UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 589
Probabilities of Causation: Bounds and Identification
Jin Tian and Judea Pearl Cognitive Systems Laboratory Computer Science Department University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90024 {jtian, judea } @cs. ucla. edu
Abstract is, non-estimable from frequency data alone. One factor that hinders identifiability is confounding - This paper deals with the problem of esti the cause and the effect may both be influenced mating the probability that one event was by a third factor. Moreover, even in the absence a cause of another in a given scenario. Us of confounding, probabilities of causation are sensi ing structural-semantical definitions of the tive to the data-generating process, namely, the func probabilities of necessary or sufficient cau tional relationships that connect causes and effects sation (or both), we show how to optimally [Robins and Greenland, 1989, Balke and Pearl, 1994]. bound these quantities from data obtained Nonetheless, useful information in the form of bounds in experimental and observational studies, on the probabilities of causation can be extracted from making minimal assumptions concerning the empirical data without actually knowing the data data-generating process. In particular, we generating process. We show that these bounds im strengthen the results of Pearl (1999) by prove when data from observational and experimental weakening the data-generation assumptions studies are combined. Additionally, under certain as and deriving theoretically sharp bounds on sumptions about the data-generating process (such as the probabilities of causation. These results exogeneity and monotonicity), the bounds may col delineate precisely how empirical data can be lapse to point estimates, which means that the prob used both in settling questions of attribution abilities of causation are identifiable- they can be ex and in solving attribution-related problems pressed in terms of probabilities of observed quantities. of decision making. These estimates often appear in the literature as mea sures of attribution, and our analysis thus explicates the assumptions that must be ascertained before those measures can legitimately be interpreted as probabili 1 Introduction ties of causation. Assessing the likelihood that one event was the cause The analysis of this paper extends the results reported of another guides much of what we understand about in [Pearl, 1999] [Pearl, 2000, pp. 283-308]. Pearl de (and how we act in) the world. For example, few rived bounds and identification conditions under cer of us would take aspirin to combat headache if it tain assumptions of exogeneity and monotonicity, and were not for our conviction that, with high proba this paper narrows his bounds and weakens his as bility, it was aspirin that "actually caused" relief in sumptions. In particular, we show that for most of previous headache episodes. [Pearl, 1999] gave coun Pearl's results, the assumption of strong exogeneity terfactual definitions for the probabilities of neces can be replaced by weak exogeneity (to be defined in sary or sufficient causation (or both) based on struc Section 3.3). Additionally, we show that the point tural model semantics, which defines counterfactuals estimates that Pearl obtained under the assumption as quantities derived from modifiable sets of func of monotonicity (Definition 6) constitute valid lower tions [Galles and Pearl, 1997, Galles and Pearl, 1998, bounds when monotonicity is not assumed. Finally, Halpern, 1998, Pearl, 2000, chapter 7]. we prove that the bounds derived by Pearl, as well The central aim of this paper is to estimate proba as those provided in this paper are sharp, that is, bilities of causation from frequency data, as obtained they cannot be improved without strengthening the in experimental and observational statistical studies. assumptions. We illustrate the use of our results in In general, such probabilities are non-identifiable, that the context of legal disputes (Section 4) and personal 590 UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 decision making (Section 5). long been concerned with estimating the probability that a certain case of disease is attributable to a par ticular exposure, which is normally interpreted coun Probabilities of Causation: 2 terfactually as "the probability that disease would not Definitions have occurred in the absence of exposure, given that disease and exposure did in fact occur." This counter In this section, we present the definitions for the three factual notion is also used frequently in lawsuits, where aspects of causation as defined in [Pearl, 1999]. We legal responsibility is at the center of contention (see use the language of counterfactuals in its structural Section 4). model semantics, as given in Balke and Pearl (1995), Galles and Pearl (1997, 1998), and Halpern (1998). Definition 2 (Probability of sufficiency(P S)) We use Yx = y to denote the counterfactual sentence "Variable Y would have the value y, had X been x." � PS = P(YxiY',x') (3) The structural model interpretation of this sentence reads: "Deleting the equation for X from the model and setting the value of X to a constant x will yield a solution in which variable Y will take on the value y." PS finds applications in policy analysis, AI, and psy chology. A policy maker may well be interested in the One property that the counterfactual relationships sat dangers that a certain exposure may present to the isfy is the consistency condition [Robins, 1987]: healthy population [Khoury et al., 1989]. Counterfac tually, this notion is expressed as the "probability that (X= x) :::} (Yx = Y) (1) a healthy unexposed individual would have gotten the stating that if we intervene and set the experimental disease had he/she been exposed." In psychology, PS conditions X = x equal to those prevailing before the serves as the basis for Cheng's (1997) causal power the intervention, we should not expect any change in the ory [Glymour, 1998], which attempts to explain how response variable Y. This property will be used in sev humans judge causal strength among events. In AI, eral derivations of this section and Section 3. For de PS plays a major role in the generation of explana tailed exposition of the structural account and its ap tions [Pearl, 2000, pp. 221-223]. plications see [Pearl, 2000, chapter 7]. For notational simplicity, we limit the discussion to binary variables; Definition 3 (Probability of necessity and sufficiency extension to multi-valued variables are straightforward (PNS)) (see Pearl 2000, p. 286, footnote 5). (4) Definition 1 (Probability of necessity (PN)) Let X and Y be two binary variables in a causal model M, let x and y stand for the propositions X = true PNS stands for the probability that y would respond and Y = true, respectively, and x' and y' for their to x both ways, and therefore measures both the suf complements. The probability of necessity is defined ficiency and necessity of x to produce y. as the expression Although none of these quantities is sufficient for de PN = P(Yx' =fal se I X=true, Y =true) termining the others, they are not entirely indepen dent, as shown in the following lemma. P(y��lx,y) (2) Lemma 1 The probabilities of causation satisfy the following relationship [Pearl, 1999] : In other words, PN stands for the probability that PNS = P(x,y)PN + P(x',y')PS 5) event y would not have occurred in the absence of event ( x, y�,, given that x and y did in fact occur. Note that lower case letters (e.g., x, y) stand for propo sitions (or events). Note also the abbreviations Yx for Since all the causal measures defined above invoke Yx = true and y� for Yx = false. Readers accustomed conditionalization on y, and since y is presumed af fected by x, the antecedent of the counterfactual Yx, to writing "A > B" for the counterfactual "B if it were � we know that none of these quantities is identifiable can translate Eq. (2) to read PN= P(x' y'lx,y). A" > from knowledge of frequency data alone, even under PN has applications in epidemiology, legal reasoning, condition of no confounding. However, useful infor and artificial intelligence (AI). Epidemiologists have mation in the form of bounds may be derived for UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 591 these quantities from frequency data, especially when and the causal effects, P(yx) and P(Yx' ), impose the knowledge about causal effects P(yx) and P(Yx') is constraints: also available1. Moreover, under some general assump tions about the data-generating process, these quanti Plll+ Pno + P101+ Pwo ties may even be identified. P111 + Pno +Poll +Pow (8) The quantities we wish to bound are: 3 Bounds and Conditions of Identification PNS PlOl + PlOO (9) PN P101 / P(x, y) (10) In this section we will assume that experimental data PS P(x', y') (11) will be summarized in the form of the causal effects Pioo/ P(y ) and P( ), and nonexperimental data will be x Yx' Optimizing the functions in (9)-(11), subject to equal summarized in the form of the joint probability func ity constraints, defines a linear programming (LP) {P(x, y), P(x',y),P(x,y'),P(x',y')}. tion: Pxy = problem that lends itself to closed-form solution. Balke (1995, Appendix B) describes a computer program 3.1 Linear programming formulation that takes symbolic descriptions of LP problems and Since every causal model induces a joint probability returns symbolic expressions for the desired bounds. The program works by systematically enumerating the distribution on the four binary variables: X, Y, Yx vertices of the constraint polygon of the dual prob and Y , specifying the sixteen parameters of this dis x' lem. The bounds reported in this paper were produced tribution would suffice for computing the PN, PS, and (or tested) using Balke's program, and will be stated PNS. Moreover, since Y is a deterministic function of the other three variables, the problem is fully specified here without proofs; their correctness can be verified by manually enumerating the vertices as described in by the following set of eight parameters: [Balke, 1995, Appendix B]. These bounds are guaran teed to be sharp because the optimization is global. Plll = P(yx,Yx',x) = P(x,Y,Yx') P(yx, Yx', x') = P(x', y, Yx) Pllo = 3.2 Bounds with no assumptions P101= P(yx, y�,, x) = P(x, y, y�,) PlOO= P(yx, y�,, x') = P(x',y',yx) 3.2.1 Given nonexperimental data Poll= P(y�, Yx', x) = P(x,y', Yx') Given Pxy, constraints (6) and (7) induce the follow Pow= P(y�, Yx', x') = P(x', y, y�) ing upper bound on PNS: P(y�, y�,, x) P(x,y', y�,) POOl= = 0:::; PNS:::; P(x,y) P(x', y'). (12) = P(y�, y�,, x') = P(x', y',y�) + Pooo However, PN and PS are not constrained by Pxy. where we have used the consistency condition Eq. (1). These parameters are further constrained by the prob These constraints also induce bounds on the causal abilistic equality effects P(yx) and P(Yx' ): P(x, y) P(yx) 1- P(x, y') 1 1 1 ::=; ::=; I: I:L:Pijk = 1 P(x',y) :::; P(Yx') :::; 1- P(x',y') (13) i=O j=O k=O Pijk :2:0 for i, j, k E {0, 1} (6) 3.2.2 Given causal effects In addition, the nonexperimental probabilities Pxy Given constraints (6) and (8), the bounds induced on impose the constraints: PNS are:
P(x,y) max[O,P(yx)- P(Yx')]:::; PNS:::; min[J-'(Yx),P(y�,)] Plll + P101 (14) P(x, y') (7) Poll+ Po01 with no constraints on PN and PS. Pno +Pow P(x',y) 3.2.3 Given both nonexperimental data and 1The causal effects P(yx) and P(Yx') can be estimated reliably from controlled experimental studies, and from causal effects certain observational (i.e., nonexperimental) studies which permit the control of confounding through adjustment of Given the constraints (6), (7) and (8), the following covariates [Pearl, 1995]. bounds are induced on the three probabilities of cau- 592 UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 sation: under the condition of no-confounding the lower bound for PN can be expressed as 0 P(yx) - P(Yx') } 1 1 1 �PNS (15) PN -> - � 1- -- (23) P(y) - P(Yx') P(yjx)/P(yjx') RR P(yx)- P(y) { } where RR � P(yjx)/P(yjx ') is called relative risk P(yx) in epidemiology. Courts have often used the condi P(y ) tion 2 as a criterion for legal responsibility PNS
Eq. (19) is also known as "no-confounding" Theorem 2 If strong exogeneity holds, the probabili [Robins and Greenland, 1989], "as if randomized," or ties PN, PS, and PNS are constrained by the bounds "weak ignorability" [Rosenbaum and Rubin, 1983]. of Eqs. {20}-{22), and, moreover, PN, PS, and PNS Combining Eq. (19) with the constraints of (6)-(8), the are related to each other as follows [Pearl, 1999]: linear programming optimization (Section 3.1) yields PNS the following results: PN (25) P(yjx) Theorem 1 Under condition of exogeneity, the three PNS probabilities of causation are bounded as follows: PS (26) P(y'lx') max(O, P(yjx)- P(yjx')]:::; PNS:::; min(P(yjx), P(y'jx')] (20) max(O, P(ylx)- P(ylx')] < < min[P(ylx),P(y'lx')] PN ( 21) P(ylx) - - P(ylx) 3.4 Identifiability under monotonicity max(O, P(ylx)- P(ylx')] < < min(P(ylx), P(y'lx')] PS (22) De fi m• twn• 6 (Mono t omc�· 't y ) P( x ) - - P( x Y'I ' Y 'I ') A variable Y is said to be monotonic relative to vari- able X in a causal model M iff [Pearl, 1999] derived Eqs. (20)-(22) under a stronger condition of exogeneity (see Definition 5). We see that Y� 1\ Yx' = false (27) UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 593
3.4.3 Given both nonexperimental data and causal effects Monotonicity expresses the assumption that a change from X = false to X = true cannot, under any cir Under the constraints (6)-(8) and (28), the values of cumstance make Y change from true to false. In epi PN, PS, and PNS are all determined precisely. demiology, this assumption is often expressed as "no prevention," that is, no individual in the population Theorem 3 If Y is monotonic relative to X, then can be helped by exposure to the risk factor. PNS, PN, and PS are given by
In the linear programming formulation of Section 3.1, PNS P(yx, Y�·) = P(yx) - P(Yx') (30) monotonicity narrows the feasible space to the mani P(y) - P(Yx') PN P(y�. lx, y) = (31) fold: P(x, y) P(yx) - P(y) Pon 0 PS P(yxl x', y') = (32) P(x',y') P01o 0 (28)
3.4.1 Given nonexperimental data Eqs. (30)-(32) are applicable to situations where, in addition to observational probabilities, we also have Under the constraints (6), (7), and (28), we find the information about the causal effects P(yx) and P(Yx') . same bounds for PNS as the ones obtained under no Such information may be obtained either directly, assumptions (Eq. (12)). Moreover, there are still no through separate experimental studies, or indirectly, constraints on PN and PS. Thus, with nonexperimen from observational studies in which certain identifying tal data alone, the monotonicity assumption does not assumptions are deemed plausible (e.g., assumptions provide new information. that permits identification through adjustment of co However, the monotonicity assumption induces variates) [Pearl, 1995]. sharper bounds on the causal effects P(yx) and P(Yx' ): 3.5 Identifiability under monotonicity and P(y) P(y ) 1 P(x, y') :S x :S - exogeneity P(x', y) P(Yx•) P(y) (29) :S :S Under the assumption of monotonicity, if we further Compared with Eq. (13), the lower bound for P(Yx) assume exogeneity, then P(yx) and P(Yx') are identi and the upper bound for P(Yx') are tightened. The fied through Eq. (19), and from theorem 3 we conclude importance of Eq. (29) lies in providing a simple nec that PNS, PN, and PS are all identifiable. essary test for the commonly made assumption of Theorem 4 (Identifiability under exogeneity and "no-prevention." These inequalities are sharp, in the monotonicity) sense that every combination of experimental and non If X is exogenous and Y is monotonic relative to X, experimental data that satisfy these inequalities can then the probabilities PN, PS, and PNS are all identi be generated from some causal model in which Y is fiable, and are given by monotonic in X. Alternatively, if the no-prevention as PNS P(yjx) P(yjx') ) sumption is theoretically unassailable, the inequalities - (33 P(y)- P(yjx') = P(yjx)- P(yjx') of Eq. (29) can be used for testing the compatibility of PN (34) the experimental and non-experimental data, namely, P(x, y) P(yjx) j ) P(y) P(y ) jx') whether subjects used in clinical trials were sampled P(y x - jx - P(y ( ) PS 3S from the same target population, characterized by the P(x', y') P(y'ix') joint distribution Pxy.
3.4.2 Given causal effects These expressions are to be recognized as familiar mea sures of attribution that often appear in the literature. Constraints (6), (8), and (28) induce no constraints on The r.h.s. of (33) is called "risk-difference" in epi PN and PS, while the value of PNS is fully determined: demiology, and is also misnamed "attributable risk" [Hennekens and Buring, 1987, p. 87]. The probabil ity of necessity, PN, is given by the excess-risk-ratio (ERR) That is, under the assumption of monotonicity, PNS can be determined by experimental data alone, al P(ylx)- P(ylx') __1 PN = = though the joint event . can never be observed. 1 (36) Yx 1\ y� P(ylx) RR 594 UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 often misnamed as the attributable fraction, 1: attributable-rate percent, attributed fraction for the ex Table PN as a function of assumptions (exogene posed [Kelsey et al., 1996, p. 38], or attributable pro ity or monotonicity) and available data (experimen portion [Cole, 1997]. The reason we consider these la tal or nonexperimental or both). ERR stands of the bels to be misnomers is that ERR invokes purely sta excess-risk-ratio and CERR is given in Eq. (38). The tistical relationships, hence it cannot in itself serve to non-entries (-) represent vacuous bounds, that is, measure attribution, unless fortified with some causal 0 < PN < 1. Assumptions Data Available assumptions. Exogeneity and monotonicity are the Exo. Mono. Exp. Non-exp. Combined causal assumptions that endow ERR with attribu ERR tional interpretation, and these assumptions are rarely + + ERR ERR bounds bounds made explicit in the literature on attribution. + bounds + CERR The expression for PS is likewise quite revealing bounds
PS = [P(yix) - P(yix')]/[1- P(yix')], (37) tion). When monotonicity does not hold, ERR pro as it coincides with what epidemiologists call the "rela vides merely a lower bound for PN, as shown in tive difference" [Shep, 1958], which is used to measure Eq. (21). (The upper bound is usually unity.) In the susceptibility of a population to a risk factor x. It the presence of confounding, ERR must be corrected also coincides with what Cheng calls "causal power" by the additive term [P(yix') - P(Yx')]/ P(x, y), as (1997), namely, the effect of x on y after suppressing stated in (38). In other words, when confounding bias "all other causes of y." See Pearl (1999) for additional (of the causal effect) is positive, PN is higher than discussions of these expressions. ERR by the amount of this additive term. Clearly, To appreciate the difference between Eqs. (31) and owing to the division by P(x, y), the PN bias can (36) we can rewrite Eq. (31) as be many times higher than the causal effect bias P(ylx') - P(Yx' ). However, confounding results only P(yix)P(x) + P(yix')P(x')- P(Yx') from association between exposure and other factors PN P(yix)P(x) that affect the outcome; one need not be concerned P(yix)- P(yix') P(yix')- P(Yx' with associations between such factors and suscepti + h8) bility to exposure, as is often assumed in the literature P(yix) P(x, y) (Khoury et al., 1989, Glymour, 1998]. The first term on the r.h.s. of (38) is the familiar The last two rows in Table 1 correspond to no as ERR as in (36), and represents the value of PN un sumptions about exogeneity, and they yield vacuous der exogeneity. The second term represents the cor bounds for PN when data come from either experi rection needed to account for X's non-exogeneity, i.e. mental or observational study. In contrast, informa P(Yx') =I P(ylx'). We will call the r.h.s. of (38) by tive bounds (17) or point estimates (38) are obtained corrected excess-risk-ratio (CERR). when data from experimental and observational stud From Eqs. (33)-(35) we see that the three notions ies are combined. Concrete use of such combination of causation satisfy the simple relationships given by will be illustrated in Section 4. Eqs. (25) and (26) which we obtained under the strong exogeneity condition. In fact, we have the following 4 Example Legal Responsibility theorem. 1: A lawsuit is filed against the manufacturer of drug x, Theorem 5 Monotonicity (27} and exogeneity (19} charging that the drug is likely to have caused the together imply strong exogeneity (24). death of Mr. A, who took the drug to relieve symptom S associated with disease 3.6 Summary of results D. The manufacturer claims that experimental data on Table 1 lists the best estimate of PN under various patients with symptom S show conclusively that drug assumptions and various types of data-the stronger x may cause only minor increase in death rates. The the assumptions, the more informative the estimates. plaintiff argues, however, that the experimental study We see that the excess-risk-ratio (ERR), which epi is of little relevance to this case, because it repre demiologists commonly identify with the probability sents the effect of the drug on all patients, not on of causation, is a valid measure of PN only when patients like Mr. A who actually died while using two assumptions can be ascertained: exogeneity (i.e., drug x. Moreover, argues the plaintiff, Mr. A is no confounding) and monotonicity (i.e., no preven- unique in that he used the drug on his own voli- UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 595
to die had they taken the drug, there is 100% assurance Table 2: Frequency data (hypothetical) obtained in (barring sample errors) that those who took the drug experimental and nonexperimental studies, comparing and died would have survived had they not taken the deaths (in thousands) among drug users (x) and non drug. Thus the plaintiff was correct; drug x was in users (x'). fact responsible for the death of Mr. A. Experimental Non experimental X x' X x' If we assume that drug x can only cause, but never Deaths(y) 16 14 2 28 prevent, death, Theorem 3 is applicable and Eqs. (30) Survivals(y') 984 986 998 972 (32) yield PNS 0.002 (42) tion, unlike subjects in the experimental study who PN 1.0 (43) took the drug to comply with experimental protocols. PS 0.002 (44) To support this argument, the plaintiff furnishes non experimental data indicating that most patients who Thus, we conclude that drug x was responsible for the chose drug x would have been alive if it were not for death of Mr. A, with or without the no-prevention as the drug. The manufacturer counter-argues by stat sumption. ing that: (1) counterfactual speculations regarding whether patients would or would not have died are Note that a straightforward use of the experimental purely metaphysical and should be avoided, and (2) excess-risk-ratio would yield a much lower (and incor nonexperimental data should be dismissed a priori, on rect) result: the ground that such data may be highly biased; for P(yx)- P(Yx') 0.016 0.014 example, incurable terminal patients might be more = - = 0_125 (45) inclined to use drug x if it provides them greater symp P(yx) 0.016 tomatic relief. The court must now decide, based on Evidently, what the experimental study does not re both the experimental and non-experimental studies, veal is that, given a choice, terminal patients stay away what the probability is that drug x was in fact the from drug x. Indeed, if there were any terminal pa cause of Mr. A's death. tients who would choose x (given the choice), then the The (hypothetical) data associated with the two stud control group (x') would have included some such pa ies are shown in Table 2. The experimental data pro tients (due to randomization) and so the proportion vide the estimates of deaths among the control group P(Yx') would have been higher than P( x', y), the population proportion P(yx) = 16/1000 = 0.016 of terminal patients avoiding x. However, the equality P(Yx') = 14/1000 =0.014 P(Yx') = P(y, x') tells us that no such patients were present in the control group, hence (by randomization) P(y =1 - P( ) = 0.986 �,) Yx' no such patients exist in the population at large and The non-experimental data provide the estimates therefore none of the patients who freely chose drug x was a terminal case; all were susceptible to x. P(y) =30/2000 =0.015 The numbers in Table 2 were obviously contrived to P(x, y) =2/2000 =0.001 show the usefulness of the bounds in Eqs. (15)-(18). P(x', y') =972/2000 =0.486 Nevertheless, it is instructive to note that a combi nation of experimental and non-experimental studies Since both the experimental and nonexperimental data may unravel what experimental studies alone will not reveal. are available, we can obtain bounds on all three prob abilities of causation through Eqs. (15)-(18) without making any assumptions about the underlying mech 5 Example 2: Personal Decision anisms. The data in Table 2 imply the following nu Making merical results: Consider the case of Mr. B, who is one of the surviving 0.002 ::; P N S ::; 0.016 (39) patients in the observational study of Table 2. Mr. B 1.0 ::; P N ::; 1.0 (40) wonders how safe it would be for him to take drug x, given that he has refrained thus far from taking 0.002 ::; p s ::; 0.031 ( 41) the drug and that he managed to survive the disease. These figures show that although surviving patients His argument for switching to the drug rests on the who didn't take drug x have only less than 3.1% chance observation that only 2 out of 1000 drug users died in 596 UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000
the observational study, which he considers a rather 6 Conclusion small risk to take, given the effectiveness of the drug as a pain killer. This paper shows how useful information about proba Conventional wisdom instructs us to warn Mr. B bilities of causation can be obtained from experimental against consulting a nonexperimental study in matters and observational studies, with weak or no assump of decisions, since such studies are marred with un tions about the data-generating process. We have controlled factors, which tend to bias effect estimates. shown that, in general, bounds for the probabilities Specifically, the death rate of 0.002 among drug users of causation can be obtained from combined experi may be indicative of low tolerance to discomfort, or mental and nonexperimental data. These bounds were of membership in a medically-informed socio-economic proven to be sharp and, therefore, they represent the group. Such factors do not apply to Mr. B, who did not ultimate information that can be extracted from sta use the drug in the past (be it by choice, instinct or ig tistical methods. We clarify the two basic assumptions norance), and who is now considering switching to the - exogeneity and monotonicity - that must be ascer drug by rational deliberation. Conventional wisdom tained before statistical measures such as excess-risk urges us to refer Mr. B to the randomized experimen ratio could represent attributional quantities such as tal study of Table 2, from which the death rate under probability of causation. controlled administration of the drug was evaluated to be P(yx) = 0.016, eight times higher than 0.002. One application of this analysis lies in the automatic generation of verbal explanations, where the distinc What would his risk of death be, if Mr. B decides to tion between necessary and sufficientcauses has impor start taking the drug? 0.2 percent or 1.6 percent? tant ramifications. As can be seen from the definitions The answer is that neither number is correct. Mr. B and examples discussed in this paper, necessary cau cannot be treated as a random patient in either study, sation is a concept tailored to a specific event under because his history of not using the drug and his sur consideration (singular causation), whereas sufficient vival thus far puts him in a unique category of patients, causation is based on the general tendency of certain for which the effect of the drug was not studied. 2 event types to produce other event types. Adequate These two attributes provide extra evidence about explanations should respect both aspects. Clearly, Mr. B's sensitivity to the drug. This became clear some balance must be made between the necessary already in Example 1, where we discovered definite re and the sufficient components of causal explanation, lationships among these attributes - for some obscure and the present paper illuminates this balance by for reasons, terminal patients chose not to use the drug. mally explicating the basic relationships between the two components. In Pearl (2000, chapter 10) it is fur To properly account for this additional evidence, the ther shown that PN and PS are too crude for cap risk should be measured through the counterfactual turing probabilities of causation in multi-stage scenar expression PS = P(yx jx1, y1); the probability that a ios, and that the structure of the intermediate pro patient who survived with no drug would have died cess leading from cause to effect must enter the defi had he/she taken the drug. The appropriate bound nitions of causation and explanation. Such consider for this probability is given in Eq. (41): ations will be the subject of future investigation (See [Halpern and Pearl, 2000]). 0.002 ::; p s ::; 0.031 Another important application of probabilities of cau Thus, Mr. B's risk of death (upon switching to drug sation is found in decision making problems. As was usage) can be as high as 3.1 percent; more than 15 pointed out in Pearl (2000, pp. 217-219) and illustrated times his intuitive estimate of 0.2 percent, and almost in Section 5, the counterfactual "y would have been twice the naive estimate obtained from the experimen true if x were true" can often be translated into a con tal study. ditional action claim "given that currently x and y are false, y will be true if we do x." The evaluation of However, if the drug can safely be assumed to have such conditional predictions, and the probabilities of no death-preventing effects, then monotonicity applies, such predictions, are commonplace in decision mak and the appropriate bound is given by Eq. (44), PS = ing situations, where actions are brought into focus by 0.002, which coincides with Mr. B's intuition. certain eventualities that demand remedial correction. In troubleshooting, for example, we observe undesir 2The appropriate experimental design for measuringthe able effects Y = y that are potentially caused by other risk of interest is to conduct a randomized clinical trial on patients in the category of Mr. B, that is, to subject a conditions X = x and we wish to predict whether an random sample of non-users to a period of drug treatment action that brings about a change in X would rem and measure their rate of survival. edy the situation. The information provided by the UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000 597
evidence y and x is extremely valuable, and it must References be processed before we can predict the effect of any action3. Thus, the expressions developed in this pa [Bailey et al., 1994] L. A. Bailey, L. Gordis, and per constitute bounds on the effectiveness of pending M. Green. Reference guide on epidemiol- policies, when full knowledge of the state of affairs is ogy. Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence, not available, yet the pre-action states of the decision 1994. Federal Judicial Center. Available online at variable (X) and the outcome variable (Y) are known. http:/jwww.fjc.gov /EVIDENCE/sciencejsc_ev _sec.html. For these bounds to be valid in policy making, the [Balke and Pearl, 1994] A. Balke and J. Pearl. Proba data generating model must be time-invariant, that is, bilistic evaluation of counterfactual queries. In Pro all probabilities associated with the model should rep ceedings of the Twelfth National Conference on Arti resent epistemic uncertainty about static, albeit un ficial Intelligence, volume Volume I, pages 230-237. known boundary conditions U = u. The constancy of MIT Press, Menlo Park, CA, 1994. is well justified in the control and diagnosis of phys U [Balke and Pearl, 1995] A. Balke and J. Pearl. Coun ical systems, where represents fixed, but unknown U terfactuals and policy analysis in structural models. physical characteristics of devices or subsystems. The In P. Besnard and S. Hanks, editors, Uncertainty constancy approximation is also justifiedin the health in Artificial Intelligence 11, pages 11-18. Morgan sciences where patients' genetic attributes and physi Kaufmann, San Francisco, 1995. cal characteristics can be assumed relatively constant between observation and treatment. For instance, if a [Balke, 1995] A. Balke. Probabilistic Counterfactuals: patient in the example of Section 5 wishes to assess the Semantics, Computation, and Applications. PhD risk of switching from no drug to drug, it is reasonable thesis, Computer Science Department, University of to assume that this patient's susceptibility to the drug California, Los Angeles, CA, November 1995. remains constant through the interim period of anal ysis. Therefore, the risk associated with this patient's [Breese and Beckerman, 1996] J.S. Breese decision will be well represented by the counterfactual and D. Beckerman. Decision-theoretic troubleshoot expression PS = P(Yxlx',y'), and should be assessed ing: A framework for repair and experiment. In by the bounds in Eq. (41). E. Horvitz and F. Jensen, editors, Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial The constancy assumption is less justified in economic Intelligence, pages 124-132. Morgan Kaufmann, San systems, where agents are bombarded by rapidly fluc Francisco, CA, 1996. tuating streams of external forces ("shocks" in econo metric terminology) and inter-agents stimuli. These [Cheng, 1997] P.W. Cheng. From covariation to cau forces and stimuli may vary substantially during the sation: A causal power theory. Psychological Re policy making interval and they require, therefore, de view, 104(2):367-405, 1997. tailed time-dependent analysis. The canonical viola [Cole, 1997] P. Cole. Causality in epidemiology, health tion of the constancy assumption occurs, of course, policy, and law. Journal of Marketing Research, in quantum mechanical systems, where the indeter 27:10279-10285, 1997. minism is "intrinsic" and memory-less, and where the existence of a deterministic relationship between the [Galles and Pearl, 1997] D. Galles and J. Pearl. Ax boundary conditions and measured quantities is no ioms of causal relevance. Artificial Intelligence, longer a good approximation. A method of incorpo 97(1-2):9-43, 1997. rating such intrinsic indeterminism into counterfactual analysis is outlined in Pearl (2000, p. 220). [Galles and Pearl, 1998] D. Galles and J. Pearl. An axiomatic characterization of causal counterfactu als. Foundations of Science, 3(1):151-182, 1998. Acknowledgements [Glymour, 1998] C. Glymour. Psychological and nor We thank the referees for making useful suggestions mative theories of causal power and the probabilities on the first draft. Full version of this paper will ap of causes. In G.F. Cooper and S. Moral, editors, Un pear in the Annals of Mathematics and AI, 2000. This certainty in Artificial Intelligence, pages 166-172. research was supported in parts by grants from NSF, Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco, CA, 1998. ONR and AFOSR and by a Microsoft Fellowship to the first author. [Halpern and Pearl, 2000] J. Y. Halpern and J. Pearl. Causes and explanations: A structural-model ap 3Such processing have been applied indeed to the evaluation of economic poli proach. Technical Report R-266, Cognitive System cies [Balke and Pearl, 1995] and to repair-test strategies in Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, Uni troubleshooting [Breese and Heckerman, 1996] versity of California, Los Angeles, March, 2000. 598 UNCERTAINTY IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PROCEEDINGS 2000
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