Leadership Development Lessons from Positive Organizational Studies

Leading to grow and growing to lead: Leadership development lessons from positive organizational studies

GRETCHEN M. SPREITZER

hat is more vital to an organization’s close the gaps, and (3) providing support W long-term success than its ability to to nurture leaders to grow. This three-part cultivate leaders? In an era in which the approach has worked successfully in leader- demand for high quality leadership exceeds ship development for several decades. In the supply, exemplary organizations are recent years, these three elements have those that grow leaders at all levels of the increasingly been interpreted and implemen- organization by developing their leadership ted along the following lines: (1) in the assess- pipelines. Leaders, through a process of ment of leadership competencies, most social influence, guide and inspire followers energy is focused on identifying perfor- toward desired outcomes. Organizations, mance gaps, (2) the challenge focuses on creat- such as General Electric Co. and Unilever ing discomfort and hardship to break people PLC are envied for their success in growing out of their comfort zones – i.e., no pain, no leaders. How do they do it? gain, and (3) the organization is charged with Scholars affiliated with the Center for creating the right institutional support Creative Leadership, such as Morgan mechanisms, such as providing formal men- McCall, Cynthia McCauley and Lynn Van tors and training for skill development. Velsor, suggest that developing leaders calls Although these implementation trends for (1) assessing leadership competencies have often been associated with successful based on observable indicators of success leadership development, we suggest that to identify strengths and performance gaps, they reflect an incomplete picture of effective (2) offering developmental challenges to leadership development. They assume a def-

Acknowledgements: I thank Adam Grant, in addition to Bruce Avolio and Jane Dutton, who offered important insights on an earlier version of this article. This article also beneﬁted from feedback from participants of the 2004 Gallup Authentic Leadership Summit and the 2004 INSEAD conference on Leadership: Bridging the theory-practice divide. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the Thriving Research Lab at the Michigan Business School (Marlys Christianson, Scott Sonenshein, and Kathleen Sutcliffe) for the development of the process model of thriving that I draw on in this paper. I also thank my colleagues in the Best Self Research Lab (Brianna Barker, Jane Dutton, Emily Heaphy, and Laura Morgan Roberts) for their research on the reﬂected best self.

305 icit approach to human development; that is, on an agenda for future research on leader- gaps on predetermined areas of generic com- ship development. petence need to be closed, pain is necessary to prompt leaders to break out of comfort zones, and the organization knows how to AN INTRODUCTION TO POS best support leaders’ growth. In this paper, we highlight a complemen- POS, drawing on the fields of organizational tary perspective on growing leaders. What if, behavior, psychology, and sociology, focuses beyond focusing on performance gaps, we on the generative dynamics in organizations focus on leveraging strengths in assessment? that promote human strength, resiliency, heal- What if, beyond creating discomforting chal- ing, and restoration. A POS perspective lenges that potentially paralyze leaders, we assumes that understanding how to enable offer positive jolts that energize growth? human excellence in organizations will What if, beyond charging the organization unlock potential, reveal possibilities, and with providing the right support to facilitate move us along a more positive course of growth, we encourage leaders and employ- human and organizational functioning. POS ees to co-create their own durable resources draws from a full spectrum of organizational that provide support? theories to understand, explain, and predict Of course, we are not suggesting that the the occurrence, causes, and consequences of more traditional framework of leadership positive phenomena. POS views states, such development does not add value. Rather, it as confidence, hope, optimism, and resilience is likely that the most impactful leadership as key to high performance. At its core, POS development will contain elements of the investigates ‘‘positive deviance,’’ or the ways traditional and complementary frameworks. in which organizations and their members Akin to Jim Collins’ notion of moving orga- flourish and prosper in extraordinary ways. nizations from good to great, it may be that a We draw from several streams of POS combination of the traditional and comple- research to offer new insights on growing mentary frameworks can ratchet leadership leaders, including authentic leadership (to development systems up a level – from understand how self-awareness and identity developing good leaders to developing truly can enable growth), the reflected best self (to great leaders. However, while the traditional understand how positive jolts can stimulate framework is well developed, we know growth), and thriving at work (to understand much less about this complementary processes of individual growth in organiza- approach. Therefore, in this paper, we tions). explore a complementary approach to leadership development through the application of a Positive Organizational Studies HOW POS MAY OFFER (POS) lens. Toward this end, we first intro- INSIGHTS FOR LEADERSHIP duce the essence of POS and illustrate how DEVELOPMENT the application of a POS lens may bring new insights to conventional wisdom on leader- In terms of assessment, POS suggests the ship development. In particular, we draw on importance of leveraging strengths rather recent theory on authentic leadership, the than focusing acutely on performance gaps. reflected best self, and thriving at work to Leveraging strengths involves identifying better understand how to grow leaders at all what one does best and then finding ways levels of an organization. We then discuss the to organize one’s work and life around those contributions, as well as the challenges, of skills, unique gifts, and passions. A strengths leveraging strengths, providing positive approach has been a core of the Gallup jolts, and co-creating a supportive context. Organization from its earliest days. Lever- The challenges we identify provide guidance aging strengths builds competence so that

306 ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS individuals can perform tasks well, explore building of durable resources. The assump- to learn new things, and heedfully relate with tion here is that individuals are not only others to create collective attunement. Speci- affected by their environment, but that they fically, leveraging strengths enhances aware- can also, through agentic working behaviors, ness of people’s best selves. In these ways, mold their work environment to build con- employees grow to understand and build on texts that elicit their best selves. If the organi- their unique areas of contribution. zation takes responsibility for creating the Second, without challenges, it is easy for environment for leadership development that people to stay in their comfort zones – they it thinks is best, chances are that the organiza- have no reason to try something new or tion will fail to tap into the specific elements change. Whereas traditional leadership that energize and enable many employees. development accentuates the ways in which Individual employees are often uniquely leaders learn from difficult experiences or aware of the appropriate contexts that matter hardships, a POS lens suggests the impor- for developing their potential. For example, tance of positive jolts as a stimulus for learn- some people may learn best from on-the-job ing. Jolts are triggers that stimulate growth. experiences that involve learning in context, They are personal experiences that cause but others may be overwhelmed with the people to pause and think about the meaning complexity of learning in context and thus or implication of a given event in relation to feel best supported by having some classroom themselves. They are jarring (but not neces- training to teach basic skills in a specific area of sarily negative) because they are as Laura development. Still others might grow most Morgan Roberts and colleagues report in dramatically with the close guidance of a their research on a strengths-based approach, mentor. In ways that are not always obvious outside the range of typical experience. A to others, individuals have a sense for the personal example of a positive jolt might contexts that help them feel safe and enable be the birth of baby – changing one’s per- them to learn and grow. spective on what is important. Professional In the sections that follow, we further examples might include a profound compli- develop these three POS insights for growing ment from an influential supervisor who leaders. changes one’s career aspirations, an early and unexpected promotion, or an opportunity to participate in a special development LEVERAGING STRENGTHS: program. Positive jolts stretch and energize LEADERS BUILDING people to take risks and try new things in POSSIBILITIES FOR order to grow and develop as human beings. GREATNESS Although people can and do learn from hardships, they often feel paralyzed in the face of ‘‘A good leader inspires others with threat and miss opportunities for personal confidence in him (sic); a great leader growth. Whereas people remember criticism, inspires them with confidence in they try harder with praise. Positive jolts themselves.’’ – Unknown provide opportunities for growth because they stimulate positive emotions, which psy- In general, we tend to put significant chologist Barbara Fredrickson’s research has focus on identifying and correcting weak- shown open people up to learning and nesses to develop leaders and improve per- broaden their perspectives. formance. This approach can be helpful, but Third, in terms of support, where tradi- it has limitations. To generate the energy to tional leadership development places respon- address one’s limitations or even make them sibility for leadership development largely on irrelevant, we suggest that organizations the organization, a POS lens encourages indi- must help leaders identify, develop, and viduals to co-create support through the leverage their unique strengths and talents.

307 A strengths perspective questions a pervasive leveraging his unique strengths. The tradi- assumption in leadership development: tional approach to leadership development focusing on a person’s areas of weakness would likely have turned Herb Kelleher into provides the greatest opportunity for a mediocre leader. He became a great leader growth. Instead, the assumption underlying because he leveraged his strengths while a strengths-based approach is that improving compensating for, but not focusing on, his areas of weakness will bring individuals to weaknesses. average, not excellent, performance. The Why is leveraging strengths so impor- assumption of the strengths-based perspec- tant for leadership development? Leveraging tive is that in order to achieve greatness, strengths creates more vivid and elaborate people must find their own paths to excel- possible selves for individuals. That is, when lence through leveraging their unique individuals become aware of their strengths, strengths and talents. This deep kind of they recognize more of their full potential. As self-awareness is essential to develop their Roberts and her colleagues demonstrate, a authenticity as a leader. better sense of their full potential can then As an example, consider the case of enable individuals to successfully construct Southwest Airlines Co. chairman and former and project images of competence and cred- chief executive officer (CEO) Herb Kelleher, ibility to key constituents, such as colleagues who is known for his charismatic, and some- and clients. Crafting a viable professional times eccentric, leadership style. Rather than image through understanding one’s being isolated in corporate headquarters, he strengths can become critical for eventual frequently flew on his planes just to get to career success. In short, when leaders help know his employees and customers. When others to identify and nurture their strengths, visiting a maintenance hanger, he dressed in they build awareness of possibilities, gener- a woman’s evening gown to get a laugh and ate hope about the future, and encourage build connections. On many levels, he others to take courageous action to become sounds like a disaster waiting to happen. their hoped-for possible selves. Through an The reality is that he was highly successful awareness of his strengths, Herb Kelleher as a leader. He developed close relationships had the courage to act in unconventional with his employees, who often went above ways that allowed him to bond with his and beyond the call of duty for him. They employees. came up with creative ideas to better serve customers, turn planes around quickly, and cut costs. This helped Southwest to become CHALLENGES IN what Fortune calls the most successful airline LEVERAGING STRENGTHS in the industry. If we were to apply the lessons from Leveraging strengths does not mean ignor- conventional leadership development to ing weaknesses. People are often required to Herb Kelleher at an early stage of his career, operate with a basic level of competence in the following chain of events might have their areas of weakness. Therefore, leaders occurred. As a low level manager, Kelleher’s must learn to manage around weaknesses. performance review would have focused on This may mean finding someone else to do the specific gaps in his competencies as a the tasks one does poorly. Herb Kelleher leader. He would have been instructed to compensated for his weaknesses (little atten- attend training courses to tone down his tion to details, lack of operational focus, poor eccentricity and fit the appropriate image organization) by hiring people with comple- of a corporate manager. The likely result mentary strengths. For example, the long- would have been some toning down, but also time president of Southwest, Colleen considerable frustration and demotivation. Barrett, was as conventional as he was Clearly, a key factor in his success has been eccentric. She managed the details of running

308 ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS the airline so that Kelleher could think stra- challenges is akin to ‘‘no pain, no gain.’’ All tegically about a vision and develop and of these challenges connote a type of negative nurture the culture that energized South- jolt that moves people out of their comfort west’s success as an airline. At other times, zones and disrupts their normal routines. compensating for weaknesses may mean Although people can grow in significant putting in enough effort to develop one’s ways in the face of hardship, they often areas of weaknesses to acceptable levels of respond to threats with paralysis or rigidity. performance. For example, a software devel- In the face of adversity, threat rigidity opment manager with a gruff demeanor may research finds that individuals close down never become charismatic, but she can learn and regress to past learned behaviors, rather strategies to soften her gruffness and become than seeking out learning and growth. more approachable. Unlike threatening challenges that imply In addition, leveraging strengths does real potential for failure or harm, positive not mean becoming arrogant. Psychologist jolts imply the possibility of gains, and thus Jennifer Crocker has shown that an excessive energize individuals. One type of positive focus on self-esteem has significant costs for jolt is appreciation. For example, when a individuals; overconfidence can impede valued colleague leaves an organization to learning and lead individuals to focus on take a different job, people often share their validating their abilities, rather than carrying appreciation for all the person has contribu- out their tasks. In order to avoid these costs, ted at a formal goodbye gathering. The leveraging strengths must be in the service of a appreciation induces positive emotions, goal other than feeding one’s ego. It is impor- which facilitate a person’s ability to see the tant to reiterate that leveraging strengths still self differently. Like gratitude, appreciation involves managing around weaknesses. And stimulates reflection and action because it this often implies dependencies on others disrupts expectations for the future and whose strengths are another’s weaknesses. helps individuals move toward more posi- Thus, a strengths focus may require humility tive self-images. Below, we provide another in order to remain in a learning mode and to example of a positive jolt we have found to be develop interdependent relationships with quite powerful in leadership development. others who have complementary strengths. It also means creating an environment of transparency to allow for exchanges that are THE REFLECTED BEST SELF based on authentic recognition of one’s ASSESSMENT strengths and weaknesses. One example of a positive jolt that is increasingly used in the service of leadership development is an assessment called the Reflected POSITIVE JOLTS: LEADERS Best Self (RBS). The RBS, developed by scho- STRETCHING PEOPLE lars at Harvard University and the Univer- THROUGH APPRECIATION sity of Michigan, is an exercise in enhancing The second insight that POS can offer per- self-knowledge as a pathway to increasing tains to the kind of challenges that can nur- authenticity as a person. We all have blind ture leadership development. People feel spots that make it difficult for us to see our challenged when they encounter situations full spectrum of strengths and contributions. that require skills and abilities beyond their The RBS asks participants to obtain short current competencies. Typical challenges descriptions of who they are and what they include setting difficult goals, carrying out do when they are at their very best from a tough job assignments, managing destruc- diverse array of significant people in their tive conflict, or dealing with losses, failures, lives (friends, family, co-workers, bosses, or disappointments. The rationale for these subordinates, customers, etc.). With their

309 stories in hand, they identify commonalities people move forward, embrace challenges, across the different sources of feedback and and grow. This is critical for leadership compose a portrait of their ‘‘best self’’ that development because leaders must take captures the insights in the data. This type of initiative in order to make things happen positive jolt often deeply moves participants in organizations. Leaders must be active because the descriptions are a form of appre- initiators, not passive participants, in orga- ciation. Some of the stories describe events nizational systems. In this way, the RBS pro- that they do not even remember. People cess is similar to what Bruce Avolio calls a comment that they never realized that their ‘‘booster’’ that focuses attention and rein- actions had made such a difference for forces learning in leadership development. others. This type of narrative feedback is In short, all three forces generated by the rarely given, especially in organizational RBS help people to grow into leaders. Positive contexts. Research by Roberts and colleagues emotions help people to see their leader has found that the RBS stimulates growth potential through broadening and building; because it builds positive emotions, relation- positive relationships build social capital; and ships, and agency that enable people to break agency facilitates initiative-taking. We have out of their comfort zones. now used the RBS assessment with thousands First, the RBS evokes positive emotions. In of undergraduate, M.B.A., and executive stu- her path-breaking research on positive emo- dents. Many call the exercise ‘‘life transform- tions, psychologist Barbara Fredrickson ing:’’ They see the glimpses of greatness in demonstrated that positive emotions broaden themselves. Most recently, we are using the individuals’ thought-action repertoires and exercise in business organizations to trans- build their capacities to act. Hence, positive form the culture of the organization from emotions help build leadership capability by good to great. In a European bank, the 800 enabling people to pursue new opportunities most senior managers have taken the RBS for personal growth and agency. This broa- assessment. They see this new knowledge dened perspective is critical for developing on individual strengths as playing a key role leadership potential because it is important in the bank’s 20 percent increase in profits and for leaders to be able to see the big picture and substantial customer growth in 2005. In a how different pieces fit together. global financial services firm, the top 25 lea- Second, the RBS strengthens individuals’ ders have used the RBS assessment to build relationships with those providing feedback, themselves into a nimble, high performing producing relational resources that can be team. And each team member is driving drawn on during times of difficulty. These POS practices throughout their divisions to relationships can be a form of social support make POS a source of their competitive that provides security and safety for indivi- advantage against industry leaders, such as duals. These relationships are critical for Vanguard Group, Inc. and Fidelity. leadership development because they build social capital, which may be the lifeblood of leadership effectiveness both inside and out- CHALLENGES IN THE USE OF side of organizations. Social capital ensures POSITIVE JOLTS that leaders are better informed, more creative, more efficient, and better problem sol- Of course, not all positive jolts help people vers. With the right networks, leaders save grow. Sometimes, individuals relish the posi- time because they know where to get the tive feelings engendered by a positive jolt but information they need. With the right net- fail to take action in any significant way. works, they foster cooperation and collabora- What characteristics of positive jolts engage tion and work smarter. individuals to grow? At a basic level, the Third, the RBS process produces a heigh- positive jolt must be seen as authentic. Other- tened sense of agency and efficacy to help wise, people may not experience the positive

310 ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS jolt as valid. For example, imagine a newly ager who is between projects or considering a promoted manager who wanted people to career change will likely be much more feel appreciated, and chose to end every receptive to a positive jolt. interaction with his subordinates with, ‘‘Keep up the good job! You are doing great!’’ The first time the manager uttered these CO-CREATING SUPPORT: words, subordinates felt elevated and experi- LEADERS STIMULATING THE enced gratitude for the warm words about BUILDING OF RESOURCES their performance. But soon, they found that this positive feedback came every day, and Traditional organizational theory and even worse, the manager uttered these words research emphasizes the role of the leader to everyone without distinction. The positive in defining the context, culture, and norms. feedback quickly lost its meaning to subor- Although leaders often do play a vital role in dinates and became more dysfunctional than designing the organizational context, here motivating. we focus our attention on the leader’s cap- In addition, positive jolts are more likely ability to shape the context in collaboration to facilitate growth if they come from multi- with employees – that is, to co-create a con- ple, trusted sources. For example, if multiple text for maximal support. To paraphrase Lao sources give specific positive feedback inde- Tzu, ‘‘The wicked leader is he whom the pendently, the jolt will be felt more strongly. people despise. The good leader is he whom For example, consider a successful biochem- the people revere. But the great leader is he of istry professor who had no aspirations to go whom the people say, ‘We did it together.’’’ into administration. She was told by a num- Co-creation is the process of leaders and ber of different colleagues who did not know employees working together to build a sup- each other that she had the potential to be an portive environment. outstanding administrator due to her calm Leaders build a supportive context con- demeanor, leadership skills, and organiza- ducive to growing leaders by encouraging tion. Because the positive feedback came employees to develop the kinds of resources independently from multiple respected that matter to them within the organization. sources in a short window of time, she per- Specifically, in the process of thriving articu- ceived it as a positive jolt, much more so than lated by Spreitzer and her colleagues, if it had come from a single source. As a employees create and draw on four durable result, she accepted an offer to become the resources produced in the doing of work: director of a new cancer center – a position shared knowledge, positive meaning, posi- that she had not previously considered. This tive emotions, and positive connections. The is one reason why the RBS feedback, in draw- leader’s role is to stimulate and nurture these ing on people from different walks of life, is four resources in order to facilitate employee so potent. growth. Finally, positive jolts are likely to engen- der growth to the extent that they come at opportune times. For example, positive jolts SHARED KNOWLEDGE that come just before, or at the time of, a critical transition are more likely to motivate Leaders can create a common knowledge personal change than the same jolt offered at base so that individuals know about how the wrong time. A transition is a time when things work and how different pieces fit people are in flux. A manager working as together into the integrated system. With part of a team to complete a major project common knowledge, individuals can quickly before a deadline may not be open to a uncover problems and issues as they arise. A positive jolt without the time or energy to common knowledge base also helps people process it. On the other hand, the same man- to integrate and coordinate actions across a

311 diverse array of tasks and participants. When meaning simply by explicitly supporting the people share common knowledge, they are in development of support networks. Because it a position to grow because they can act with- constitutes an individual’s informal group of out waiting for approval from others, as contacts and colleagues at work, a support relevant information is shared. Armed with network is a harbor of psychological safety for broader information and the ‘‘big picture,’’ employees. Even if job-prescribed roles and individuals can focus on larger organiza- projects are not flexible, employees can craft tional contributions as well as on narrower their jobs in new ways or adopt personal tasks. projects. For example, when an altruistic man- Leaders can also create shared knowl- agement consultant encourages his co-work- edge by making information widely available ers to volunteer at a homeless shelter over the about individual skills and expertise. For weekend, he is able to lead his support net- example, leaders can foster knowledge shar- work in a value-congruent project. Because ing directly by cataloging and publicizing individuals experience value-congruent roles information about employee expertise across and activities as meaningful, it is likely that the organization. A broadly accessible data- individuals will find positive meaning base of each employee’s work experience, through their support networks. In this background, and skills may allow employees way, the leader’s active encouragement of to seek each other out when they need infor- support networks with flexible roles and pro- mation. Why is this important? Intrapersonal jects may inspire employees to generate posi- functional diversity, or the extent to which tive meaning and take on leadership roles. team members have broad experiences in different areas, facilitates information sharing and performance in management teams. POSITIVE EMOTIONS Equipped with common knowledge, employees are able to build relationships Leaders can encourage thriving to develop in which valuable information is shared. leaders by espousing the expression of positive emotions as they experience them. Indi- viduals who express intense emotions often have powerful effects on others’ moods. POSITIVE MEANING Because individuals tend to weigh negative Positive meaning is about having a sense of cues more heavily than positive, leaders purpose through one’s work. We articulate must encourage the expression of positive two pathways for leaders to stimulate the emotions as they are experienced so that experience of positive meaning. First, it is negative emotions do not dominate the orga- well understood that a superordinate vision nization. When leaders encourage the or purpose facilitates goal alignment, coop- authentic expression of positive emotions, eration, and communication. Leaders can mood contagion may ensue across relation- emphasize the meaning and purpose of ships in the organization, thereby creating employees’ roles and jobs, as well as the opportunities for growth. For example, at a meaning and purpose of their projects and weekly departmental seminar series at the groups. In this way, leaders give employees University of Michigan Business School, we multiple lenses for finding positive meaning. begin the meeting by having people share Employees will engage their relationships in good news to the group. A health care orga- efforts to draw on each of these frames as nization uses the same practices at its weekly they search for positive meaning. staff meetings and reports that its meetings Second, employees derive their identities are more fun and productive than they have at work – and thus positive meaning – from ever been. Similarly, at a leading financial their work roles and their memberships. Lea- services company, the CEO leads a monthly ders can promote the discovery of positive ‘‘shout out,’’ where employees can reveal

312 ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS stories about employees who went beyond information can be deleterious to thriving, the call of duty to help each other or custo- both by hampering vitality and by limiting mers. This practice creates the space for the an employee’s ability to deal with complex- authentic expression of positive emotions. ity. A learning orientation is adaptive up to a particular point. Teams that overemphasize learning may be trapped in experimentation at the expense of carrying out the work. Thus, POSITIVE CONNECTIONS both the cognitive overload and excessive Finally, in order to enable thriving, leaders experimentation lenses suggest that it is are also charged with cultivating positive important for leaders to regulate the amount connections at work. Expressing and of knowledge sharing that occurs in units. encouraging positive emotions can lead to the development of positive connections. For Regulating Positive Meaning example, compassion, trust, respect, and gratitude facilitate positive connections in orga- Leaders must also regulate the amount of nizations. When leaders share information positive meaning that employees experience. about themselves and create opportunities Extremely high levels of positive meaning for people to interact in informal, social may lead an employee to feel a tremendous events like lunches or hallway conversations, sense of pressure. For example, the ostensi- they will be increasingly likely to discover bly positive meaning of ‘‘saving the organi- common interests. Therefore, leader actions zation’’ may, in actuality, be a burden that may help enable positive connections in the leaves the weight of the world on an employ- thriving process. ee’s shoulders. Meaningful activities are not necessarily those that are manageable. When demands surpass abilities and challenges surpass skills, employees experience anxiety, CHALLENGES IN strain, and sometimes burnout. Vitality, a IMPLEMENTING critical component of thriving, will suffer CO-CREATION as a result. In sum, because extraordinarily It is important to note that the leader’s role is high degrees of positive meaning may entail not only to stimulate these durable resources, positive illusions and/or pressure, it is pru- but also to regulate the level of these resources. dent for leaders to ensure that positive More specifically, in the next sections, I articu- meaning is both grounded in reality and late the ways in which excessively high levels manageable. of shared knowledge, positive meaning, positive emotions, and positive connections may Regulating Positive Emotions be detrimental to thriving. Like shared knowledge and positive meaning, positive emotions, too, can exist Regulating Shared Knowledge in surplus. Negative emotions can be valu- It is important for leaders to regulate the able. For example, negative emotions of guilt sharing of knowledge in an organization for and embarrassment can actually motivate at least two reasons. First, as human beings, the repair of relationships at work. Moreover, we are limited in our capacities to process the positive emotion of contentment can information, and too much information can impede creativity because people are less lead to cognitive overload and reduced likely to take risks. Barbara Fredrickson knowledge. Indeed, when faced with too has found that a ratio of about three positive many choices, individuals tend to disengage emotions to one negative emotion is optimal or experience regret for forgone opportu- for human flourishing. Too many positive nities. These findings indicate that excessive emotions without a corresponding negative

313 emotion can lead to positive illusions or the CONCLUSION denial of reality. Interestingly, marriage Ralph Nadar once said, ‘‘I start with the researcher John Gottman has found the same premise that the function of leadership is positive to negative ratio (about five positive to produce more leaders, not more fol- interactions for every negative interaction) lowers.’’ I agree with Nadar, and go one for successful long-term marriages. step further in focusing on developing the leadership potential in all employees. By Regulating Positive Connections creating a thriving workplace, organizations facilitate employee learning and develop- It may also be necessary for leaders to ment. In this paper, I offered some lessons regulate positive connections in order to for leadership development from the blos- enable thriving. When an individual has soming theoretical perspective of POS many connections with others, he or she through the lenses of authentic leadership, may spend time socializing rather than com- the reflected best self, and thriving. Because a pleting tasks. In turn, task focus may decline. POS approach energizes people to develop Although vitality may be present, such dis- their leadership potential, I believe that tractions may impede the increases in com- developing leaders through this approach plexity that are central to thriving. Leaders will reduce the potential for burnout and may therefore find it advantageous to ensure depletion. In contrast to traditional leader- that positive connections are not impeding ship development approaches that use up work processes. resources, as individuals struggle to improve their weaknesses and deal with hardships, a POS approach generates emotional, rela- COMPENSATORY RESOURCES tional, and agentic resources. In addition, given the focus on leveraging strengths, lea- In addition to the challenge of regulating ders are developing their authentic selves. these resources, leaders may also find that This increases the probability of sustained the four resources may be compensatory. In growth over time and reduces the probability order to grow, leaders may not need all four of leader derailment. Moreover, the critical resources. Indeed, a leader who is low in focus on co-creating means that leaders have dispositional positive affect may not benefit resources they can build and draw upon to from expressing positive emotions. The sustain their growth. At the same time, it is intrapersonal consequences of generating important to note that a POS approach is not positive resources may include burnout a panacea – as we noted above, it comes with and poor performance. For a leader who is its own set of challenges. However, a thriving introverted, the interpersonal consequences approach to growing leaders is best imple- of building relational resources may involve mented as a complement to the more tradi- being perceived by others as inauthentic. tional approach to growing leaders. By Such a leader may be better suited to focus fleshing out alternatives, such as our POS on stimulating and regulating shared knowl- approach, I hope to identify more pathways edge and positive meaning. In short, we for growing leaders. believe that the most productive steps for leaders to take toward promoting leader growth are those that are consistent with their strengths.

314 ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

To learn more about the blossoming field How Successful Executives Develop on the Job,’ of Positive Organizational Studies, see the (The Free Press, 1988). Cynthia McCauley edited book by Kim Cameron, Jane Dutton, and Ellen Van Velsor’s recent in-depth tome, and Robert Quinn, Positive organizational scho- The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of larship: Foundations of a new discipline (San Leadership Development (Jossey-Bass, 2003), Francisco: Berrett Koehler Publishers, 2003). provides a contemporary overview of leader- Fred Luthans’ 2002 article in the Academy of ship development, as does Bruce Avolio’s Management Executive entitled ‘‘Positive Orga- book entitled Leadership Development in Bal- nizational Behavior: Developing and Mana- ance: Made/Born (Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- ging Psychological Strengths’’ provides a nice ates, 2005). And to learn more about introduction to Positive Organizational Beha- authentic leadership development see Bruce vior. Laura Morgan Roberts’ recent piece in Avolio, and Bill Gardner’s 2005 Leadership the Academy of Management Review entitled‘‘ Quarterly article entitled ‘‘Authentic Leader- Shifting the Lens On Organizational Life: The ship Development: Getting to the Root of Added Value of Positive Scholarship’’ shows Positive Forms of Leadership.’’ how POS fits into the larger literature on To learn more about a strengths perspec- organizational studies. tive on leadership development, see the Specific POS pieces mentioned in the Reflected Best Self Lab’s (Brianna Barker, Jane article include the process model of thriving Dutton, Emily Heaphy, Laura Morgan described in Gretchen Spreitzer, Kathleen Roberts, Robert Quinn, and Gretchen Spreit- Sutcliffe, Jane Dutton, Scott Sonenshein, zer’s research in Harvard Business Review and Adam Grant’s 2005 Organization Science (2005) and Academy of Management Review piece. To learn more about Barbara Fredrick- (2005). If you are interested in using the son’s work on the broaden-and-build theory Reflected Best Self Assessment, please the of positive emotions and the optimal posi- website: http://www.bus.umich.edu/ tive-to-negative ratio, see her article with Positive/POS-Teaching-and-Learning/POS- Marcial Losada in their 2005 American Psy- Tools.htm. Markus Buckingham and Donald chologist article. Clifton’s bestseller ‘‘Now Discover Your To learn more about contemporary lea- Strengths’’ (Free Press, 2001) provides a prac- dership development, see Morgan McCall’s titioner introduction to a strengths-based classic book entitled ‘The Lessons of Experience: approach.

Gretchen Spreitzer is a professor of management and organizations at the Ross School of Business, University of Michigan. Her research focuses on employee empowerment and leadership development, particularly during times of change. She is afﬁliated with the Center for Positive Organizational Scholarship, where her recent research is on enabling employee thriving at work (Michigan Business School, Room E2550, 710 Tappan St., Ann Arbor, MI 48014, USA. Tel.: +1 734 936 2835; e-mail: [email protected].).

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