

- 1894-6 low-level violence between these groups led to massacres “unparalleled in ferocity and scope” [Quataert]

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Treaty of Berlin (1878): [add’l rdgs]

assigned Kars, Adahan, Batumi region to Russia - another (forced influx) of Muslims to Ottoman Territory - intensified ethnic tensions between peoples of Caucuses, refugees and local communities

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Black Sea Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Russia’s development of ‘Armenia’ on margin of Iran assured potential future growth in this area: - now turned back to Ottoman territories - not only interested in sea access, wanted to expand territory westward Ottomans seen as weak: -lost Greek territory, navy destroyed dealing with ‘refugee’ crisis, heightened ethnic tensions (in part of Russian making)

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism “Sick Man of Europe”: - Nicholas 1 said to have characterized empire thusly - argued ‘now was the time….’ - also assumed that because Britain had supported Greek ‘rebels’ against Ottomans, it would remain at worst, neutral

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism - at best hoped for active support - Why? - one of many with Ottomans had guaranteed French and ‘right’ to protect their respective Christian citizens in Ottoman territory - both powers saw this for what it was: door waiting to be opened to step in and exercise ‘real’ influence Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Provocation of War: - Russia used this pretext, arguing that it was defending its interests against French: hoping to tap into British-French rivalry - even suggested ‘dividing up territories’ with Britain -miscalculated significantly! Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism The Crimean War:

-Dislike of Russian regime in Britain, concern to protect route to India: drew Britain into war - France also entered to ensure recent gains (in Ottoman Territories) not lost to Russia - war had little to do with Ottomans per se but forced to participate to protect territory

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism The Crimean War: 1854-56

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism of Paris, 1856:

- European powers assumed responsibility for protecting Ottoman Empire - declared anything endangering integrity as “a question of European interest”

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottomans borrowed heavily from Britain, France for weapons, war supplies: - deeply in debt - loans with attractive discount, interest - profitable for Europeans - borrowing continued as modernization continued [see ‘Economy’ below]

When Abdulhamid II took power (1877-1909) empire was virtually bankrupt.

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism ‘Russian Factor’ continued: - 1877 Ottomans once again at war with Russia: defeated Treaty of Berlin 1878 [above – see ‘Russia’; also Add’l Rdgs]: - Russia imposed indemnity of $100,000,000 - 1881: empire in “receivership” - British, French, Dutch, German, Austrian, Italian creditors up Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt - took control of specific revenues to insure repayment

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottoman Economy: key points

- empire deeply in debt as consequence of Crimean War (no choice as to participation) and ‘borrowing’ to cover military costs

- by 1880s: government budget controlled in all key sectors by Europe (only ‘domestic’ expenses handled by Ottomans)

- but: modernization of economy continued

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Europe continued to lend money:

- to construct roads, railroads - to deepen, enlarge ports (to deal with steamships) - to install city lights, water, public works - in short, to build infrastructure and to modernize urban centres

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism 1890s: interested -Germany in process of industrializing, acquiring overseas interests (e.g. in - Wilhelm II sold armaments to Ottomans - built railroads into Anatolia () - 1898: Kaiser paid second visit to Istanbul, then to Damascus and Jerusalem - "expansion to the east" inaugurated: Berlin to Baghdad railway (“Oriental Express”) financed by Deutsche Bank

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Post Berlin Treaty: main change - German Imperialism introduced into Middle East, alongside Britain, France, Russia - ensured potential future co-operation between Germany and Ottoman Empire: while ‘West’/Russia seen as long-time ‘imperialists’, Germany regarded as ‘new friend’

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Critical to Ottoman Role in I