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Exploring Optically Dark and Dim Gamma-Ray Bursts: Instrumentation, Observation and Analysis

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Exploring Optically Dark and Dim Gamma-Ray Bursts: Instrumentation, Observation and Analysis Exploring Optically Dark and Dim Gamma-Ray Bursts: Instrumentation, Observation and Analysis by Melissa C. Nysewander A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Physics & Astronomy. Chapel Hill 2006 Approved by: Dr. Daniel Reichart, Advisor Dr. Wayne Christiansen, Reader Dr. J. Christopher Clemens, Reader Dr. Charles Evans, Reader Dr. Jim Rose, Reader c 2006 Melissa C. Nysewander All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT Melissa C. Nysewander: Exploring Optically Dark and Dim Gamma-Ray Bursts: Instrumentation, Observation and Analysis (Under the Direction of Dr. Daniel Reichart) For the past decade, after the first afterglows of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) were observed, astronomers have puzzled over the question of why some bursts have bright optical afterglows, while others have no detected emission at all, despite quick, deep searches. The source of the darkness can reveal specific clues to the nature of the progenitor and its local environment, or hint at global information pertaining to star-formation rates or the early universe itself, for example. Astronomers have identified possible causes of dark afterglows: (1) the burst lies at high redshift, (2) the burst is extinguished by dust in the host galaxy, (3) the burst occurred in a low-density region, or (4) the intrinsic light from the burst is dim due to microphysical parameters of the shock. We present a two-pronged approach to understand the nature of dark and dim bursts. First, we detail the results of a large observing campaign designed to seek out and observe the optical and near-infrared afterglows of gamma-ray bursts in order to establish which are dark or dim. Secondly, we present PROMPT (Panchromatic Robotic Optical Monitoring and Polarimetry Telescopes), whose unique design allows it to identify afterglows that are highly reddened due to redshift and dust. PROMPT responds automatically to satellite notification, only tens of seconds after a GRB occurs, and can observe afterglows when they are at their brightest to discover dim afterglows that may have been missed with observations at later time. As proof of concept, I present a first look at the success of PROMPT’s first year of operations and the eight rapid-time responses it made. iii CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ............................... v LIST OF FIGURES .............................. vi I. Introduction ............................... 1 1.1 A Short History of Gamma-Ray Bursts ............. 1 1.2 Long-Duration GRB Progenitors ................. 3 1.3 The Standard Model ....................... 4 1.4 Optically Dark Gamma-Ray Bursts ............... 6 1.4.1 Causes of Optical Suppression .............. 7 1.4.2 Statistical Implications .................. 10 1.4.3 Defining Dark ....................... 11 Chapter II. The Faintness of the Afterglow of GRB 021211 ............ 15 2.1 Introduction ............................ 15 2.2 Observations ............................ 17 2.3 Analysis .............................. 19 2.4 Discussion ............................. 25 2.5 Conclusions ............................ 32 III. Dark Due to Extinction: GRB 030115 & GRB 050408 ........ 33 3.1 GRB 030115 ............................ 35 3.1.1 Observations ........................ 36 3.1.2 Analysis .......................... 38 3.1.3 Discussion ......................... 40 iv 3.2 GRB 050408 ............................ 42 3.2.1 Observations ........................ 44 3.2.2 Analysis .......................... 46 3.2.3 Discussion ......................... 50 3.3 Conclusions ............................ 52 IV. Dark Due to Redshift: GRB 050904 .................. 54 4.1 GRBs as Probes of the Early Universe ............. 54 4.2 The Global Observational Effort ................. 56 +0.12 4.3 The Photometric Redshift: z = 6.39−0.11 ............ 57 4.4 Conclusions ............................ 60 V. Two Dark Bursts: GRB 051022 & GRB 060306 ........... 63 5.1 GRB 051022 ............................ 64 5.1.1 Observations ........................ 64 5.1.2 Discussion ......................... 65 5.2 GRB 060306 ............................ 67 5.2.1 Observations ........................ 67 5.2.2 Discussion ......................... 68 VI. PROMPT Design & Instrumentation ................. 72 6.1 Science Objectives ......................... 73 6.2 Design Considerations ...................... 76 6.3 Hardware ............................. 78 6.4 Commissioning and Calibrations ................. 85 6.5 GRB Observing Rates ...................... 88 VII. One Year of PROMPT Rapid Time GRB Observations ....... 96 7.1 Introduction ............................ 96 7.2 GRB 050908 ............................ 97 7.3 GRB 051109A ........................... 101 7.4 GRB 060306 ............................ 106 7.5 GRB 060418 ............................ 107 v 7.6 GRB 060428A ........................... 118 7.7 GRB 060607 ............................ 122 7.8 GRB 060719 ............................ 134 7.9 GRB 060908 ............................ 136 VIII. Conclusions ............................... 143 vi LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Temporal and Spectral Indices of GRB Afterglows ........... 6 2.1 FUN GRB Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 021211 ....... 20 3.1 FUN GRB Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 030115 ....... 38 3.2 GRB 030115: Best-Fit Parameter Values and 68.3% Error Bars . 40 3.3 Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 050408 ............. 47 3.4 GRB 050408: Best-Fit Parameter Values and 68.3% Error Bars . 50 4.1 Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 050904 ............. 58 6.1 PROMPT Camera Characteristics ................... 86 6.2 SDSS ugriz Photometric Standard Stars ................ 88 6.3 PROMPT ugriz Preliminary Photometric Information ........ 89 6.4 PROMPT Afterglow Follow-Up ..................... 90 7.1 PROMPT Rapid Follow-Up of Gamma-Ray Bursts .......... 97 7.2 UNC Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 050908 .......... 100 7.3 PROMPT Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 051109A ...... 104 7.4 PROMPT Observations of the Field of GRB 060306 .......... 107 7.5 PROMPT Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 060418 ....... 110 7.6 PROMPT Observations of the Dim Afterglow of GRB 060428A . 121 7.7 PROMPT Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 060607 ....... 126 7.8 GRB 060607: Best-Fit Parameter Values ................ 131 7.9 PROMPT Observations of the Field of GRB 060719 .......... 139 7.10 PROMPT Observations of the Afterglow of GRB 060908 ....... 140 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 The Redshift Distribution of GRBs ................... 8 1.2 The Optical to X-Ray Spectral Index of Long Duration GRBs .... 13 2.1 The BV RIJHK light curves of GRB 021211. ............. 21 2.2 The gri and unfiltered light curves of GRB 021211 .......... 22 2.3 The Spectral Flux Distribution of GRB 021211 at six epochs. .... 25 3.1 The Highly Reddened Afterglow of GRB 030115 ............ 39 3.2 The Spectral Flux Distribution of GRB 030115 ............ 41 3.3 The X-Ray and R-band Afterglow of GRB 050408 ........... 43 3.4 The Afterglow of GRB 050408 ...................... 49 3.5 The Spectral Flux Distribution of GRB 050408 ............ 51 4.1 The Lightcurve and Model Fits of GRB 050904 ............ 59 4.2 The Spectral Flux Distribution of GRB 050904 ............ 61 5.1 The Broadband Spectral Properties of the Dark GRB 051022 .... 66 5.2 The Broadband Spectral Properties of the Dark GRB 060306 .... 69 6.1 Nightly Observing Quality at CTIO. .................. 77 6.2 The Dark Burst Telescope ........................ 79 6.3 The PROMPT 2 Telescope ........................ 81 6.4 The Rockwell Scientific MicroCam NIR camera. ............ 83 6.5 PROMPT ugriz Filters and CCD Quantum Efficiencies. ....... 84 6.6 PROMPT YJH Filters and FPA Quantum Efficiency. ........ 85 7.1 The Multiwavelength Afterglow of GRB 050908 ............ 99 7.2 The BV RI Afterglow of GRB 051109A ................. 105 7.3 The griz Afterglow of GRB 060418 ................... 111 7.4 The griz Afterglow of GRB 060428A .................. 120 7.5 The Bgri Afterglow of GRB 060607 ................... 125 7.6 The griz Afterglow of GRB 060908 ................... 138 viii Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 A Short History of Gamma-Ray Bursts After being discovered in 1969 by a US military satellite designed to detect bright flashes of γ-ray emission coming from nuclear testing by the Soviet Union (Klebesadel et al. 1973), γ-ray bursts (GRBs) remained an enigma for nearly three decades. The only information astronomers had about GRBs were from the very short time scale (0.1 – 100 seconds) high-energy radiation (15 – 300 keV). Numerous theories were introduced to explain them, from the very large and distant, i.e. the collapse of supermassive bodies in the cores of quasars (Prilutskii & Usov 1975), to the very small and nearby, i.e. colliding comets (White 1993). Few clues to the true nature of the progenitors of gamma-ray bursts could be gleaned from the original data, so theorists could fit any number of physical models. At one point, in 1994, it was noted that there were in fact more theories about the explanation of gamma-ray bursts than there had been detected gamma-ray bursts themselves (Nemiroff 1994). In 1991, NASA’s Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO) was launched and with it went the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), which was designed to observe and localize the rapid flashes of high-energy emission from gamma-ray bursts. In its nine years of service, BATSE recorded informa- tion from over 2700
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