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. .:. . . FS Continuous Vacuum Pan

• EHicient operation using very low pressure steam. • Improved circulation and crystal quality. • Fast evaporation and simple control. • Low maintenance. • Space saving.

The FS Continuous Calandria type Vacuum Pan is another exclusive from FS. At lost truly reliable contin uous boiling of "f:\; "8" and "C" massecuites os part of a modern massecuite handling system­ another step forward in the quest for more efficient and cost effective production of sugar.

FLETCHER AND STEWART LIMITED FaNorman House FnorGate Derby DEllNU England Telephone, Derby 10332)372727 Telex 37514 FS G IIiTERIlATIDIiAl Editor: D. LEIGHTON . BSc., F.R.S.C.

AssIstant Editor: M G. COPE, M.I.L, M .T.G. ~OOCDOJm -aURIiAl ~ Volume 88 .. O-...!/ Issue No . 1054

CONTENTS October 1986

181 News and views

184 Product news

186 British Sugar 28th Technical Conference Panel of Referees

K DOUWES DEKKER Technical arlieles Consultant and former Director. Sugar Milling Research Institute. South Africa. 187 PROCESSING: ELECTRODIAL YTiC DE-ASHING OF CANE M. MATIC JUICE FOR INCREASED SUGAR PRODUCTION Em eritus Professor and former Director. Sugar M illing Re search Institute, South Africa. By Teh-An Hsu (USA)

K J. PARKER 191 ENERGY MANAGEMENT: SUGAR AND ENERGY LOSSES IN Consultant and former Chief Scientist, BURNED CANE Tate & Lyle Ltd. By John H. Payne (USA)

R. PIECK 193 FACTORY ENGINEERING: Former Director of Sugar Technology. CRYSTAL SIZING Raffinerie Tirlemontoise S.A. By J. S. Hogg, S. C. H. McCarey, J. D. F. Wilkie, D. Browne and E. J. Weatherby T RODGERS (UK) Former Deputy Chairman, British Sugar pic.

5 STACHENKO President-Directeur-General. 198 New books Agro-Te chnip, Paris. 183,197, 199- 200 Facts and figures

UK IS5N 0020-8841

Annual Subscription: £50.00 post free Abstracts section

Single Copies 100A Cane sugar manufacture £5.00 post free 102A Beet sugar manufacture Airmail: £24 extra 10SA Laboratory studies Claims for missing issues will not be allowed if received more than two months from 107A By-products date of mailing, plus time normally required for postal delivery of journal 109A Patents and claim.

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Published by International Media Ltd. P.o . Box 26, Port Talbot, WestGlamorgan SA131NX, U.K. Telephone: 0639-887498 Telex:21792 REF 869 US Office: 2790 Foster Avenue, Corning, CA 96021 Inquiries regarding advertising should be addressed to the above offices or the appropriate representative:

UK and Continental Robert Baker, Europe, other than P.O. Box 107, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9HN, England France and Holland Tel.: 0276-32842. Telex: 858893 FletelG.

France: MaG-Watt International, 6 rue des Acacias, Vert-Ie-Grand, 91810 Essonne. Tel: (6) 456-00.15.

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Korea: Ace Korea Company, C.P.O. Box 9315, Seoul. Tel: 752-0072. Telex:23231 Mocndm Ext. 4023.

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The burning system of these new kilns, for outputs up to 350 tonnes CaO per 24 hr, includes coke mixture firing and forced air draught operation. Construction features include: Vertical skip hoist with maximum operating safety. Rotating hopper for the timestone-coke mixture above the kiln top with speciat discharge conveyor trough for even distribution of material over large shaft sections without deviation (West German Patent DBP 1,758,155). Platform installed in the upper part of the kiln with easy access as inspection and working platform for refractory lining. An officially approved winch can also by supplied for personal transport. High working shaft corresponding to the requirements of the sugar and chemical industries. Lime discharge through a double gate system, with 4-6 vibrating conveyors according to kiln size. Level measurement by means of a gamma-ray device. Fully automatic operation. Heat consumption : < 3750 kJ/kg burnt lime «900 kcal/kg burnt lime). " Ebe rhardt" lime kiln The kiln produces lime with high reactivity, with less than 2% residual CO, in burnt lime and more than 40% by volume CO, -content in waste gas.

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ISSCT Congress, 1986 will need hard work and the ability to US sugar sale to China compromise, a virtue not spread widely As planned, the 19th Congress of among sugar exporters." The sale announced on August 12 the International Society of Sugar Cane amounted to 145,850 tonnes of CCC­ Technologists took place in Jakarta World sugar prices owned surplus raw sugar which had been during August 21 - 31. By dint of an forfeited by Florida producers and was immense effort on the part of the From an initial level of $153.50 on from the 1984/85 crop. As details Australian Editor, John Clayton, and the August 1, the London Daily Price for became available the sale drew protests secretariat in Indonesia, the technical raw sugar dipped slightly to $151 for from countries whose economies depend papers were available in printed form, two days but then improved to $156 at on exporting sugar but was defended by bound in two volumes, for delegates which it stayed until August 13, aided the US authorities as being a attending the meetings. No press release by the EEC's restrictive export policy, replacement of sugar which could not be is yet to hand with details of attendance reports of drought in Cuba, higher oil provided by Cuba and so would not from different countries, etc. but these prices (which led to speculation that displace Chinese purchases from its will appear in due course as a third more cane might be diverted to alcohol usual sources of supply. It was also volume of Proceedings. The cost of the manufacture in Brazil and elsewhere) and claimed that the price was so low two volumes of papers is $85.00 and reports of mixed prospects for the because allowance had to be made for the they should be sought from offices of coming European beet sugar crop. higher cost of shipping from the US as the Organizing Committee at P.O. Box Rumours reached the market of a against from nearer suppliers; the 86 JKWB, Jakarta 10270, Indonesia. An sale of sugar by the US to China; they inconsistency of these arguments is self­ invitation to hold the next Congress in were first denied but then confirmed in evident. The sale, for $15.3 million, Brazil was accepted for 1989, that from an announcement by the US Department involves the US in a loss of more than Colombia having been withdrawn. of Agriculture. The sale was of 145,850 $40 million, and appears to have been tonnes of raws and the price was 4.75 more in the nature of a tolling operation World sugar balance, centsllb, nearly 2 cents below the market since China subsequently sold 18 1985/861 price for January/March 1987 delivery. cargoes of white sugar for shipment up The LOP started to fall immediately to June 1987. A fourth estimate of the world and by August 20 had reached only $126 The Australian government, already sugar balance for 1985/86 was recently per tonne. A number of other factors angered by subsidized sales of US grain released by F. O. Licht GmbH. then influenced the market, among them to the USSR which displaced Australian Production is now set at 98,885,000 reports of severe water shortages in exports, protested against the sugar deal, tonnes, raw value, against 100,127,000 Havana, heavy Soviet buying of sugar, as did Thailand. The Thailand House of tonnes in 1984/85, while consumption Licht's first estimate of European sugar Representatives sent a message to the has increased to 100,313,300 tonnes in production, indicating a drop of about US Congress that more dumping of 1985/86 from 98,638,000. With a 4%, and the price rose to $133.50. sugar by the US would force Thai cane difference between imports and ex ports However, sugar producers in Florida and planters into bankruptcy and would lead of 517,000 tonnes, against 1,488,000 California notified the USDA that they them to lobby for legalization of opium tonnes a year earlier, the final stocks are intended to forfeit some 256,000 short and marijuana cultivation as retaliation reduced to 37,982,000 tonnes (37.86% tons of sugar to the CCC and the fear measures. Both countries have suffered of consumption) from 39,927,000 that this might be dumped on the world not only from a loss of potential sales tonnes (40.48% of consumption). market led to a further decline in values but also the consequent reduction of Licht obser.ves that, "although so that the LOP ended the month at only some $25 per tonne for the rest of their fundamentals have improved and are $129. world market sales. The Thai planters are likely to improve further in 1986/87, the During the fust half of the month, asking their government to seek long-term outlook for sugar is dim. the London Daily price for white sugar compensation from the US for the Exporters will have to adjust to lower had followed that for raw sugar fairly damage caused. demand growth, which has already fallen closely with the premium near to $40 The Czarnikow Sugar Review close to population growth. Unless per tonne. The collapse occurred in raw comments2: "If the alternatives within exporters keep a tight rein on sugar prices, however, and was not so current US sugar policy are limited to production, another period of low prices great in the LDP(W) so that the either making further export sales of may soon be upon us, probably even premium rose to about $50 during the forfeited sugar to maintain the current before the recovery has developed to its second half of the month. As a very low import quota or to make further full potentialities. This should be consequence, the LDP(W) which started drastic cuts in the quota in order to sufficient incentive to make a concerted the month at $194.50 ended it $13 lower match requirements, the outlook for all effort to control production within the at $181.50 against a corresponding fall I F. O. Licht,llIl. SugarRpt., 19&6.118,413 - 420. framework of a new ISA. However, this in the LDP of $24.50. 2 1986. (1752),113 -114. INT. SUGAR JNL., 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 181 News and views

those producers which have supplied the pay ing preferential prices for Cuban growth rates are in India and Pakistan, USA for the past 25 years or so appears exports and allowing Cuba to re-export where consumption rose by 10.6% and bleak indeed. With third world countries Soviet oil for hard currency. 11.5%, respec ti vely, over th e past fi ve accumulating serious debt problems it years. cannot help their situation to have the World Bank views on long­ Japan's raw sugar use decreased in markets for the goods that they are able term sugar prices' the early 1980's following the to produce cut back in volume and world introducti on of high fru ctose syrup, with Ronald Duncan, head of the World prices undermined. Presumably the 1985/86 consumption estimated at 2.82 Bank's commodity studies, told a developed countries wish to continue million tonnes aga inst 2.88 million commodi ties seminar th at the Bank exporting manufac tured goods but tonnes the year before. High fru ctose expects world sugar prices to continue common sense dictates that they can syrup is not widely used in As ian ri sing fro m last year's lows . Preliminary only do so to the less developed countries other than Japan, and therefore fi gures for a report to be released in countries if the latter can earn the money has no signi fica nt effect on Asian sugar September suggest th e International to pay for them...... US government consumption. In Japan it accounts for Sugar Agreement daily price (f.o.b. at delegates at numerous international 20% of to tal sweetener consumption. greater Caribbean pons ) will be US meetings have advocated that the best $154 per tonne this year against $90 las t policy approach for primary Europe beet sugar year (in current dollar va lu es) . TIle price commodities is one based on free market production, 1986/876 is forecast to rise to $187 in calendar principles . While there remains such a year 1987 , to $235 in 1988, to $3 16 in An estimate of European beet sugar gap between the rhetoric of the United 1989, to $450 in 1990, to $452 in 1995 production before the campaign starts is States and its ac tions in practice, it is and to $525 in the year 2000. Duncan necessaril y a shot in the dark, but extremely difficult to see how less said th at the estimates assume US and sometimes these S h O l~ have proven to be developed countries can achieve European sugar market res trictions quite accurate and, if nothing unforeseen reasonable prices for their primary remain in fo rce. In the medium term happens, European beet sugar production products." prices should increase steadil y as surplus coul d fall 3.7 % to 29.9 million tonnes stocks are redu ced but there will be in 1986/87 according to F. O. Licht New USSR-Cuba sugar trade strong flu ctu ations in prices and there GmbH, whose fi gure compares with the terms3 could be another boom before the year 1985/86 output of 31.1 million to nnes. The Soviet Union has imposed stiff 1997, he said. TIle redu ction is less than had been terms on Cuba in the latest trade and hoped for, as the area cutbacks did not economic agreement between the two Asian sugar consumption5 come up to former expectations. Farmers countries. The agreement, signed in have reacted to the current depression but Sugar demand is rising in al l As ian Moscow las t May, prov ides for a drop in too weakly to solve the curre nt surp lu s nati ons except Japan, although growth the price of Cuba's sugar exports to the pro blem. in world sugar consumption is tailing USSR from 915 roubles per tonne last The EEC area tu rned out to be not off, accordi ng to Wong Yi-Ting, year to a fixed price of 850 roubles chairman of the Taiwa n Sugar mo re th an I % below that of 1985 but throughout the 19861 1990 period. The Corporation. In an address to th e 19th the late spring, coupled with dry wea ther volume of Cuba's sugar shipments Congress of the ISSCT in Jakarta in in some parl~ of th e Commu nit y, lead to would also remain fixed at four million August he said th at world consumption an expected 5.7 % drop in producti on to tonnes per year. is expected to have ri sen during th e 13.7 million to nnes. Sharp redu ctions The oil price for 1986 would previous 12 months by little more tllan are forecast for Austri a and Yugos la via, remain unchanged from las t year's level 1% , the lowest for more than 25 years. while a better crop is ex pected in of 26 roubles per tonne despite the steep This ri se contrasts with growth rages Turkey, all as consequences of changes fall in world oil prices since last averag in g 5.2% in the 1950's, 3.2% in in the beet area. November. Diplomatic sources said that the 1960's, 2.2% in the 1970's and 2% Little information has come fro m the Kremlin had vetoed Cuba's demand in the first half of the 1980's. East Europe but weather conditions so for a higher sugar price and an annual Asia is a bright spot, however, far suggest th at most countries will have revision of prices thereafter. Moscow had wi th a 5.9% average growth rate of raw a reasonab le crop. In the USSR, also refused to initiate any big new sugar consumption in the first half of however, sowings we re slow to stan and industrial projects in Cuba during the the 1980's. He estimated sugar use in lower th an usual rainfa ll could reduce current five-year period, arguing that Asia would have reached 30.5 million yields. Also, in Poland, the area sown to priority should be given to completing tonnes in 1985/86, accounting for 31 % beet was small er and pl ant densit y is several large installations already under of world sugar consumption and up from 3 TM Times, AuguSl 15,1986. 4 r .O. U cht, lnl.Sl4garRpt. , 1986,118,404. construction. The Russians continue to 29 .9 million tonnes in 1984/85 and 22 .9 5 PubUc udgu's COl7lJ7Wdity Week. August 30, 1986. subsidize Cuba heavily, however, by million tonnes in 1980/8 1. The highes t 6 F. O. Lichl, /n'. SugarRpt., 1986, 118,453 - 456. 182 tNT. SUGAR JNl .. 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 News and views

reported to be unsati sfactory; however, harmonize the interests of different in excess of quota, should they wish to recent beet tests show a high root weight sectors including consumers, cane do so, but this would have to be for their and sugar content. Details of these growers and sugar producers. own account and would have to be estimates appear below. The current season's sugar policy, exported to the world market. Production 1986/87 1985/86 which provides for a minimum statutory costs are in the region of 12 - 13 sugar cane price of 16.50 rupees per cents/lb, though marginal costs are no IOfUles, raw value quintal, linked to a basic recovery of doubt considerably lower and millers Belgium 915,000 1,025,000 8.5%, has yielded encouraging results. might find this an attractive proposition Denmark .467,000 577,000 Since the government has already made for small quantities, especially if the France 3,475,000 4,324,000 advance announcements of a statutory world market price should rise. The cane price of 17 rupees per quintal, cane Germany,West 3,210,000 3,432,000 production quota, incidentally, already growers are expected to supply their cane Greece 348,000 345,000 includes 75,000 tonnes for export, most Holland 1,086,000 975,000 to the centrifugal sugar sector. Thus, with a realistic sugar policy, along with of which ~ou l d be destined for the US Irel and 206,000 189,000 market, leaving some 975,000 tonnes Italy 1,685,000 1,352,000 normal monsoons, the industry is which should be adequate to fulfil Portugal 5,000 9,000 expected to exceed the production level domestic needs. Spain 985,000 965,000 of 8.0 million tonnes, white value, in UK 1,304,000 1,3 16,OOP the 1986187 season. Stocks in Argentina are very high; at the end of June 1985, they amounted EEe 13 ,686,000 14,509,000 Argentina crop planS to 477,000 tonnes against 272,000 Austria 293,000 468,000 tonnes a year earlier. This resulted from Finland 141,000 104,000 Production in Argentina has fallen the setting of a high production quota in Sweden 377,000 347,000 sharply in recent years, from more than 1984/85 which was well in excess of Switzerland 105 ,000 139,000 1.6 million tonnes, raw value in domestic needs, while provision of the Turkey 1,720,000 1,398,000 1983/8 4 to below 1.2 million tonnes in substantial subsidies needed to export the Yugoslav ia 855,000 949,000 1985/86 when, as a consequence of balance was against government policy. frosl~ in Tucuman province, even the West Europe 17.177,000 17,914,000 There has been some pressure from reduced target was not met. For 1986187 millers, who have had to pledge their Albania 38,000 40,000 the crop plan has been set at 1.05 sugar with banks, for provision of Bulgaria 125,000 89,000 million tonnes, tel quel, equivalent to subsidies to reduce the overhanging Czechoslovak ia 860,000 939,000 about 1,135,000 tonnes, raw value. This surplu s, but under the Au stral plan all Germany East 710,000 805,000 will leave a surplus of cane available and prices are frozen and subsidies not Hungary 550,000 527,000 millers are entitled to produce extra sugar avai lable. Poland 1,680,000 1,808 ,000 Rumani a 625,000 585,000 USS R 8, 150,000 8,350,000 Facts and figures East Europe 12,738,000 13.143,000 GEPLAC EA meeting, 1986 imported since, at the time of accession to the Total Europe 29,915,000 31,057,000 EEC on March I, Portuguese refineB had been The 22nd Plenary Meeting of GEPLACEA (the unce rtain how the arrangements being Group of Latin Ameri can and Caribbean Sugar nego tiated by th ei r government would affect the Ind ian measures to raise supply of raw suga r and there was a tendency to 7 Exporting Countries) is to be held during .production October 12 - 16 in Macei6, Alagoas, Drazil, the stOC kpile. Without this specia l measure, the excess would havehad to be exported, which Indian sugar production in the organiza tion of the event being coordinated by the I.A .A. and the Alagoas Cane Planters wou ld make little sense for a country with a 1985/86 season is expected to reach Association. Topi cs under di scussion will large defi cit in the supply of sugar. The 94,000 about 7.0 million tonnes, white value, include a work progra m and budget for 1987; tonnes additional concess ion should exactly up nearly 900,000 tonnes from the the internati onal markets for sugar, mola sses cl ear the excess stock. and derivatives; prospects for an Intern ational season before. Another increase is now Pakistan beet sugar production, 1986 expected for Ihe 1986187 crop year. With Sugar Agreement; programs and cooperation in the 1985/86 season virtually complete technology; and a projcct for the diversification of the suga r industry, developed with the United Th e 1986 beet campa ign in Pakistan lasted the Uni on government seems to be Nations Development Program. onl y 32 days in May/J une and only two of the considering whether some aspects of the four factories worked as the crop was small. current sugar policy need revision to Portugal sugar concession' Total slice was 134,061 tonnes, some 30% greater than the 103,137 tonnes sliced in 1985. give a further boost to sugar production 10e Management Committee of the EEC White sugar outtum was 13,931 tonnes as in the 1986/87 season. The Food and Commission has agreed that Portugal should be aga inst 10,430 tonnes last year; this brought Civil Supplies Minister has indicated allowed to impo rt 94,000 tonnes white sugar tOlal cane plus beet sugar production to 1,11 6,000 tonnes against 1,317,000 in 1985. that revision of the policy is under the equivalent of raw suga r in 19 86187, in addition to the reduced levy quota of 75,000 Lonnes , 7 F. O. Licht,lnt. SugarRpt., 1986, 118,409. government's active consideration. He according to Agra Europe. loe 94,000 tonnes 8 CzarnilwwSugarRevuw, 1986, (1752),119 - 120. also said that the new policy wi ll represe nt s sugar which has already been 9 F. O. Licht, lnt. SugarRpt. , 1986, 118.423. INT. SUGAR JNL., 1986, VOL. 88. NO. 1054 183 Product news

Fabcon and Touchstone in on a green fluorescent screen. The The instrument head may be fitted major link-up display can be set to show sequentially in either interior or exterior locations up the measured value, the set point and to 65 metres from the tank. The pressure Fabcon Inc. of San Francisco and high and low alarm settings, or any of capsule can be attached to an existing Touchstone Machinery Industrial Corp­ these parameters may be locked on to the outlet or fitted from the top of the tank. oration of Taiwan have got together in a screen. The screen incorporates a number A special capsule which is easily cleaned joint venture to provide a world-wide of "tell-tale" indicators to identify the from inside the tank is availabble for the design and manufacturing capability. status of the main four digit display. An food industry, or for use with liquids Spearheading their product range is the additional 21-segment horizontal bar with high solids contents. Fabcon-designed pressure fed Lotus cane display shows the analogue control Coley Thermometers will calibrate mill, together with the Unigrator, Rapid output set point relative to range or each instrument in any units and for any crystallizer and other equipment. Using regulator position, depending on the shape or size of tank, provided it is Touchstone's manufacturing capabilities, most appropriate information for the freely vented. Fabcon offers to convert any cane mill particular application. A centre zero 9- Further details: to the pressure fed Lotus design. Higher segment vertical bar display shows Coley Thermometers Ltd., extraction rates and greater throughput deviation from the set point. 2 - 4 London Road, are the major advantages, coupled with All input, output and display Brentford, reduced milling losses and bagasse characteristics are set or altered by touch Middx TW8 8JP, U.K. moisture, with consequent increased sensitive membrane switches situated on boiler efficiency. Life-time maintenance the front panel. Security against NAF manufacture valves in costs are similar to those of a conv­ inadvertent changes is ensured by having Finland entional top roller mill, and in operation to press two switches to alter any Production of the NAF Uniball the mill is less prone to choking. Lotus parameter. Internal switches give total range of one-piece maintenance-free ball mills are already operating in Morocco security by locking in all the valves has recently been moved to and Pakistan. With machinery products programmed information. A remote set­ NAF's new plant in Finland. A 20-page in use in more than 30 countries, point facility is available on most full colour technical brochure has been FabconITouchstone offer a models and up to two auxiliary produced on the NAF Uniball which was comprehensive international service. alarm/control channels may be fitted. originally designed for use in buried Further details: Further details: pipelines where its lack of body joints Fabcon Inc., Kent Industrial Measurements Ltd., overcomes problems of external leakage Unice Machine Division, Eaton Socon, St. Neots, and the smooth contours of the body 2670 Leavenworth Street, Cambs. PE19 3EU, U.K. make it easy to insulate. This valve San Francisco, CA 94133, range, widely used on process duties, hot U.S.A. Universal tank contents water and chilled water lines, is made in gauge carbon steel up to 500 mm (20 inch) and Kent add to System 19 stainless steel up to 100 mm (4 inch) for A new tank contents gauge from pressure ratings up to PN 40 and the The R 1200 series module, a Coley Thermometers Ltd., suitable for microprocessor based, rack-mounted, usual screwed, flanged and weld type end all liquids used in industry and connections are available. digital display controller has been added agriculture, is claimed to be the most to the System 19 range of instrument­ reliable and accurate of its type. The Further details: Naval Oy., ation. It provides analogue PID control gauge is operated by a stainless steel Box 32, or motorized valve control with relay capsule in the tank which senses the SF-23801 Latila, outputs, both with optional balanceless pressure head caused by the liquid and Finland. and bumpless auto-manual changeover, transmi ts it by means of an inert gas in or relay, or open drain control in on/off a capillary tube to the instrument head, Coal handling by Tower Silos and time-proportioning PID forms. The where a mechanism moves a pointer. Tower Silo Systems will supply controller can accept a wide range of The gauge is accurate to 1%, and, unlike coal storage silos and extraction input signals from D.C. milliamp, other types, provides a continuous equipment as part of a major project at millivolt and voltage sources such as pH reading without manual pumping or Tate and Lyle's Thames sugar refinery electrodes, flow sensors, load cells, external power. The whole system is of involving construction of new coal-fired thermocouples and from resistance stainless steel, so it can be used for any steam raising plant. The scheme includes thermometers. The instrument has a liquid, including oils, caustic solutions the installation of two 1100 tonnes basic overall accuracy of 0.25%. and acids, as well as juices and syrups capacity "Prestave" concrete silos, the The four-digit display is exhibited with a high solids content. largest stave silos to be built in the UK

184 INT. SUGARJNL.. 1986. VOL 88. NO. 1054 ProduCl news

for coal storage so far. Tower Silo from laboratory feasi bility testing to the provision for both rear removal of Systems will also incorporate variable large modular industrial systems. the complete rotating assembly and for output Parcey extractors to provide an The latest electrodialysis range is front access to the impell er and seal by efficient 20/30 tonnes/hr feed of coai to a the 21 10 which provides a compact, self­ removal of the sucti on cover. pneumatic transfer system. contai ned method of treating saline Materials specified for the 910 The order of the contract has been waters. Supplied in five standard sizes, pump at British Sugar include a cast iron placed by Tate and Lyle Sugars, a they will produce up to 300 m3/day of volu te casing, stainl ess steel 316 Division of Tate and Lyle Industries Ltd. controlled quality water from most impeller and a shaft of stainless steel The contract is being managed overal l by supplies, to World Health Organization type 329. M.E. Boilers Ltd. of Peterborough, who (WHO) standard. Further details: are undertaking the design and install­ Further details: Girdlestone Pumps Ltd., ation of a complete steam generating Portals Water Treatment Ltd., Melton, Woodbridge, plant. The silos will feed four M.E. Coi l 632-652 London Road, Suffolk, UK. boi ler units incorporating integral Isleworth, atmospheric fluidized-bed combusters Middlesex, UK. Expanded range from Accrafill burnirig coal as the primary fuel, with heavy fuel oil providing 100% standby. The well-established Accrafill sack A sweet tooth for Girdlestone fill er and weigher is now avai lable in a Further details: One of the flfSt Girdlestone 900 wider range of models. The latest Tower Silo Sys tems Ltd., series centrifugal pumps is now version, "Mini-Accrafill", offers a Lysander Road, Bowerh ill, operating at British Sugar's Kings Lynn simple and effective approach to filling Melksham, Wiltshire, U.K. sugar factory, which sli ces 600,000 containers in the 2 kg to 12.5 kg range. tonnes of sugar beet per campaign. Installed as part of a bulk materials Weighing control Handiling sugar in liquid form at 90°C, handling system, it can be supplied via a Richard Simon & Sons have the 9 10 industrial pump has a 327 m3/hr hopper, vibratory feeder or volumetric developed a new loss-in-weight capacity, a differenti al head of 54.9 m screw feeder. Design options are controller. An extension of the and was supplied for its low NPS H available to meet a wide variety of company's range of continuous weighing handling abi lity. operating conditions. products, this controller operates on the Lau nched in 1985, the 900 series discontinous batch weighing method pump ranges were specifica ll y des igned Further details: A. T. Sack Fillers, providing a constant rate feed of with the maintenance engineer in mind. 150 Hampstead Road, material, whether for powders, soli ds or A uniqu e des ign feature of the seri es is Bristol BS4 3HR, UK. liquids. Linking proven weighing techniques with state-of-the-art electroni cs, it is des igned for easy opearation and will be availabe customized fo r individual applications. Further detai ls: Richard Simon & Sons, Park Lane, Basford, Nottingham, UK.

Electrodialysis of sugar and water Portals Water Treatment Ltd., who have been involved in electrodialysis for over thirty years, are marketing a new range of electrodialysis equipment. It is employed not only for the treatment of water, but fo r many specialist appl ic­ ations including deashing of sugars and potable water production. The compre­ hensive range of standard packages are simply tailored to each cli ents's needs; INT. SUGAR JNL.. 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 British Sugar 28th Technical Conference

Technical staff from the Central and agricu ltural prospects for the coming paper on pulp press ing additives, after Regional headquarters and Research campaign, contributed by Mr. T. P. J. which Dr. K. E. Austmeyer of the Laboratories of British Sugar pic, Dyke fo r British Sugar and by Braunschweig Technical University together with the managers and some representatives of the other countries discussed new ways of pu lp drying. senior staff from the company's 13 sugar present. Mr. M. K. Fav iell of Canada Fin all y, Mr. R. J. Parker and Mr. J. N. factories and 44 guests from the UK and could not say what the condition of the Smith described a pulp dryer outfall fourteen other countries, assembled at crop was in his coun try becau se, when housing explosion and the investigation the Grand Hotel in Eastboume for the he had left home two weeks earlier, there which it occasioned. The aftern oon was 28th Technical Conference during June had been 18 inches of snow in the fi elds then free for participants to play golf or 9 - 12. around Calgary and nobody had bothered take part in a number of excurs ions After a welcome from the to dig down through it to check on whi ch had been ably orga ni zed by the Conference Chairman, Mr. R. W. germination. Conference Administrator, Mr. Dennis Chappell, Executive Director of British Papers were then presented on Gars ide, and the Conference Secretary, Su gar, the first session began on the extension and modernization of the Mrs . J. E. Foxon. morning of June JO under the Aarberg sugar factory and refinery in The las t sess ion of the Conference chairmanship of Mr. N. W. Broughton, Switzerland, by Mr. H. R. Brunner and was held under the chairmanshi p of Mr. Head of the Research Laboratories, and colleagues, after which Mr. J. S. Hogg M. Shore, Director of Research, and included three papers on white sugar and co lleagues discussed factory included papers on crystal sizing by Mr. colour, the first by Mr. Broughton and generation and im port of electrical power J. S. Hogg and colleagues of British his colleagues on the sources of white in synchronism wi th the public Sugar and tlle University of Sheffield, on sugar colour, a second by Prof. G. electricity supply. Papers were also tlle new liqu id sugar process at Mantovani and colleagues of the presented on the utilization of low grade Vauciennes sugar factory by Mr. 1. Universities of Ferrara and Turin on heat by Mr. D. G. Brown and Mr. D. C. Foucart and Mr. J. Pa leos, and fin all y a indu strial factors decreasing sugar crystal Hogan of British Sugar, and on energy paper on d eve l o prnenL~ in the drying and colour, and a third by Mr. P. W. van der reduction and process integration by Mr. cooling of sugar by Mr. N. R. Twaite Poel and colleagues of CSM Suiker N. R. Twaite and Mr. J. 1. Davenport of and Mr. A. J. Randall. Mr. Chappell B. V. on colour formation and British Sugar in cooperation with Mr. E. then summari zed the Conference and elimination from crystals. K. Macdonald of the Energy and Process thanked all who had partici pated before The afternoon session was chaired Integrati on Un it, Harwell . closing the proceedings . by Mr. R. J. Bass, Director of On the foll owing morning, Mr. P. The papers wi ll be either reproduced Engineering and included a rev iew of Mottard of G.T.S. in France presented a in full or abs tracted in this Journal.

INT. SUGAR JNL. . 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 PROCESSING Electrodialytic de-ashing of cane juice for increased sugar production*

By Teh-An Hsu (Sugar Technology Department, Hawaii an Sugar Planters' Association, P.O.Box 1057, Aiea, Hawaii 96701, U.S.A.)

Introduction the two electrode rinse streams were drawn from a common source (Fig. 2). Electrodialysis (ED) is a membrane The solution used was either O.IN KCI process by which di ssolved salL~ in an solution or O.IN KCl solution adjusted aqueous feed can be removed (Fig. 1). with concentrated HCl to pH 1.5. Since the appearance of ED techniques Waste stream: In some laboratory runs, about 40 years agol , extensive work has feed and waste were drawn from, and been done in the field of water returned to, a common pool of juice. For desalination2·7, and the process has been .... Tch·An Hsu the remaining runs, either tap water or commercialized for over 20 years. 0.1N KCl solution was used as the De-ashed Feed was te stream. Analytical methods Carbonate ash: Carbonate ash content C I A !-~-1-ml C was detennined by either of two methods: (l) the standard procedure given in Sugar Cane Factory Analytical Control 13 or (2) the conductivity Repeating~ method. For the second method, curves + Unit .. relating ash and conductivity were first .. "ll established, as in Figure 3, then used for "ll o o ..I: estimating ash from conductivity I: ii c( u measurements. This method is -t. somewhat less precise; its precision is, however, acceptable (as shown by the 1 LJ limited scattering of data in Fig. 3) and y it is much less time-consuming. Anode Waste Feed Cathode Potassium and chloride: K+ and Cl­ Rinse Rinse contents were analysed using an Orion C = Cation-Selective Membrane potassium electrode and a Buchler­ A = Anion-Selective Membrane Cotlove model 4-2008 Chloridometer, respectively. Voltage and amperage: A digital Applications in other fields, however, multimeter and volt-ammeter were used have been limited. to monitor, respectively, the voltage Although the potential of applying economic feasibility of ED juice de­ drop across, and the electric current ED to reduce ash in sugar juice to ashing, and to examine the necessity of flowing through, the electrodialyser. increase recovery in raw sugar process ing feed juice prescreening, we conducted a These two parameters were necessary for has been well recognized8. JO, few data are study in which a small-scale ED available. The potential recovery apparatus was tested both in the • Published as PaperNo. 61 4 in thejoumal series of the Experiment Station, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' increase, however, has been shown to be laboratory and in a sugar factory. The Association significant - sugar production can be results are presented in this paper. 1 "Industrial processing with membranes". Part 1 Eds. increased by 1.9 kg for every kg of ash Lacey & Loeb (R. E. Krieger Publishing Co., l1 Materials and methods Huntington, N.Y.), 1979. removed In the 1983 season, Hawaii's 2 Calvit & Sloan: Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Water sugar indu stry produced 1,044,()()() short Materials Desalino.tion, 1965, It. tons (947 ,000 tonnes) of sugar, along 3 Harkare et at.: Desalination. 1982, 42, 97. 4 Mattson: ibid., 1979, 28,207. with 303,000 tons (275,000 tonnes) of Feed juice : For the laboratory tests, feed 5 Mattson & Lew: ibid., 1982, 41 , 1. molasses which contained 107,000 tons juices were prepared by diluting a 60% 6 Matz: Proc. 1Sf Inf. Symp. on Wafer Desalination, 1965.251. (97,()()() tonnes) of sucrose and 3 I ,()()() refractometer sol id~ syrup down to 5 - 7 Tsunoda: ibid., 1965,325. tons (28 ,()()() tonnes) of ash l2. If 40% of 25% solids. The syrup contained 2.5% 8 Beet Sugar Development Foundation & Amer. Crystal Sugar Co., Final Report for U.S.o.O.E. Contract the ash had been removed prior to carbonate ash, of which 34% was No. AC03·79CS402l3,1981. crystallization, sugar production wou ld potassium and 31 % chloride. For the 9 Sugiyama ef af.: U.S. PaL 3,718,560 (1973). 10 Vane: Suer. Belge, 1977,96,277. have been increased by 24,000 tons factory tem, feed juices were prepared by II Unpublished data, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Assoc. (2 1,()()() tonnes), or a 22% reduction in diluting freshly collected syrups to 30 to 12 Factory Report, (Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Assoc.), 45 % solids. 1984. (155), Table 2. sugar lost to molasses. At a return of 13 "Sugar cane factory analytical control" Ed. Payne $360/ton ($400/tonne), the value of this Electrode rinse solution: In the study, (Elsevier, New York), 1968. I NT. SUGAR JNL.. 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 187 EleclrodialYlic ck-ashing of cane juice for increased sugar produclion

the pressure drops across the electro­ dialyser for juice samples of various concentrations with and without

ED Slack , prescreening (325 mesh). EI.ctrod. Compartm.nt ED tests to determine limiting current densities, cell-pair resistances, and EI.ctrode Rin,e Wa.'.-'-- potassium and chloride removal factors: Solution The ED process has certain limitations, ~JUiCe one of which is the limiting current Juic.-.... density (LCD), i.e., the maximum electr- EI.ctrod. Comportment ie current per unit effective membrane area that could be applied under given l feed and operating conditions. Conduct­ ing the process at a current density higher than the LCD will lead to intol­ erably high electrical resistance, result­ ing in high operating expenses, severe Fig. 2. Flow diagram around the electrodialyser damage to membranes, and undesirable changes in product characteristics!. The membranes tested were all ... To determine the LCD, we ftr.it supplied by lonies Inc. Only one type of l . tS-l. used a specific cell-pair electric resistance o 30~ cation selective membrane, 6I-CZL-386, ... .6 40ll; (SCR, cell-pair voltage drop/current dens o SOli; was involved in the study, whereas two ity) method for lower juice, and hence " types of anion-selective membrane, 103- ... 0 . lower ash, concentrations, and subse­ - QZL-386 and 204-UZL-386, were tested, quently developed a pH method for respectively, for the laboratory and for higher juice concentrations. In the the factory tests. The 204-series former method, SCR was plotted against membrane was a more recent product and current density and the LCD was deter­ was reported to be more resistant to mined as illustrated in Figure 4. In the o fouling and to have a lower sucrose o latter method, the pH of the de-ashed transport capacity!4. juice was plotted and the LCD was Operating conditions determined as shown by the pH curve in , .•. ':---:'":---:-'-_-'-_.L-_-'-_..o....J A number of operating conditions Figure 5. (Also shown in Fig. 5 is that ~ u u u u u g CONDUCTIVITY ( ..oJ ..... ho./ e ..) were maintained relatively constant the SCR method in this case failed to Fig. 3. ReI.lionship between ash throughout the study. First, the yield the LCD.) content and conductivity In juice laboratory tests were all conducted at To avoid large numbers of ash anal detennining the energy requirements and room temperatures of 25 to 30°C and the yses, the "ion removal factor," defined a.1 the limiting current densities (to be factory tests at ambient temperatures of the number of gram-equivalents of an defined later) for the ED process. 30 to 35°C. Second, juice flow rate was ionic species removed from the feed per maintained at 30 cm/sec along the flow cell-pair per unit faraday of electricity Experimental apparatus, paths in the electrodialyser. (The that has passed through the electrodia­ operating conditions, and study manufacturer recommended the flow rate Iyser, was used for detennining ash procedure be between 20 and 40 cm/sec.) Third, the removal from direct! y measured current. Experimental apparatus waste stream flow rate, a parameter of In this study, we extensively used two ion removal factors: the potassium The heart of an ED system is the relatively less significance, was either (PRF) and the chloride (CRF) removal electrodialyser in which the feed is de­ held at 30 cm/sec or adjusted to give the factors. To detennine them, juice before ashed. A typical commercial electro­ same pressure drop as the juice side. Fourth, the flow rates of the two and after de-ashing was sampled and dialyser contains up to 200 "cell-pairs" analysed for K+ and CI- ; the respecti ve (repeating units as illustrated in Fig. 1). electrode rinse streams, also of less significance, were set either to be 90 factors were then calculated. The unit used in this study was a 9 inch ED tests to determine relationships x 10 inch (22.9 cm x 25.4 cm) cm/sec or to give pressure drops the same as the juice side. of potassium and chloride removal to ash laboratory electrodialyser manufactured removal: With PRF and CRF and the by Ionies Inc. and was assembled to have Study procedure applied current known, we were able to 10 and 5 cell-pairs, respectively, for the Prescreening: The necessity of feed juiee calculate the removal of K+ and of CI- laboratory and factory tests. prescreening was studied by determining 14 Literalure provided by lonics Inc., MA . 188 INT. SUGAR JNL., 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 Bagatex20 CONVERTS YOUR EXCESS BAGASSE INTO ENERGY

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The CRYSTALOSCOPE crystal projection instrument enables the pan operator to view the crystal growth throughout the boiling cycle. The 8-l-" diameter observation screen is fitted with a squared graticule each sid e of which represents 0.5mm. on the crystal surface. The instrument ~ will fit into an aperture of 6-r diam. in the pan wall and is held in position bv 8 equall y spaced t" diam. bolts on 8t" P.C.D. The magnification is / 30. Provi sion is made for the alteration in gap betwee n the two observation ports and for focussi ng the crystals on the screen to give a sharp image over the entire screen area which is evenl y illuminated. Operation is from a si ngle phase A .C. 110/125 or 220/240V supply.

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, The Sugar Manufacturers' Supply Co. Ltd. 18 CITY ROAD. LONDON, ENGLAND EC1Y 2AP Telephone 01 -6389331 Cables Valfon, London. Telex Telex. 886945 Electrodialytic de-ashing of cane juice for increased sugar production

The idealized ED modell assumes 110 that the feed is well mixed in the Food Ref. Sol. electrodialyser. In our study, since the o 10% (0.40% corbo ash) Reynolds numbers were estimated to be o 18% (0.74% carbo ash) of the order of only a few hundred, the 100 flows were apparently all laminar and thus the assumption regarding well­ mixing did not apply. Consequently, it is reasonable to assume that "concentrat­ ion polarization" (ash becomes depleted near the membrane swface so that ionization of water occurs1) started only 80 from the end where the ash concentration =---0-O----",-~~ o , was lowest. This caused the electric , current to be unevenly distributed along .,.)Limiting current density,,",,: the flow path, which, in tum, resulted in 701-~5------1~0~~-----1~5------~20~~-----2~5------~J~0 an SCR curve without a clear break CURRENT DENSITY (mA / tm2) point, as shown in Figure 5. The curve Fig. 4. Liming current density determination through change in specific cell-pair resistance for the de-ashed juice pH (also shown in Figure 5), however, yielded a distinct Results and discussion '00 break-point, allowing the LCD to be F,~.. d C...... A.h _ I . "S~ Juice pretreatment readily determined.

• . S ~ ...-- I Figure 6 illustrates that the It is to be noted that the SCR is an . presence of suspended solids increased averaged value over the entire flow path, .. . the pressure drop across the whereas the de-ashed juice pH is a local­ ~ " electrodialyser substantially, indicating ized meas urement which gives the pH of ~ .., I " the need for feed prescreening. As a the juice leaving the area where concent­ ~ result, we screened all syrup samples ration polarization begins. The pH ~ .., " prior to diluting them for ED runs, and method, therefore, is by nature a more ~ ,~;;~... i...... \ the electrodialyser was able to run •.. ~ .. sensitive method in determing LCD. S i j:';';:~ '''' several hours a day for several days LCD values determined by the two ..• .. without any serious increase in pressure methods are plotted in Figure 7. The . " " " .. .. drOD. levelling-off of the curve at high ash Fig. 5. Limiting current density '0 content was somewhat unexpected (an determination through change in de­ increasing LCD with increasing feed ash o No , ...... nin" ashed juice pH o , .• _u ••• n.d (J'lS.",.,hl content had been expected). We believe but not of as h. To detennine the removal - " of as h, the relationship of K+ or Cl­ 40 0 l .. b ...... y h," removal to as h removal needed to be • F..

established. For this purpose, tests were o • • ______~- conducted in which tap water was used as . the waste, and both juice and waste were totally recycled. Low current densities Z were used so that at the end of each run g. Q 10 - " (about 10 minutes allowed) the current density was still lower than the corres­ o~ z ponding LCD. Ash, K+, and Cl- in '0 ,. 30 ~ 10 IIEFIt AeTOMETER SOLIDS IN FEED (%) - initial and final juices were then analysed and relationships of interest established. Fig. 6. Effect of pre·screenin. of iuice feed Economic analysis: The internal 15 Limiting current density rate of return (IRR) metliod , also HID JUICE CAUONAH ASH (%) known as the after-tax rate of return on As mentioned earlier, for higher Fig. 7. Limiting current density as a juice concentrations, the SCR method function of ash in Juice (the plateau investment using the discounted cash portion is shown With broken line to flow method, was used to assess econo­ failed to yield tile LCD's. We consider refl ect the hi.h data scatterin.) mic feasibility of the ED juice de-ashing this to be due primarily to the low 15 Weslon & Brigham: "Managerial Finance", 7thedn., process. Reynolds numbers in the tests. Chap. 13, (Dryden Press. Hinsda1e.ll..), 1981. INT. SUGAR JNL., 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 189 Electrodialytic de-ashing of cane juice for increased sugar production

that this is related to the juice solids Coulomb efficiency and potassium and concentration, i.e., in the case of sugar chloride removal factors juice which contains ash as well as other When KCI solutions were used as soluble components, LCD is a function the feed and the operating current of not only ash but also solids concent­ densities were kept below the LCD, we ration. Unfortunately, the amount of data found the coulomb efficiencies to be available did not suffice to pursue a three­ very close to the theoretical value of 1.0. dimensional correlation. Thus, the coulomb loss of the ED Cell-pair resistance apparatus was negligible as long as the Figure 8 gives the values of SCR LCD was not exceeded. at various LCD levels obtained from When juices were tested, the PRF tests conducted in the laboratory. These and CRF averaged 0.60 and 0.94, data were useful in the economic anal­ respectively, (Fig. 9). Thus, Cl- in juice ysis for projecting energy requirements was removed much more effectively than for the process. For solids concentrations K+, possibly owing to the fact that Cl­ ./- higher than 25%, the SCR values were was the most mobile of all anions in predicted by extrapolating the curve in cane juice, whereas K+ was not the most FHO CAIiONAn ASH IEMOYAl (7.1 Fig. 8 and making the extrapolated curve mobile cation. The high CRF suggests Fig. 10. Preferential removal of symmetrical to a vertical axis at 30% that there was almost no removal of any potassium and ch loride over ash refractometer solids (an earlier study!! other anions until Cl- was nearly all possibly owing to the drastic changes in showed the curve for the specific resis t­ removed. pH in those areas as discussed earlier. ance of cane juice to be approximately During the factory tests, the symmetrical to an axis vertical to the x­ pressure drop across the 5-cell-pair axis at 30% refractometer solids). electrodialyser was about 40 psi (280 kPa) for 45% solids juice. As deposition 130 of suspended solids or precipitation occured, it increased, at times by 5 to 10

, 120 psi (30 to 70 kPa), in a run. For even , higher increases, we dismantled and

u cleaned the electrodialyser to remove z 110 . precipitates, deposits and slimes. On all a Po"... ;..... E occasions, full restoration to the original : performance was obtained. 5 10 15 20 Heavy juice stains formed fEED REFRACTOMHEIt SOUDS {7.1 6 90 u permanently on every membrane sheet, ~ covering the entire flow path. The ~ Fig. 9. Potassium .md chloride removal factors in the elcctrodialytlc membranes, however, appeared to be in juice de-ashing process good condition after a total of 700~--~--~'0~~1?5--~'~0--~~ Potassium and chloride removal vs. ash approximately 200 hours of operation. FEED JUICE REfRACTOMETER SOLIDS ('7.1 removal Following the conclusion of the testing Fig_ 8. Specific cell-pair resistance program, several membranes were sent for electrodialytic juice de-ashing Since Cl- was the most mobile to the supplier for examination; they It should be noted, however, that anion in the ash, the percentage removal were verified to have had no appreciable the SCR in ED is, in effect, a sum of of Cl- was much higher than that of chemical changes. several resistances: feed, waste, and two ash, as shown in Fig. 10. In fact, Cl- Economic analysis ion-exchange membrane sheets. Our and K+, the two most abundant ionic SCR data were obtained in the tests in species in cane juice, were both removed Table I shows examples of the IRR which juice from a common pool was faster than ash -- the removals were, values for the ED juice de-ashing process fed to both the juice and the waste respectively, 63% and 3% higher as at sugar and molasses returns of $356 compartments. In practice, it might be indicated by the slopes in Figure 10. and $35/ton, respectively. Hawaiian feasible to lower the cell-pair resistance Other observations sugar factories produce from 43,000 to by using a waste of high salt When the LCD was exceeded for an 160,000 tons (39,000 to 145,000 concentration, provided that the extended length of time, precipitates tonnes) sugar/year12 ; thus the process concentration is not so high as to cause formed, and the precipitation was heavier might be attractive to some of the larger precipitation. towards the outlets of the flow paths, local factories. 190 INT. SUGAR JNL. 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054

Cane sugar manufacture

Handling of low-grade starch from cane juice was studied. entrance to the mixer or reheater, while massecuites Analysis of the starch removed showed desirable, is not practicable. that it had a particle size of 1 - 6 11m and K. N. Shukla, M. R. Jamkhandikar, A. a gelatinization temperature in the range Ash in pan stage products R. Bhide and B.R. Math. Maharashtra 65 - 80°C. It was susceptible to the Sugar, 1985, 10, (4), 9, 11 , 13, 15-16. J. N. Ness. BSES Bull., 1985, (12), 6- action of both bacteria and yeast Ct­ 7. Aspects of low-grade massecuite amylase. When bacterial amylases were treatment discussed include the boiling used at 80 - 9Q°C, oligosaccharides were The author briefly explains how some process, viscosity and its effect on formed having a degree of polymeriz­ 12% of the as h in syrup enters sugar in crystallization, cooling in continuous ation of 1 - 7. With yeast amylases, boiling and makes up almost half of the vertical crystallizers and the use of hydrolysis took place at 50 -55°C with sugar impurities. The major ash continuous centrifugals, with their the formation, mainly, of maltose and constituents in syrup, sugar and final attendant advantages. small quantities of glucose and mal to­ molasses are shown by diagrams and triose. then subdivided into cations and anions Prospects and possibilities of to indicate the major components in each membrane separation Massecuite reheating group in the three products. De-ashing to processes in the Indian sugar practices remove K+ and Ca++ is mentioned as industry well as the relative importance of Cl­ S. J . Clarke and L. Serebrinsky. Sugar and S04--' S. S. Mahajan. Maharashtra Sugar, Bull., 1985, 64, (6), 8, 15. 1985,10, (4), 29, 31, 33. The importance of the molasses BSES tests prove molasses Possible applications of reverse osmosis saturation factor in regard to low-grade cooler design and ultrafiltration to juice concentration massecuite reheating is discussed. Anon. BSES Bull., 1985, (12),18 - 19. and alcohol separation from impurities Normally, the molasses is supersaturated in place of distillation are discussed. and the massecuite can be reheated to the Problems in the use of shell-and-tube saturation temperature or slightly above heat exchangers for molasses cooling are Pallet net solves sugar it without fear of crystal dissolution; but discussed, and the application of a plate stacking problems if the molasses is only just heat exchanger reponed in which the supersaturated on discharge from the overall heat transfer coefficient varied Anon. S. African Sugar J., 1985,69, crystallizers, reheating will cause under­ from 25 to 90 W/mW C depending on 397. saturation and risk of dissolution. molasses flow in the range 72 - 360 At Mount Edgecombe factory, brown However, experience has suggested that kg/hr. The 26 plates of the unit were sugar in 25-kg bags has to be stored in a an appreciable degree of under-saturation arranged to all ow a single molasses pass warehouse since the factory only is acceptable without significant from bottom to top in 13 parallel paths, operates for 6 - 8 months in the year. redissolving providing reheating is rapid with a 12-pass cooling water path. Under Handling of the bags has been made less and carried out immediately before Australian regulations, molasses labour-intensive with a reduction in spinning. The massecuite retention time (normally leaving the centrifugals at 60 - damage by stacking on pallets and in the mixer or reheater at elevated 65°C) must be cooled to 38°C before enclosing the stacks in pallet net; a fork­ temperatures can greatly affect purity rise bulk storage or shipment. lift truck can pile to a height of five in the final molasses, and experience stacks. The use of pallet net has also with the Stevens coil is mentioned; the The water balance in sugar proved effective with 12.5 -kg plastic high ratio of massecuite volume to mills packs of brown sugar which caused heating surface necessitates good mixing M. Cheng and C. Y. Chiang. Taiwan unstable loading because of their for regular temperature control, so that Sugar, 1985, 32, (5), 9- 16. slippery surfaces. the dissolution rate is much greater if the temperature is too high, while the heat Because of increased demands for water Enzymatic removal of starch from the water may be sufficient to in industry generall y, and because of the from sugar cane juice during cause local dissolution where the problem of water pollution caused by sugar cane processing massecuite is in contact with the coils. industrial effluent, there is need for more Although consistent pan operation rational utilization of water in Taiwan Y. K. Park, I. S. H. Martens and H. H. should give a stable massecuite and sugar factories, and the authors show Sato. Process Biochem., 1985, 20, (2), molasses Brix and hence a fairly constant how to obtain the best results by 57 - 59; through Ref Zhurn. AN SSSR saturation temperature, this temperature making maximum use of vapour (Khim.), 1985, (23), Abs. 23 R557. must still be determined, although bleeding and of condensate as well as of The possibility of enzymatic removal of continuous monitoring of it at the recycled water. 100A INT. SUGARJNL., 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 Cane sugar manufaclwe

Quantitative studies on the fines raised molasses purity by 0.3 application rates than used in the earlier phenolics development in units and reduced sugar purity by 7.7. tests), but extending treatment beyond Egyptian raw sugar units, while the corresponding values this brought no further benefit. To manufacture with moderate amounts of fines were 0.2 minimize corrosion, the temperature at and 2.5 units, respectively. Loss of fines which the sulphamic acid is sprayed A. Abou EI-Ela and A. Abou Doh. through the centrifugal screen caused a should be no higher than 80°C; however, Taiwan Sugar, 1985, 32, (5), 23 - 26. 1.34 units rise in molasses purity, while no information has yet been obtained on In analysis of samples from the the effect of drop in drainage rate corrosion by the NaOH and acid because individual process stations at Kom depended on the amount of extra of the limited time during which the Ombo factory it was found that there centrifugal capacity available. procedure has been used. Mention is was little difference between diffusion made of occasional excessive frothing and mill juices in terms of the total Studies on ion exchange during the NaOH treatment, but in all phenolics content (TPC) and that the resins for cane syrup such cases stale removal was greatest concentration of TPC (the decolorization exceptionally good. It is considered necessary to screen the cleaning average of nine determinations) occurred W. F. Lin. Rpt. Taiwan Sugar Research solutions so as to remove scale; while in mixed juice (18,611 ppm on Brix). Inst., 1985, (108), 35 - 43 (Chinese). White sugar contained 200 ppm TPC most of it in the the solutions (which and raw (B-) sugar 320 ppm, while final Results of laboratory studies on cane could easily amount to 15%, it is molasses contained 17,322 ppm. Hence syrup decolorization using strongly basic thought) is removed by flushing after processing failed to remove more than anion exchange resins showed that treatment, the scale is in circulation 35% of the TPc. The order of TPC colour removal bore no direct during spraying and can cause blockage removal efficiencies of clarification relationship with the initial colour of the of tubes and pipes. The economics of the processes was: sulpho-phosphatation > syrup but was closely related to the cleaning technique are discussed; sulphitation > phosphatation. types and characteristics of the colorants although these still favour mechanical and their precursors. A styrene resin was cleaning, it is considered possible to Improvements in exhaustion effective in treating a syrup which was reduce them by optimization, and the of final molasses still of high colour content after general dislike of mechanical cleaning by treatment with acrylic resin, and the workers is regarded as an important M. Saska. Sugar Bull., 1985,64, (4), colour content could be reduced from 50 - factor in favour of chemical cleaning. II. 180 units to < 20 units with an acrylic­ styrene resin system. The colour of Use of ultrasound in pan Fine grain (10 - 30 J.!m) often occurs in micro-crystal refined sugar was control Louisiana C-sugar, and poor massecuite significantly correlated with that of the preheating and spinning may cancel out decolorized syrup from which it was O. Llompart, R. Consuegra and C. the effect of good crystallization, e.g. obtained. Iron caused some of the colour Salabarria. Control Cibernetica y through melting of fines, increased in the sugar, which is why stainless Automatizacion, 1982,16, (1),22 - 25; molasses adhesion to fines, loss of fines steel equipment is recommended. through SJA., 1986,48, Abs. 86- through the centrifugal screen, and 170. reduction in the rate of molasses drainage Plant trials on chemical Limitations of existing methods of as a result of plugging of the passages cleaning of evaporator heat­ measuring supersaturation and crystal with fines. The effects were quantified by ing surfaces at Umfolozi mill content are noted and a method avoiding assuming the specific surface area (SSA) J., them is proposed. It was found that, for of the crystals (cm2/g) to be 5.5L where M. A. Getaz. S. African Sugar 1985, 69,432,434 - 435. magmas made with a given liquor, the L = crystal size (cm), and assuming that: readings of an ultrasonic viscometer were the SSA of C-sugar is the sum of the After successful trials at the SMRI, a areas of the individual crystals, the full-scale two-stage evaporator cleaning independent of crystal content (0 - 40% dissolution rate of the crystals is process was introduced at U mfolozi tested), i.e. the viscosity V L of mother proportional to their SSA, the thickness which involves spraying a 25 - 30% w/v liquor rather than VM of the massecuite of the molasses layer adhering to the NaOH solution at 100 - 105°C over the was being measured. The crystal content crystals is independent of crystal size, tubes followed by a 2% w/v sulphamic R (as a fraction, on massecuite) can be acid solution at 70°C. While the pilot and the total amount of adhering computed from R = In (VMIVtJ/2.84. A plant trials had shown that a 3-hour molasses is proportional to the SSA. spraying period was sufficient, the full­ material balance is developed for Calculations showed that, by compar­ scale factory trials indicated the need for calculating supersaturation directly from ison with ~ massecuite containing no 4 hours (possibly because of less R, footing parameters, liquor parameters fines, the presence of large quantities of effective spray coverage and lower and total weight of massecuite.

INT. SUGAR JNL. , 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 101A Beet sugar manufacture

Determination of the Plant for unloading A circuit diagram is given of the title consumption of antifoam acetomonoglycerides from a control device. agent for the diffusion container, preparing an process emulsion and feeding it to Residence time of beet vacuum pans pieces in the beet washer N. V. Kulinich, V. G. Yarmilko, B. N. W. Uhlenbrock. Zuckerind., 1985, 110, Valovoi and V. V. Artemenko. Sakhar. Yu. D. Golovnyak, L. G. Belostotskii, 1072 - 1073 (German). Prom., 1985, (12), 18 - 20 (Russian). Ya. G. Ropotenko, A. I. Kovalenko and Investigations showed that it is unwise A. Ya. Ropotenko. Sakhar. Prom., Determination of the residence time to follow official recommendations on 1985, (12), 27 - 28 (Russian). distribution of beet fragments in the the amount of antifoam agent to add to Details are given of a system for washer is used as an example to diffusion juice, as the quantity will handling and processing fatty acid demonstrate the advantage of red beet depend on juice quality as well as acetomonoglycerides to be used as over stained sugar beet as an indicator. temperature, so that only by conducting surfactants in boiling. laboratory tests on the spot will the Measurements of crystal sizes optimum be found. Comparison between A device for controlling raw in white sugar massecuites a Dow Coming product, Briox SG-17 juice dilution using the Carl Zeiss Ober­ (from British Petroleum) (both at kochen Mikro-Videomat-2 Z. S. Voloshin, I. B. Margulis, V. A. 0.005% on juice) and soap stock at Nikolaenko and N. A. Rudchenko. M. Schneider and H. Schiweck. 0.01 % on juice confirmed the fall in Sakhar. Prom., 1985, (12), 28 - 30 Zuckerind., 1985, 110, 1074 - 1080 performance with reduced temperature, (Russian). (German). although the Dow Coming product was sti ll by far the most effective. In factory A twin-float density meter system is Details are given of the three methods trials, it gave best results at 0.008% on described which is designed to monitor mainly used to determine crystal size juice at a juice purity of 83.9 and a juice Brix before evaporation so as to distribution: sieve analysis, electrolytic temperature of 70°C. determine changes in the value during analysis using e.g. a Coulter counter, carbonatation and filtration, when and optico-electronic determination; Iheir Effect of processing factors dilution occurs as a result of milk-of­ chief advantages and disadvantages are on crystal conglomeration lime addition and sweetening-off. noted. A description is given of the during massecuite boiling Mikro- Videomat-2 with which a micro­ The aerodynamic resistance or macroscopic image of the sample is N. I. Shtangeeva. Sakhar. Prom., 1985, of muddy sugar beet projected onto a monitor screen wilh the (12),22 - 24 (Russian). V. A. Knyazev . Sakhar. Prom., 1985, aid of a television camera; the original The effects on conglomeration of (12), 32 - 36 (Russian). picture is scanned for light intensities supersaturation at nucleation; of and converted into a bright-field/dark massecuite temperature, of the length of The extent to which muddy beet reduce ground picture on a grid containing the boiling cycle, of surfactants, and of air flow in forced ventilation of storage 480,000 points, thus permitting massecuite purity and crystal size piles has been investigated, and determination of the total number of fractions were investigated, from which recommendations are given on the use of points per crystal (measurement of it was concluded that optimum was a axial fans under such conditions. surface area) or per crystal chord supersatu ration of 1.15 - 1.20 at (measurement of length). Merits of Ihe nucleation, a temperature of 65 - 80°C An arrangement for system are indicated, and information is and use of a surfactant at 0.01 % on mechanical cleaning of disc given on the procedure used for sample massecuite. filter frames preparation and on use of the equipment, M. Ya. Drai and I. I. Gametskii. Sakhar. together with results obtained. Results of factory operation of Prom., 1985, (12), 36 - 37 (Russian). a R3-PPZh-6 hydropneumatic Energy saving with speed­ beet lift An electric rotary brush system for controlled A.C. drives in the cleaning filter frames is described. sugar industry V. G. Yarmilko. Sakhar. Prom., 1985, (12),24 - 27 (Russian). A double time switch for 1. Merkl. Zuckerind. , 1985, 110, 1082- control of the beet level in a 1089 (German). Details are given of the performance of an experimental beet lift capable of hopper Advantages of speed-adjustable A.C. raising 7500 tonnes of beet per hour to a G. M. Nikitin. Sakhar. Prom., 1985, motors, particularly as drives for pumps height of 28 metres. (12), 38 (Russian). and fans, are briefly noted, especially 102A INT. SUGAR JNL.. 1986. VOL. 88, NO. 1054 Beet sugar manufacture

their energy-saving potential by Details are given of the layout and content of iron ions (which playa major comparison with conventional drives. operation of the DDS 74-II conductivity­ role in colour formation) by 29% and The use of frequency for speed control is based pan automation system as installed colloids by approximately 25%. explained, with descriptions of types of at Szolnok for the six A-pans and one Viscosity fell by 8 - 10% and the convertor and their properties, and a low-grade seed pan; the 74-1, which is crystallization rate rose by 9 - II %. guide is given to determination of the very similar but simpler, was installed Although treatment had practically no desirable load characteristics of a drive. for the four B-pans and five C-pans. effect on molasses yield (because of the Installation and running costs are Boiling house performance was evaluated quantity of non-sugars removed), there discussed, and the potential energy over two years when some pans were was a probable 0.04 - 0.06% (on beet) reduction with static frequency still being operated manUally. Once reduction in the melt sugar content, convertors indicated in the case of a certain teething troubles had been representing an approx. 2% fall in centrifugal pump drive. Examples of overcome, the automatic system molasses sugar. Details are given of the frequency convertor application in the permitted a reduction in the A-masse­ distribution of large and small M.w. sugar factory are described, and means of cuite boiling cycle from an average of fractions in thick juice, A and B raw and cbntrolling the output of fans is 4.93 to 4.16 hours and a decrease in wash syrups, C-sugar and molasses. discussed. energy consumption, while the mean grain size was comparable to the average Sugar factory changes in the A new, efficient condensate for the Hungarian industry, with much latter hall of the century extractor in the East German less dust than previously. Although P. Wertan. Cukoripar, 1985, 38, 147 - sugar industry automation had been considered almost 150 (Hungarian). unnecessary for the intermediate strikes l. Friedemann. Zuckerind., 1985, 110, because of the ease of manual boiling, it The author surveys the changes that have 1094 - 1095 (German). did ach ieve the main target of reducing come about in factory processes and See I.SJ. , 1986, 88, 92A. labour requirements; pan feeding was equipment to permit increased beet almost self-regulatory provided the slicing while reducing both water and Chemical and microbiological conductivity was maintained at the fuel consumption and at the same time stability of sugar syrups sub­ recommended level. In other respects, the providing for environmental protection. jected to prolonged storage merits of the system were the same as with A-massecuite boiling. The Lime consumption in raw juice G. Vaccari, G. Sgualdino, G. conductivity of the syrup used as footing purification Mantovani, D. Matteuzzi and W. for C-massecuite was so stable with Scheda. Ind. Sacco Ital., 1985, 78, 152- K. P. Zakharov, V. Z. Semenenko, P. changes in beet quality (unlike the 161 (Italian). P. Zagorodnii and R. G. Zhizhina. effects on the raw juice) that it was rare Sakhar. Prom., 1986, (1), 16 - 19 Storage of thick juice, of mixtures of to need to make any changes in the (Russian). syrups and of green syrup in 50-litre control value. Seed preparation from A­ containers and indu strial tanks was massecuite green syrup was good. The In a study of the effect of lime dosage (in studied under the climatic conditions only mechanical failure in the automatic the range 10 - 220% on raw juice non­ encountered in Italy. Results showed that system was rupture of the rubber sugars) on juice properties and low-purity syrups had good storage diaphragm valve, while an apparent fault carbonatation mud zeta-potential, properties, but all syrups showed a also occurred if the pan was not properly addition of up to 85% CaO caused significant increase in colour. Disin­ steamed out after dropping of the adsorption of negatively charged, finely fection proved unnecessary provided the massecuite, since this led to sugar dispersed colloids on the positively syrups were cooled before storage. Some deposition on the bottom electrode with charged carbonate particles, which thus problems occurred in thick juice storage, distortion of the conductivity acquired a negative charge; there was particularly in the south of Italy, and measurement in the subsequent strike. linearity in changes in the colloid results were distorted by a precipitation content and in improved filtration and of non-sugars on the bottom of the tanks Sugar end purification settling properties with increased lime which caused an apparent increase in pol dosage. With lime rates above 85%, the and purity. K. Bara. Cu/wripar, 1985,38,76 - 78, mud particles regained their positive 145 - 147 (Hungarian). charge, but there was no further DDS vacuum pan automation Experimental carbonatation of a C-sugar improvement in filtration, although at Szolnok sugar factory melt of 60 - 65° maximum Brix with 3 - juice quality continued to improve, e.g. G. Malatinszky and O. Krieger. 4% lime on Brix reduced the lime salts through further separation of colouring Cukoripar, 1985, 38, 129 - 136 content by 20 - 40%, invert sugar by an matter which had both negative and (Hungarian). average of 44%, amino-N by 26%, the positive charges (so that colorant

INT. SUGAR JNL.. 1986. VOL. 88, NO. 1054 103A Beet sugar manufactun

adsorption took place at below and above 1986, (1), 26 - 28 (Russian). performance at Meleuz, including 85% lime). The experimental results are optimum handling of low-purity (84 - Investigations of A-massecuite raw defined by a number of mathematical syrup carbonatation are reported and 85) syrup from beets stored from equations. trials of a system developed on th'! basis February to April. Problems created by of the findings discussed. The syrup was melting low-quality affined sugar were Phase residence time in OS diluted to 72 - 74°Bx, heated to 85 - overcome by treating the melt with 2nd (DDS) inclined, twin-scroll 9Q°C and an average of 2.7% CaO (by carbonatation mud, which reduced colour diffusers volume) added. After 30 minutes by 12 - 30% (depending on the quantity E. V. Minenko et al. Sakhar. Prom., retention in the liming tanks, the syrup involved) and raised its pH by 0.7 - 1.0 1986 (1), 20 - 23 (Russian). was gassed with CO2 to pH20 8.2 - 8.9 units and purity by 0.4 - 0.5%. Boiling (at which no saccharates were formed A-massecuite on a crystal footing also Investigations of the residence times of between sugar and CaC0 ), reheated to provided a rise in purity when the syrup the liquid and solid phases in DDS 3 80 - 9Q°C and split into two portions, purity was below 83. diffusers of 1400, 2000, 3000 and 4200 one of which was filtered and the other tonnes daily throughput involved pieces (after addition of an anti-foam agent) Experience in the use of VDF of carrot and aluminium sulphate as recycled for further gassing. Results disc water separators indicators. Gravimetric analysis and showed a 11.2% purification efficiency, polarographic measurements of samples V. D. Petrunyak and N. D. Khomenko. 14.7% decolorization and 33.8% taken at points along the diffusers Sakhar. Prom., 1986, (1), 33 - 34 reduction in lime salts; there was no revealed peaks of concentration and a (Russian) . need for supplementary evaporation rather sizeable tail for both phases, because of a syrup Brix of 60 - 63° after Inefficient and unreliable operation of demonstrating the occurrence of both carbonatation and filtration. disc separators for removal of flume ideal displacement (countercurrent water and light impurities from beet at diffusion) and negative conditions Technological reserves of some factories has been attributed to (bypass flow for the extractant and a dead tower diffusers and their defective installation, poor adjustment zone for the cossettes). With increase in utilization and inadequate maintenance. Advice is diffuser size, the proportion of dead given on achieving maximum results . zones increased, while the bypass G. K. Gorskii, A. G. Babak and N. S. streams decreased, resulting in greater Karpovich. Sakhar. Prom., 1986, (I), 28 - A new balanced protective residence times for both phases. 30 (Russian). system for S, DDS and OS Empirical equations are presented for The design and operation of KDA tower diffusers calculation of the residence times for diffusers do not allow creation of the both phases. E. A. Tyutyunnikov and A. M. right temperature conditions for a Tyutyunnikova. Sakhar. Prom., 1986, maximum sugar yield. However, Optimization of A-massecuite (I), 35 - 37 (Russian). installation of a supplementary boiling using a computer circulation system to reheat the cossettes­ Flaws in the balanced protective system M. A. Karagodin, V. I. Tuzhilkin, A. R. juice mixture in a KDA-15 model, in the for the electrical drives and components Sapronov and A. I. Sorokin. Sakhar. middle section of which the temperature of diffusers, particularly DDS types, are Prom, 1986, (1), 23 - 26 (Russian). was raised to 67°C (compared with 65°C discussed and details given of a simple without supplementary heating) and to mechanical system with electrical Regression analysis of data obtained by higher levels at points further up the blocking which has proved reliable in mathematical modelling of A-massecuite diffuser, reduced losses to 0.155% use on scroll drives at various factories. boiling demonstrated the marked effect (compared with 0.294% without the new on the length of the cycle of feed syrup system). Sugar yield rose by 0.94 units Air permeability of protective purity and massecuite crystal content. with a beet pol rise of 0.55 units . structures for beet piles Sets of input and output data, where the V. A. Knyazev. Sakhar. Prom., 1986, massecuite Brix, crystal content and Experience at Meleuz sugar (1), 41 - 44 (Russian). supersaturation were constant, are factory in processing syrups discussed, showing how specific from beets stored for a While protective matting, screen or parameters can be adjusted to provide prolonged period panels are intended to shut out currents optimum conditions. of warm air from the stored beet, they A. A. Slavyanskii et al. Sakhar. Prom., must also be sufficiently permeable to 1986, (I), 30 - 33 (Russian) . Carbonatation of A­ air to allow adequate ventilation. The massecuite raw syrup An account is given of work, started in subject is discussed mathematically and P. P. Zagorodnii et al. Sakhar. Prom., 1973174, on improving boiling house on the basis of experience. 104A INT SUGAR JNL. . 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 Laboratory studies

Ap plication of HPLC in the determine the lead content in at NS:W values of 0 and 0.6, whereas Au stralian raw sugar industry sugar. I at 0.9 there was a 2nd order decrease in the growth rate (for which the Burton- A. Prugarova and M. Kovac. Bull. P. C . Ivin. Sugar y Azucar, 1985,80, Cabrera-Frank equation is valid); at Po/ravin. Vysli., 1985,24, (1), 11 - 17; (10 ),21,24,26,29,4!. NS:W = 1.1 the fall in growth rate was through Ref Zhurn. AN SSSR (Khim.), of a much higher order, indicating an Asurvey is presented of the use of 1985, (22), Abs. 22 R483. HP LC in Australia, with a description of exponential decrease, for which the Kossel-Stranskii two-dimensional the system used for sucrose analysis at Application of differential pulse polaro- nucleation equation is valid. Increase in Pie ystowel . It is mentioned, however, graphy using a dissolving voltameter to non-sugars concentration had no effect tha t polarimetry remains the main determine the Pb content in white sugar on transport, as demonstrated by tec hnique for sugar measurement. Details " was investigated. It was found that the crystallization at higher agitator speeds. are given of an automatic scheme method is of high accuracy and requITes The findings are also applicable to cane inv olving a Waters modular system less time than other polarographic syrups, as shown by the data of wh ich proved excellent as a means of methods. The Pb content could be Smythe3• The progressive fall in growth de termining sucrose in various process determined in white sugar samples from rate noted was apparently not caused by materials throughout the 1984 season at a number of factories and was found to change in the mechanism of kink the Victoria mill of CSR Ltd. Future be lower than the appropriate norm. pr ospects for HPLC are discussed. The integration from a spiral growth system to two-dimensional nucleation. fa ilure of HPLC to resolve mono- Investigation of devices for sa ccharides effectively is mentioned, but obtaining beet brei in lines for Behaviour of non-sugars it is stressed that there is usually determining beet sugar during raw juice purification. II su fficient resolution to indicate the content ap proximate glucose:fructose ratio and A. Stechova, F. Frantisek, J. Copikova V. N. Mardal', A. A. Lyashenko and he nce the degree of sucrose degradation and P. Kadlec. Listy Cukr., 1985, 101, A. L. Shoikhet. Sakhar. Prom., 1985, dur ing boiling. 278 - 284 (Czech). (12), 30 - 32 (Russian). Liquid and gas-liquid chromatography uses of HPLC at U.S. Sugar The comparative performance of saw and isotachophoresis were applied to C orporation devices for preparation of beet brei are determination of organic acids in model discussed. Where an ultra-fine brei was R. P. DeStefano. Sugar y.Azucar, 1985, samples prepared from raw juice and in prepared, it took only 60 seconds for the 8 0, (10), 4!. raw, prelimed, limed, 1st carbonatation sugar to dissolve during digestion; this and thin juices from three sugar T he use of HPLC to measure sucrose, compared with 80 sec for a fine brei and factories. The procedures used with each glu cose and fructose in molasses and to 150 sec for a coarse preparation. method are described, and results are determi ne "false pol" (caused by the Pressing of the ultra-fine and fine brei tabulated for a total of 14 acids in the Presence of optically-active components gave a compact mass from which a case of GLC, a maximum of 12 found uch as dextran, fructose and glucose) in sample could easily be taken, as opposed by liquid chromatography and for a total Cane j uice2 is described, and mention to the coarse brei. m ade of its application 'to e.g. monitor- of 17 found by isotachophoresis. The values obtained by the chromatographic i ng of the quality of juice held in Sucrose crystallization at low methods were in very close agreement, c larifiers during shutdowns and supersaturation in impure with GLC giving slightly higher de termination of inversion losses in beet syrups and pure concentrations, but the methods had the c larification. Future developments solutions nclude the use of HPLC for automatic disadvantages of requiring time- c ane juice analysis for payment V. Maurandi, G. Mantovani and G. consuming pre-isolation of the acids and p urposes. Vaccari. Zuckerind., 1985, 110, 1096- the possibility of error even with careful 110!. sample preparation; the isolation Determination of dextran in Sucrose crystallization kinetics were technique used restricted determination to raw sugar studied at 15°C (at which diffusion has the non-volatile acids. Isotachophoresis no significant effect on crystal growth), has the advantages of being less time- D. F. Day and D. Sarkar. Sugar 1., non-sugars:water (NS:W) ratios of 0, 1985, 48, (5), 8 - 9. consuming, involving only simple 0.6, 0.9 and 1.1, and an agitator speed of preparation of samples and required no See I.SJ., 1985,87, 123 - 126. 10 rpm. The ultimate weight of the prior removal of sucrose or other single crystals was approx. 100 g. I Ivindal.: I.SJ., 1983, 85, 348. Use of a differential pulse Linearity in the growth rate/super- 2 ibid. , 198S,17, 131A. dissolving voltameter to saturation relationship was found 3 AuslT"liallJ.CMm., 1967,20,1084. INT. SUGARJNL.. 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 105A Laboratory studies

interfering components; it was possible ment of the sugar moiety, including dinitrosalicylic acid reagent to determine both volatile and non­ ionization, mutarotation, enolization and A. D. Sawant, H. P. Vanza and S. J. volatile acids by this method, which in isomerization, and (2) irreversible Jadhav. Maharashtra Sugar, 1985, 10, many cases gave much higher values alkaline degradation reactions involving (8), 23, 25 - 26, 29. than the chromatographic methods. the rupturing and formation of C-{) and C- C bonds and resulting in three Results obtained using dinitrosalicylic On the statistical mechanics groups of products: (I) carboxylic acids acid and spectrophotometry at 540 nm to of crystal growth of low M.W., e.g. lactic, saccharinic, determine reducing sugars in cane formic and acetic acid, into which most molasses and juice2 (to which known V. Maurandi. Ind. Sacco Ital., 1985, 78, of the monosaccharides are converted and quantities of glucose were added) are 147 - 151 (Italian, English). which have the same number of (or discussed with the aid of tabulated data. Burton, Cabrera & Frank showed! by fewer) carbon atoms as the sugars, (ii) statistical analysis that a critical carboxylic acids having more than six High-performance liquid temperature exists below which crystal carbon atoms, a M.W. in the range 300- chromatographic separation of faces are fl at because of the free energy 5000 and containing conjugated enol glucose 1-phosphate, requirement to build a step; on the other carbonyl moieties and carboxylate fructose, sucrose and hand, where the temperature exceeds this groups, and (iii) miscellaneous neutral inorganic or.thophosphate critical value, the energy requirement products formed in trace quantities. The R. M. Stikkelman, T. T. Tjioe, J. P. fal ls to zero and a roughening transition effects of various reaction parameters on van der Wiel and F. van Rantwijk. J. occurs whereby most of the surface degradation are discussed, including integration is random. The use of variation in the hydroxyl ion Chromatogr., 1985,322, (I), 220- su itable models of the mechanics of the concentration (w hich substantially alters 222; through Anal. Abs., 1986, 48, changes taking place at the solid-fluid the composition and relative quantities Abs . 2CI!. interface has permitted expansion of the of the carboxylic acids) and valency of In the course of studies on the enzymic work of Burton et al. on the spiral the cations involved (divalent cations phosphorylysis of sucrose, a method was growth of crystals. The results and views such as Ca++ and Ba++ favouring lactic developed for separation of the cited of a number of authors are reviewed, and acid formation in contrast to monovalent compounds, which involved HPLC on a mathematical expressions presented cations like Na+ and K+). which define the transition from flat to column (20 cm x 9 mrn) of Aminex A-7 resin. To avoid corrosion of the stainless rough faces. The value of solid-on-solid Adaptation of a method for steel column, aq ueous trifluoroacetic acid models and the application of Monte determining the formalin (O.06M) was used as the mobile phase Carlo type computer simulations to content in sugar factory (0.3 mVmin) in preference to H S0 them, as in the case of an Ising model of products 2 4 (0.03M); there was no hydrolysis of a Kossel crystal (without dislocations) glucose I-phosphate. The compounds, B. Gawrych and S. Rydel. Gaz. Cukr., and of a Frank crystal (having a screw monitored by refractive index detection, dislocation), are discussed. 1985,93, 149 - 151 (Polish). were well separated, and clearly defined peaks were obtained. Hardness of sucrose crystals A method is described for determination ; of formaldehyde, in which the sample Determination of reducing 1. Gebler and 1. Bauer. Sugar Tech. (20 g fresh pulp, 2.5 g dried pulp, 5 g Rev., 1986, 13, I - 20. sugars in the nanomole range molasses or 25 g white sugar) is with tetrazolium blue See I.SJ., 1985, 87, 74A. dissolved in 50 cm3 distilled water, the pH adjusted to 3 with 10% sulphuric C. K. Jue and P. N. Lipke. 1. Biochem. Reactions of acid, and steam distillation then carried Biophys. Methods, 1985, 11, (213), monosaccharides in aqueous out; 10 cm3 of the distillate is heated for 109 - 115; through Anal. Abs., 1986, alkaline solutions 3 min on a water bath with 2 cm3 acetyl 48, Abs. 2D132. acetone reagent. After cooling, the J. M. de Bruij n, A. P. G. Kieboom and The addition of potassium sodium contents are made up to 15 cm3 and the H. van Bekkum. Sugar Tech Rev., tartrate to a basic solution of tetrazolium absorbance measured at 412 nm; the 1986, 13, 21 - 52. blue enhanced the sensitivity and reading is compared with a calibration decreased the reaction time required for A survey is presented of the literature curve. Tabulated values are given for the the determination of reducing sugars. (with 119 references) on monosaccharide different products. The detection limit was I nmole for reactions in aqueous alkaline solutions. neutral sugars and 2-amino- and The reactions are divided into two Spectrophotometric assay of acetamido-sugars. reducing sugars in molasses categories: (I) initial reversible trans­ 1 Phil. T,(JII,f. Royal Soc. (London), 1951 , A143, 299. formations without skeletal rearrange- and sugar cane juice by 3,5- 2 Miller. AnalChem., 1959,31, 426. 106A INT. SUGAR JNL. . 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 By-products

Increase in ethanol rather than progressively as in current strain S. cereyisiae ATCC 26603 and a productivity in alcoholic processes, while maintenance of a system of multiple batch fermentation of fermentation of sugar factory constant amount of biomass depends on the substrate in one and the same fermenter; glucose, sucrose and cane products (molasses and raw a low level of oxygenation during juice were used as substrate. Mixing the syrups) fermentation. Means of maintaining sterile conditions include making use of seed yeast with wort of 15% sugar M. Nonus and M. de Miniac. Ind. Alim. the heat from the recycled vinasse (which concentration and 5% (of saturation) dissolved oxygen content until a yeast Agric., 1985, 102, 971 - 985 (French). has a temperature of 100°C) that is added concentration of 20 - 30 gllitre was The stages in the conventional molasses to the must, maintenance of tanks for followed by settling of the yeast, alcohol fermentation process with and storage of supply water and additives at decanting of the liquid phase and without yeast recycling are described and pH 1, very rapid dilution of the must to introduction of fresh substrate, which give a temperature of about 70°C, etc. the Alfa-Laval Biostil process outlined. was fermented without addition of further Comparison of the performances of the seed yeast and without oxygenation. Utilization of products from three processes demonstrates the benefits Under these conditions, 99% sugar of yeast recycling in regard to sugar cane in Hawaii and conversion was achieved with formation fermentation of products of high non­ investigation of alternative of 9 - 10% alcohol during 4 hours at a sugar dry solids content. Tests on yeast uses rate of 0.44 gig sugar and a settling rate recycling showed that, for the same H. W. Hilton and C. M. Hoskins. after cessation of mixing of 2 - 4 must, the quantity of yeast may be Hawaiian Planters' Record, 1985, 59, cmlmin. Acceleration of the mixing rate increased without sacrificing ethanol 315 - 368. reduced the size of the yeast floc and production; the essential need is for increased fermenter capacity, while maintenance of the biomass quantity, A survey is presented of the literature reduction in the dissolved oxygen which is governed by the rate of (394 references) on cane by-products concentration accelerated alcohol mortality of the yeast cells and rate of utilization and its research in Hawaii formation with negligible fall in yield. their development. Beyond the 4th from 1916, covering (i) molasses, fermentation cycle, the biomass and including fermentation products (alcohol, The tasks regarding ethanol productivity remain constant, the dead yeast, citric and lactic acids, acetone and production in East Germany cells acting as nutrient for the growth of glycerine, and penicillin), recovery of new cells. It was found that there is no levulinic and aconitic acids, and other B. Kretschmer. Lebensmillelind., 1985, 32,245 - 247 (German). need for pre-washing or acid treatment of early uses for molasses; (ii) bagasse, yeast; at the sake of permitting a small including paper, board and dissolving The potential for alcohol production by degree of bacterial contamination, pulp manufacture; xylan, xylose, xylitol fermentation in East Germany, the elimination of pre-washing is of and furfural; lignin; activated carbon problems involved and the major fields considerable technological benefit, not preparation; microbial degradation of of application of the product are least because of removal of the problems bagasse or leaf trash; and miscellaneous discussed. Sugar beets are among the created by recycling the water separated bagasse products; (iii) cane wax, fats and various raw materials discussed as sterols; and (iv) industrial utilization of from the yeast after it has been substrate. centrifuged for a secoMl time. A sugar. laboratory-scale continuous fermenter is Technology for producing described and results obtained with it Enhanced ethanol production alcohol through fermentation discussed. Continuous yeast recycling in multiple batch fermentation raised the molasses fermentation with an auto-flocculating yeast A. C. Sturion. GEPLACEA Bull., productivity to more than 13g1litrelhr by strain 1985, 2, (07), 18 pp. the 5th fermentation stage, after which it N. Hawgood, S. Evans and P. F. The basic stages in alcohol fermentation remained constant until the 13th and Greenfield. Biomass, 1985, 7, (4), 261 - and distillation are outlined, with an final stage; this compares with 3 - 6 278; through Ref Zhurn. AN SSSR indication of factors that are of major gliitrelhr in classical processes and (Khim.), 1985, (22), Abs. 22 R397. importance (particularly sterilization), provided 66.4 gliitre of ethanol within 5 and descriptions with diagrams of a hours. By using a selected strain of Recent data on intensification of number of processes. Vinasse treatment yeast, it would be possible to achieve fermentation by increasing the yeast and by-products that may be obtained this rate within 24 hours on a substrate concentration are reviewed. The effect of from it are discussed. of 20% non-sugar dry matter content mixing rate and concentration of (40% purity). An essential feature of the dissolved oxygen on the rate of alcohol Energy balance of ferment­ process is instant contact between all the fermentation was studied in the ation ethanol production from substrate and all the recycled biomass laboratory using auto-flocculating yeast various substrates INT. SUGAR JNL., 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 107A By.products

S. Tourliere. Ind. Alim. Agric., 1985, casein; the apparent digestibility was H. EI-Refai. Chem. Mikrobiologie 102, 1197 - 1200 (French). also lower than that of casein. Technol. der Lebensmittel. 1984, 8, (6), Methionine, cysteine and isoleucine were 161 - 163; through S.lA., 1985. 47, The energy consumed in growing sugar the limiting amino-acids. Abs.85-1677. beet, processing it and fermenting the molasses to yield fuel alcohol is Media based on bagasse as carbon source Improvement of the nutritional calculated, and the total process energy were used for the cultivation of T. viride value of sugar cane bagasse requirement of 268 therms per hectolitre 253, with the aim of finding the optimal by simple solid-state of alcohol (allowing for energy recovered conditions for cellu lase production. In fermentation from incinerated vinasse) compared with general, crude bagasse led to higher 431 therms/hl for alcohol production F. A. Hamissa, A. 1. El-Diwany, H. M. cellulase activity than water-boiled or from wheat (although this could be Shaker and A. M. H. El-Refai. NaOH-treated bagasse, and the optimal reduced by e.g. recovery of energy in the Microbios Letters. 1984. 26, bagasse concentration was 20 - 40 form of biogas from vinasse and (103/104), 129 - 133; through S1 A.. gllitre. Inclusion of peptone in the utilization of the straw). On the basis of 1985,47, Abs. 85-1673. medium was essential for cellulase the balances, it is calculated that 1 litre preparation. Tests were carried out on single-cell of energy consumed in processing would protein production by Trichoderma viride permit the replacement of 2.85 litres of CellulolytiC activity of moulds. 253 M-16 using bagasse as the carbon high-octane gasoline with alcohol from IV. Evaluation of the utility of source. 50 g N aOH -treated bagasse in a beet molasses and of 1.75 litres cellulosic wastes for nylon bag was mixed with 60 ml of (possibly 2.3 litres with vinasse biosynthesis of cellulases and nutrient solution and the fungal utilization) of alcohol from wheat. xylanase by Aspergillus inoculum, and incubated for up to 30 terreus F-413 days. The protein content increased from The problems of pollution 2.2% to 22% and the lignin content J. Szczodrak, J. Rogalski and Z. IIczuk. from distillery wastes and a decreased from 21.8% to 10.5%. This Acta Microbiol. Polonica, 1984.33, techno-economic solution would greatly increase the nutritional (3/4), 217 - 225 ; through S.l A., 1985. Anon. Maharashtra Sugar, 1985, 10, value of the bagasse. 47, Abs. 85-1678. (7),7 - 8. A medium containing beet pulp as Solid-state cultivation of It is calculated that vinasse concentration carbon source for culture of A. terreus Talaromyces emersonii on and incineration wou ld generate more F-413 gave higher activities of all beet pulp steam than burning of methane gas enzymes of the cellulolytic complex and produced anaerobically from the same P. J. Considine. A. O'Rorke, A. P. of xylanase than did media containing quantity of vinasse and would Moloney et al. Biochem. Soc. Trans., straw or sawdust from various sources. simultaneously provide energy and solve 1985, 13, (2), 456; through S.l.A., the pollution problem, unlike anaerobic 1985,47, Abs. 85-1674. Methanol and ammonia from lagooning and digestion as currently biomass Solid-state cultures of this fungus on practised by Indian distilleries. beet pulp were prepared. Cellulase­ E. G. Baker, L. Ki' Mudge and M. D. containing extracts of the cultures gave Brown. Chem. En g. Progress. 1984, Production and nutritive value greater saccharification of beet pulp than 80, (12).43 - 46; through S1.A .• of single-cell protein from did filtrates of liquid fermentations at the 1985, 47, Abs. 85-1703. Fusarium oxysporum var. lini same cellulase activity. The solid-state grown in vinasse Laboratory and pilot-plant tests were process increased the protein content of carried out with the aim of developing a M. E. S. T. Silva and J. R. Nicoli. J. the solid material from 10% to 27%, one-stage process to generate specific Ferment Technol., 1985, 63, (1),91 - thus increasing its value for animal gases from biomass by gasifying with 94; through S1A., 1985,47, Abs. 85 - feeding; the carbohydrate content steam in the presence of a catalyst. Ni 1668. decreased only slightly, from 36% to catalyst on an alumina support gave the 29%, and the material would still be a F. oxysporum var. lini was grown on a highest yield of gases (hydrogen, carbon suitable carrier for molasses. medium based on cane vinasse in a semi­ monoxide and carbon dioxide) and a low continuous process. In each 24-hour yield of (unwanted) char, but when the Productivity of Trichoderma period, about 15.8 g biomass dry biomass was bagasse, deactivation of the viride 253-cellulase in relation solids/litre was produced, containing catalyst was rapid, probably owing to to the composition of the the high S content in the bagasse (300 - almost 50% crude protein. Tests with fermentation medium rats showed that the protein efficiency 600 ppm). It may be preferable to use ratio was positive but lower than that for M. A. Farid, H. M. Shaker and A. M. potassium carbonate as catalyst. 108A INT. SUGAR JNL. . 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 Patents

UNITED KINGDOM

Sugar crystals separation Fabcon Inc., of San Francisco, CA, USA, 2,137,522. October 20, 1980; October 10, 1984; May 30, 1985.

See US Patent Application 4,256,5821•

Process for the treatment and conversion of iso-glucose syrup Starcosa GmbH, of Braunschweig, Germany. 2,143,825. June 8, 1984; February 20, 1985; February 2, 1986. High fructose syrup containing approx. 42% (42 - 45%) fructose by weight is evaporated to approx . 70 - 77% (75%) dry solids and crystallized by cooling from 30 to 18°C to yield a predominantly glucose-containing mass which is then filtered. The mother liquor is then aged for about 5 hr (1/2 - 7 hr) (1/2 - 13 hr) with stirring whereby an after­ crystallization takes place. The mass is then comminuted or milled to provide a fraction of 5 - 50 ~m (10 - 250 ~m) particle size. The mother liquor is evaporated to 90% dry solids, seeded with a fine fraction of approx. 20 IJ.IlI (obtained by sifting the finished product) and added to the crystal powder in predetermined doses. The mixture is FIG .2 stirred under vacuum whereby it is dried and cooled. The end-product has a collecting chambers 71 , 72 and thence ring, the sugar passes to outlets 63 in fructose content of 42% by weight and a out of the centrifugal via pipes 73, 74. bottom plate 62 and is thrown by moisture content of 5% by weight. Nozzles 50 - 54 supply wash liquid at centrifugal action against the walt of the different levels, and the washed and dried housing and thence via base 19 to outlet Continuous sugar centrifugal crystals are guided by partition 9 in each 20. The high speed of rotation of the Krupp Industrietechnik GmbH, of chamber towards outlet 22 in front of basket causes the air inside the housing Grevenbroich, Germany. 2,145,007. which is a slide 23 that is pulsated to to swirl above cover plate 3 and to travel August 15, 1984; March 20, 1985. control discharge of the sugar which to the outer region of the housing where builds up behind the outlet. The slides it reaches the zone of fixed curved guide The basket 5 of a continuous vane-type are surrounded by a fru sto-conical vanes located between cone 75 centrifugal comprises uniformly spaced collecting ring 61 which rotates at half (surrounding ring 61) and the outer wall. curved chambers 21 radiating from the the speed of the basket. Arranged within The vanes deflect the air stream in a axis of rotation of the basket and the ring on the surface facing the direction opposite to that of the basket, separated from one another by walls 6; chambers 2 are curved ribs 66 which act so that the air acts as a further means of each chamber contains an arcuate screen as a brake on the sugar being discharged. decelerating the discharge rate of the 7 which defines a liquid chamber divided Sloping annular collecting flanges 67 sugar crystals and substantially reducing by partition 24 into two separate and 68 on the upper surface of bottom their impact against the wall. One or compartments from which the mother plate 62 collect the liquids being more pairs of ducts may be used instead liquor and wash liquid are discharged by discharged from pipes 25, 26 and transfer of or in addition to the guide vanes to drainage pipes 69, 70 into annular them to drainage pipes 69, 70. From the 1 I.SJ . ,1983. 85, IS4. INT. SUGARJNL.. 1966, VOL. 66, NO. 1054 109A Patenls

decelerate the discharge velocity of the derived anaerobically from Clostridium face. Plate 3 at the entry to the shredder sugar by providing a countercurrent of /hemwamyloly/icum; the enzyme has a mayor may not have detachable air. M.W. of approx. 75,000, a half-life indentations, while the entry throat greater than 3 hours at pH 6 and 70°C formed by the plate is provided with Bagasse hydrolysis and a maximum activity at 70 - 75°C means for adjustment of the gap. Anvil and a pH of approx. 5. 7 is suspended from a floating pivot 9 Krupp Industrietechnik GmbH, of and is supponed by an adjustable means Grevenbroich, Germany. 2,145,090. Cane shredder 12 through shear pins 13 or other August 9, 1984; March 20, 1985. suitable arrangement that will allow the Walchandnagar Industries Ltd., of Bagasse is mashed with water to 15 - anvil to yield and swing back on pivot 9 Bombay, India. 2,146,917. September 45% dry solids content and high pressure in the event of excessive loading caused 23, 1983; May 1, 1985. steam injected while the mash is being by tramp iron or other foreign bodies. fed into a dispersing vessel where The shredder comprises casing 1 and a Various stationary deflectors such as prehydrolysis takes place at 100 - 200°C rotor 14 having a row of hubs with plate 29 and plate 18 (with a profiled (40 - 120°C) and 1 - 16 (1 - 10) bar for a offset holders 15 which carry sets of extension and curved entry lip 2) prevent period between 1 second and 10 minutes hammers or knives 16, 17 in a variety of bridging of cane and choking of the (1 - 5 sec) to reduce the hemicelluloses combinations; these face adjustable entrance. The s.hredder consumes some to pentoses which are separated by add­ anvils 3A and 7 formed by adjustable 30% less energy per tonne of fiberized ition of a liquid detergent. The lignin is plates 3, 41 of the casing each having cane than comparable existing then separated by high-pressure extract­ indentations or serrations on its inside equipment. ion with a solvent such as aqueous alcohol of 20 - 80% concentration at 100 - 300 bar and 50 -200°C for 30 minutes - 3 hours. The residual organic matter, of 15 - 45% dry solids content and consisting mainly of cellulose, is hydrolysed (in a vessel identical to that used for prehydrolysis) for between 1 sec and 10 min at 210 -350°C and up to 190 bar (20 - 150 bar). Compression and decomposition waves plus tangential edge-impact forces in the stationary and rotary ducts of tunnels of the dispersing vessel significantly accelerate the chemical reactions, and the design permits hydrolysis with simultaneous application of pressure and heat.

A thermostable glucoamylase 10 CPC International Inc., of Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA. 2,145,094. August 16, 1984; March 20, 1985. A glucoamylase suitable for starch hydrolysis to glucose by simultaneous liquefaction and saccharification is

Photocopies of Ibe original paper.; abstracted in Ibis section will usually be available, except where prohibited by Ibe publisher.;. Such photocopies are available only for research purposes or private study; use for any Olher purpose is a breach of copyright. It should be noted that photocopies are nol translations but are in the original language of publications which, if not English, is indicated in italic type at the end of the reference. A charge of £0.20 or $0.40 per page is made for such photocopies which includes ainnail po~ges. Payment should be sent wilb Ibe order. Original paper.; of abstracts reprinted from Tale &: Lyle's Sugar Industry Abstracls and Referalivnyi Zhurnal are not available from us and application should be made, respectively, to Tate & Lyle Ud., P.O. Box 68, Reading, Berles, England, and Referativnyi Thumal, 125219 Moscow A·219, Baltijslcaya UI. 14, U.S.S.R. In Ibe case of United Kingdom patents, copi es may be obtained on application to The Patent Office Sale Branch, Block C, Station Square House, S!. Mary Cray, Orpington, Kent, England (price £1.95 each). United States patent specifications may be obtained by application to Box 9, Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC 20231, U.S.A. (price SI.OO each).

110A INT. SUGARJNL., 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 Electrodialytic de-ashing of cane juice for increased sugar production

Details of the economic analysis and results of a process economics Tablc I. Intcrnal ratc of rcturn for 40% dc-ashing of Juicc by ED sensitivity analysis will be covered later. Factory size: Aa Bb Conclusions Refractometer solids in feed juice, % 30 40 50 30 40 50

1. To apply ED in sugar processing, Feed juice ash level Internal rate of return, % C the juice mu st be prescreened to remove Industry average 14 20 20 21 26 27 suspended solids. It appears that 325 10% higher than industry average 14 19 19 23 29 28 20% higher than industry average 17 21 21 25 30 29 mesh screening is sufficient. (A coarser mesh may be adequate but will need to a Factory producing 63,000 tons (57,000 tonnes) 96 DA sugar/year. be tested.) b Factory producing 153,000 tons (139,000 tonnes) 96 DA sugar/year. 2. The ED juice de-ashing process c Equivalent to 0.89% carbonate ash in 30% refractometer solids feed juice. preferentially removes K+ and CI-, especially the latter. The percentage level) would fall between 20 and 30%. experimental data obtained in the course removals of K+ and CI- are 3% and Summary of the study. Also discussed, but only 63%, respectively, higher than the briefly, are results of the economic percentage removal of ash. A study was made of the analysis of the process. 3. Technically, there are no major electrodialytic desalting of sugar cane Acknowledgments difficulties in applying ED in sugar juice. A laboratory-scale electrodialyser processing with currently available ED was tested both in the laboratory and in a The author wishes to thank Mr. W. equipment. sugar factory to obtain process operating K. Hashimoto for his help in the 4. The profitability of applying the parameters and to demonstrate its laboratory test work and in the ED juice de-ashing process in sugar technical feasibility. No major technical development of the computer program processing varies with factory size and difficulties were encountered except that for the economic analysis. He also juice characteristics. For Hawaiian prescreening to remove suspended solids wishes to thank Mr. C. L. Chew for his factories with an indu stry-average ash was found necessary. An economic help in conducting the factory runs and level of 0.89% carbonate ash in 30% anal ysis shows that the process might be to acknowledge the Oahu Sugar refractometer solids juice, the IRR for profitable for some Hawaiian sugar Company personnel for permitting the 40% de-ashing (the optimum de-ashing factories. This paper discusses the tests to be conducted in their factory. ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Sugar and energy losses in burned cane

By John H. Payne

One line of demarcation in the cane organism. The enzymatic system which pump has been identi fied as enzyme - sugar industry separates the cane burners controls the flux of sucrose, glucose and adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase). from the green harvesters. That the fructose in and out of the storage cells is The mechanism of the transport and di stinction is not trivial is attested by destroyed. No longer is it possible for storage in sugar cane cells has been the presence in some regions of a sucrose to exist without inversion at the under study for several years by penalty imposed on deliveries of burnt pH of 5.6. No longer is even the pH of researchers Thorn, Maretzki & cane. Recent studies, experience and 5.6 mai ntained; it begins to decrease. Komor 2 .6. Sucrose, translocated from developments confirm that such a Important developments in the the leaves to the stalk, is broken down penalty has a basis in fact. This, plus knowledge of transport processes in into glucose and fructose by the enzyme the value of conserving the total plants have been made in the past few invertase before it can pass through the biomass of the cane crop, may dictate years. These have been summarized in a 1 American Scientist. 1984, 72, 567 . 573. that the cane fire is going ou t. paper by Uribe & Ltittge1. It has been 2 AM. Rpt. Expt. Sta., HawaiiQASugar Plalllus' Assoc., 1979,41-42. When an organism dies it start, to demonstrated that transport through the 3 ibi~, 1980, 35 - 36. decay immediately. There is no time lag . cell wall is controlled by a proton pump 4 ibi~,1982,28 - 29 . 5 ibid.,1983.36-37. A burnt cane stalk is a decaying located in the plasma membrane. The 6 Eur. J. BiocMm., 1984, 138, 93. INT. SUGAR JNL. , 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 191 Sugar and energy losses in bwned cane

cell wall. Within the cell the glucose Measuring losses is a difficult exercise at For this reason the direction of the and fructose are converted again into best. An approach to measuring Hawaiian sugar industry, where all cane ucrose. Sucrose, as well as glucose and deterioration from the quantity of ethanol is mechanically harvested, is tending ructose, can then enter the vacuole appearing in cane juice was made by toward unburned cane. Traditional which is the storage compartment where Blake & McNeiF. They found an 8-fold suppliers of electrical power to the t can remain or be released in case of increase in the alcohol content of first community grids, factories are geared to metabolic demand. expressed juice in burnt cane standing handling trash cane. Oil consumption is The transport through the vacuolar overnight. This corresponds to a reduced. In 1983, 10.6% of electrical membrane, against the high calculated loss of 0.4% of the sucrose generation in the State of Hawaii was concentration pressure within the which of course does not include the produced by the sugar industry. vacuole, has been confirmed as quantity of sucrose converted to other The factory extraction plants have controlled by an ATPase enzyme pump compounds. To avoid having to deal adequate capacity to handle the additional located in the membrane wall. The with these losses it would appear prudent load of fibre. If the same pol in bagasse transmitter is an ion, probably H+. to deliver live cane to the factory. is obtained, which can be achieved, then Cells, in culture, exude H+ ions in order Cane is burned because the removal of the increased loss is proportional to the to adjust the pH of the surrounding dry leaves makes it easier to harvest, increase in the quantity of bagasse. If the medium for optimum growth. Under whether manually or mechanically. pol in bagasse is low, as in a good normal conditions the pH is 5.6. Also, burning helps to control pests. diffusion plan-t, the increased quantity of Thus, the hydrogen ion, H+, is an Less energy is required in harvesting but bagasse does not cause a large loss of essential element in the transport of a high percentage of the biomass energy pol. Using figures from the earlier table sucrose in and out of storage. This stored by the cane is lost. and reasonable figures of 0.8 pol in process, and that of maintaining the Information on the quantity of biomass bagasse for a diffuser and 2.0 for a mill, integrity of sucrose at a pH of 5.6, thus produced by the cane plant in its life the calculated increase in pol loss for the involve enzyme systems. When the cycle is sparse. Early studies were made net cane and trash cane would be as plant dies there is a breakdown of this in Hawaii by StewartS and Borden9. follows : mechanism and sucrose is left Estimates based on their data and those DiFFuser (0.8 pol in bagasse) unprotected in a hostile environment of of BirkettlO in the Caribbean and of Net Cane Unburned Cane hydrogen ions. Of course, the decay Silva & Silvall in Brazil were used by process is complex but, as organic Paynel2 to estimate the biomass yield of Weight 100.0 125.0 Fibre 13.5 22.5 compounds decompose, acids are major a high energy cane variety in Puerto Bagasse 27.0 45.0 products and a ten-fold increase in Rico. Bagasse pol 0.22 0.36 hydrogen ion concentration can occur in More complete figures on the two-year Difference 0.41 a relatively short period of time. The Hawaiian crop have been reported by sucrose held in high concentration in the Kinoshita & Gibson13 and are The loss of 0.14 is close to the vacuoles, now uncontrolled, is free to summarized in the following table. The indicated pol in the tops and leaves of flow through the membrane and into the figures do not include detached material 0.12, so there is little loss of pol in high acidity surroundings. Very rapidly lying on the ground. bagasse with the unburned cane. also, the plant structure, no longer Table I. Composition of unburned field cane protected, is invaded by micro-organisms and sucrose is rapidly destroyed. Component Fibre Pol This evidence is important to the tonneslha % tonneslha % tonneslha % sugar producer because it shows that sucrose stored in the cane plant is in a Net cane 268.1 78.6 32.5 9.5 39.2 11.5 Dead cane 25.8 7.6 3.8 1.1 1.4 0.4 dynamic state in which the hydrogen ion Tops and green leaves 16.8 4.9 3.4 1.0 0.2 0.1 plays an important role. Life is Dry leaves 305 8.9 20.2 5.9 0.2 0.1 necessary to preserv ation of the s ys tem. Total 3412 100.0 59.9 17.5 41.0 12.0 Dead cane, therefore, is an extremely perishable commodity. Any delay in These results show that in the two­ 7 Proc. Quunsland Soc. Sugar CaN Tech ., 1978,44, processing diminishes the quantity of year crop about 40% of the fibre is in 127 ·132. 8 Proc. Assoc. lIawaiian SugarTt!ch., 1929,221 - 230. sugar available for recovery. The rate of the tops and leaves. If the detached leaves 9I1awaiianPIan.urs'Rt!cord, 1942,46,191-238. sugar loss depends upon temperature, were included, the order of magnitude 10 Proc. 12th COllgr. ISSCT, 1965, 1636 - 1642. humidity, cane variety and method of figures would be half in the stalk and 11 Proc. 17th COllgr. ISSCT, 1980, 288 - 295. 12 Papt!f prt!st!fllt!d to 2nd Symposium 011 F~Lr tvtd harvesting. The many studies of losses half in the tops and leaves. Thus, the FudslOck.sfrom Tropical Biomass (Center for Energy show "shotgun patterns" but appear to and Eironmenl Research, Puerto Rico), cane fire consumes half of the energy 13 Ann. Rpt. Hawaiian Sugar Plantt!fs' Assoc., 1981, average higher than 1% per 24 hours. potential fibre produced by the crop. 49 - 50.

192 INT. SUGAR JNL.. 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 cane sugar Engineered Systems

Walkers limited's healthy involvement in mast corners o Cane Handling of the cane sugar world has resulted in a unique blend TIppers, Feeder Tables and Cane Carriers of International and Australian Milling experflse which o Cane Preparafton Walkers Engineers have reflected in their milling designs. Cane Kickers and Knives, Reverse Fiberizars, By being constantly in tune with tadays sugar industry and Shredders needs, Walkers are able to assist clients to plan for the o Cane Milts mast practical and proven factory equipment to suit 3,4, 5 and 6 Roller Mills in Brass and Roller Bearing their development objectives and financial constraints. including the Constant Ratio Type. Pressure Feeders of Medium, Heavy and Toothed

Write for our complete brochure an Cane sugar o Mill Drives Engineered Systems. Intermediate and Low speed reduction gears.

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Specially designed for a sugar massecuite in the centri fugal and of refinery wanting to step up Bx-controlled syrup. producti on and cut running and The machine body and the basket maintenance costs, the SCP-C5 is are made entirely of stainless steel. the biggest continuous centrifugal for The oil-mist system is used for trea ting sugar massecuite available lubrica ti on. today. The SCP-C5 - a truly grea t The SCP-C5 is equipped with machine - has joined the Pieralisi programmable logic control family of centrifugals for th e equipment and with special devices trea tment of beet floating waters and for the formation of arti ficial carbonation juices.

GRUPPO INDUSTRIALE PIEAHLISI Viale CavalioHi. 30 • 6003S JESI • Italy · Tel. (0731) 540 1 • Telex S60033 MAIP I Sugar and energy losses in burned cane

Mill (2.0 pol in bagasse) that much of this can be recovered. sucre au minimum et on cree une In conclusion, much of the opportunite pour augmenter la valeur Net Cane Unburned Cane commerciale de la recolte via la Weight 100.0 125.0 mechanism of sucrose storage in sugar Fibre 13.5 22.5 cane is now known. On this basis it can generation et la vente d'electricite ou la Bagasse 27.0 45.0 be conjectured what happens when the substitution d'autres combustibles. plant dies, accounting for the losses in Bagasse pol 0.54 0.90 Zucker- und Energieverlust in sucrose from burning to processing. By Difference 0.36 gebranntem Rohr In this case there is a significant loss harvesting unburned cane these losses are of pol in bagasse. However, from the minimized. Then, from the energy Die physiologischen Veranderungen im energy standpoint, where there is a . standpoint, the loss by the cane fire can Rohr nach Absterben durch Abbrennen marke t for electricity, the value of the be eliminated, making available a source fUr die Emte werden beschrieben, und der increase of 9 units of fibre more than of biomass for fossil fuel replacement. Energieverlust in form von verbrennbar Biomasse diskutiert. Bei Emte von covers the loss of 0.36 uni ts of pol. The Summary real value of the fibre depends upon the grii nem Rohr werden die Sacchaose­ value of power it can produce for the The physiological changes in cane after verlust minimiert und es wird __operating utility. In Hawaii this is close death on burning fo r harvest are described Gelegenheit gegeben, den kommerziellen to the value of the fuel oil it replaces. and the loss of energy as combustible Wert der Emte durch Erzeugung von Dry bagasse fibre has a gross calorific biomass is discussed. By harvesting Elektrizitat oder Substitution anderer value of about 19.4 MJ/kg and fuel oil unburned cane sucrose losses are Brennstoffe zu erhohen. minimized and an opportunity provided 43.5 MJlkg, so the 9 units of fibre are Perd idas en azucar y energia en for increasing the commercial value of equivalent to 4 units of fuel oil. At cana quemada current US prices of $0.45Ikg for sugar the crop by generation and sale of and $26 per barrel for fuel oil, the value electricity or substitution of other fuels. Se describen los cambios fisiol6gicos en cana despues de su muerte por of the lost pol approximates to $0.15 Pertes en sucre et en energie quemadura como preparaci6n para el and the fuel oil value of the fibre gained dans la canne brulee to $0.64. corte, y se discute la perdida de energfa Of course, there are additional costs in On Mcrit les modifications en la forma de biomasa combustible. Por harvesting and transporting the unburned physiologiques dans la canne apres cosecha de la cana sin quemarla, se cane which must be considered, but the l'avoir tuee en la brGlant en vue de la minimizan las perdidas de sacarosa y se combined effects of escaping sugar recolte et on discute la perte en energie ofrece una oportunidad para aumentar el losses between burning and processing, subie sous forme de biomasse valor comercial de la cosecha por and the energy value of the added fibre combustible. En recoltant de la canne a generaci6n y venta de electricidad 0 por add up to a substantial value. It appears sucre non-brGlee, on reduit les pertes en substituci6n de otros combustibles. FACTORY ENGINEERING

Crystal sizing*

By J s. Hoggt, s. c. H. McCareyt, J. D. F. Wilkiet , D. Brown:j:and E. J . Weatherby:j:

Introduction Temperature has been widely used impression of the crystal sizes and size range in the massecuite. For many years British Sugar has as a measurement of the degree of In the pas t few years the been working with the automatic control supersaturation before seeding and also microscopes have been equipped with of pan boiling 1,2,3. In the course of that consistency as an indication of the closed circuit television enabling the work many measuring techniq ues have condition of the massecuite during • PQ{Hr preseflted 10 tM 28th Tech. Con[ British Sugar been devised and developed for the crystal growth. pic, 1986, MY, slightly cONUnst d various parameters within the boiling In an attempt to give some t British Sugar pic indication to pan boilers of the situation t University of Sheffield system. However, there is one area of 1 Withers & Bass: I.SJ., 1967. 69,117. measurement that has not received much within the massecuite, most vacuum 2 Bass I t al.: Paper pUSUlltd 10 22NlTtch. Con[ Brilish pans have been fitted with microscopes Sugar Corp. , 1974. attention. This is the direct measurement 3 McCarey & Fearnside: I.SJ., 1985,87,208·213,223· of crystal size during the boiling cycle. to enable the operator to obtain a visual 227. INT. SUGAR JNL., 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 193 Cryslal sizing

pictures to be brought into a centralized control area to give the operators an easy and quick view of the conditions within i 9 the vacuum pans at all times. However, h these devices do not provide any t numerical values for the crystal sizes. A laser diffraction sizer invented at Sheffield University has been developed and marketed by Malvern Instruments. One of these Malvern sizers was used in the laboratory at Sheffield to study crystal growth from 1979 onwards. The 6 8 10 12 14 technique appeared to be such that it )(=2"as/xf could, with suitable adaptation, be used Fig. 2. Intensity distribution or on process plant. After a joint spherical particles application by British Sugar and the diffraction pattern and oscillates with Sheffield University to the Science and decreasing amplitude as the radius Engineering Research Council increases. Since it is difficult to infer (S.E.R.C.), a research studentship was size distributions from light intensity provided in 1982 under the Co-operative measurements" the Ii ght energy Award in Science and Engineering distribu tion has been used in developing (CASE) Scheme. the theory5. The corresponding light The work program envisaged was a energy distribution for a field of combination of laboratory and factory monodisperse spherical particles is trials to develop the techniques of on­ shown in Figure 3. The radial distance line measurement of crystal size and corresponding to the first maximum is concentration, and the transfer of the inversely proportional to the particle experience gained to the plant E. J. Weatherby radius. Also, the indi vidual size range environment. comprises a set of concentric semi­ covered by each li ght sensitive strip, and It was also expected that, during the hence the total size range covered by the course of the work, further information circular li ght sensitive diodes radially di splaced a distance of Sx from the detector, may be varied by simply would be obtained on the growth rates of changing the foca l length of the lens (see sugar crystals. central diode, as shown in Figure I (B). The undiffracted li ght is also focused on Appendix 1). Theory of laser crystal sizing the detector, which is positioned a The Malvern instrument uses a distance from the lens equivalent to the parallel beam of monochromatic focal length (f) of the lens. The relati ve coherent light produced from a HeiNe and absolu te weight distributions of the laser (= 0.6328 ~m) to illuminate suspension of particles can be found as particles in an optical cell [Figure I foll ows:- (A)]. The particles produce a Fraunhofer The diffracti on pattern for fi eld of y 0 I diffraction pattern of rings which is monodisperse spherical particles of focu sed on the photo-detector by a radius a is shown in Figure 2. The light

Fourier Transform lens. The detector intensity is maximum at the centre of J: 2nos / ll Fig. 3. Energy distribution of IIghtsensllive spherical particles diodes Par1icles -,- In cell I The total li ght energy distribution for a suspension containing a collecti on of particles of different sizes may be expressed in matrix form as : lmW L(j) = W(i).T(i,j) ...... (1) HeINe Parallel monochromatic light laser detector where LUl is the light energy falling in FTlens lace 01 detector ring j, W(i) is the weight fracti on in the (8 ) IA) 4 Dobbins et at.: AiAA JOlUnai, 1963, 1,1882 · 1886. 5 Swilhcnbank et at.: Paper NJ. 76 . 79 presented 10 AIM Fig. 1. (A) Schematic diagram of particle size analyser, (U) Photo·sensitive detector I4lh Aerospac. e Scie fICes Mu ting, 1976.

194 INT. SUGAR JNL.. 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 Cryslal sizing

size range i, and T(ij) contains the coefficients which define the li ght energy distribution, similar to Figure 3, for each particle size range. from Equation 1 is solved by assuming a compressed value for W(i) and calculating a .Ir-llne theoretical value for L(j) using the sample appropriate T(ij) matrix for a given set pump of experimental parameters. This theoretical L(j) is compared to the . experimentally measured L(j) and the weight distribution is then iteratively samplaceU" ' ...... ~. "'.,,,, adjusted until the sum of the squared errors in L(j), i.e. I[L(j) - W(i,j)]2 is a minimum. Thus the relative weight ,. distribution can be obtained from the computer -light energy distribution. By measuring the light energy Ag. 4. Schematic diagram of laborator equl ment focused on the central diode before and after the sample is placed in the optical cell, the fraction of light obscured by the particles can be found. This obscuration can then be used to calculate the absolute weight distribution and concentration through the Beer-Lambert Law6. Laboratory tests A schematic diagram of the laboratory set-up is shown in Figures 4 and 5, with a photograph of the system in Figure 6. The design of me evaporative (vacuum) crystallizer was based on that used at the British Sugar Research pic Laboratories at Norwich7, and it was run as far as possible under the same conditions as the plant process. The crystallizer was a well-stirred 5-lilIe glass flask, heated by an electric iso mantle and maintained at a constant vacuum by a mercury vacuum regulator. The sugar solution in the crystallizer was concentrated to supersaturation 1.3 by boiling off water. The solution was then fully seeded through a funnel with a prepared seed slurry of milled sugar in iso-propanol. A size analysis of the seed crystals is shown in Table I. The experimental temperature (75°C) was measured by iron-constantan thermocouples accurate to O.2°C and the pressure (200 mm Hg) by a mercury manometer accurate to 1 mm Hg. 6 Brown & Felton: Chtm. Eftg. Res. Des., 1985.63, 125 ·132. 7 Weatherby & Drown: HGroVt'lh of sugar crystals from aqueous solution" in Proc. 9th Symp.lnd. CrySI, 1984. INT. SUGAR JNL., 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 195 Crysla/ sizing

1-···------·------·············-·········-·-·----·--···-1 I RESULTS F ROM Bl.OC,," III I I RUN·;&i ..ER: ·SS ·· -.. -··-tl;£:;.;:;;:;e------... -. -LOO · 0IFF£R£N:i: ·; :;6 -: ISNi-LE -x -VOLUK -Co;cENTR';,. I0,:.: -e:e888 -··· -.... 8i~ · oesc.jR'; 1ION ;' Ii :~7 - : I ------&Iii --- --~ iGHT --i --~ iOM t - iN -8';;0 --. ----.- .. -. - l~ 10M, -ENERGY · · -.: 1-·-I ------_··_----MI CRONS ;.0; Uf'C)ER-- --_· 1 _-----_···_-----_" ICROf>6 ···;.0; _-_ I·· CI"LCUI···· ... I"'EO -... . . !1:tI\SUREOI-- .-----, I Ul:i l e; : ~ I ~~~ : : : ni : ~ ~:~! ~:~ ~:r! I l it~ :~:: I :~t: : ' it~ I~:~ I I~~' In: I I ~: :~ :~ : ; I 2: : ~ : ~::~ ~t~ I :i~~ :i~r I I i~ : ~ !:~ I ~1:' : ~t~ I~J: ~;~~ ~;:~ : ! iti tr i nJ ~ 1!,1;. ~.: t!! in! i!g i I 'J I :: I I~ : ~ : : :: I l: ~~ I:::: 1I ------::J.--B------_·_·_·_·_-_·11 . 11 I 7.2 - ::J . 8 11.11 I __ ·-1243.. -..... 1229--.-- ... ,1 1--I D<--::JII--;.o;)---- IUI'II------_·_----_·_·_-_·55 . 231 li M O__ I·_------_····_·UM)- 1::J .15 ISM·_ ··--····· 0 I UMI. ---·-··--::J 8.22 ,1 I Dll e ;.o;) (UM)_ 38.931 0(911 ;.0;)(01"1)" 123 . 311 I SPI"N • 1 .28 I 1------_ · _· ·_------_·_---_··_-_·········-··----·-·-1

Ag. 7. Crystal sizer computer results at 25 minutes Fig. 8. Crystal sizer computer resul ts at 35 minutes

I -RESiA:Ti -;Ro;.-iiLOCK · -ii------· ---. ------.. --.. --- ... -- . .. : TO PAN 1 I.w.::. -.:u:.iE";-.; ------,. lME :;e:.;: iii --.. -----. -·LOG -0 i;;EA£NCi ;-; ~.;- : sample pump ISNRE -%-VcX: u.:.E -co;.:im,;t ION: -.:; I.ii -.. ------SiM -oes c.jR~ t iON: -Ii:; i': 1 ------Ii iiE --- --~ iOM"--i --~ iOMT- i N·;'~ ------i -----L1 0M" -iNERo ,' -.. , 1----~;~;:~ --. ~ i ~~ - -~ -----':' ! ':~~~. ------~ ... ~ -~,!I;~ ~~,! ! ~,? -- ~'!~~ f!~'?'

II I I;,!: 111 I \i;:I! ' I i i:~.~.L: i i, ~;.:i.~.', ;:~,~ :§~ PAN 2 I I! 1 !~j t1! !1J t!: ! I t i !:l! I ~ J : t ~ !:!! : ~ 1 : : ~j': , --Ii<-;iix; -(CtM): - - lii t ~i; . .-- -v-;' -0 -;u.:;;: - - 1 22 ~ "'i · -.- -s -M-0 '( tiM;: ---9;: 16 -1 @ ' --.;(iii x;-;':;;';: ---;':'ii·.- · · 1i<-g8%,.-uM;:--2Ii: ii' -.-' - ' SP~N "" : ' -- - I~; i-t 1------_·· _--_·_-_·_ -_ · ···_·_------·--·--1 ,

Fig. 9. Crystal sizer computer results at 4S minutes Fi g. 10. Sc hematic di agram of plant sampling loo p Throughout any particular experiment, apparatus. Part of typical set of data is weight of particles in each band, together the sugar suspension was extracted shown as Figures 7, 8 and 9 which are wi th some details of the light energy continuously from the flask, pumped copies of the output from the Malvern measurements . Second, the data are through the optical flow cell and returned equipment computer. presented in the form of a histogram to the crystallizer by means of a positive The data comprises: in the first two showing the distribution of particle displacement pump. The pump was lines, info rmation to enable the record to weights in each size band. designed so as to avoid breakage of the be identified. Next is a figure showing Figures 7, 8 and 9 show the res ul ts crystals. the concentration of particles in the obtained at 25, 35 and 45 minutes fro m suspension as the % solids present by seeding for a run seeded with milled LAboratory results volume. With this fi gure is a number sugar produced at Newark factory hav ing A number of sugar boiling runs showing the % obscuration of the light an ori ginal size distribution as shown in was undertaken in the laboratory and sets beam. Table I. The laboratory pan was run with of data were gathered over a period up to The particle size data are presented a relati ve supersaturation of 1.25, a 45 or 50 minutes from seeding. These in two ways; first, numerically, as a temperature of 75.3°C and with absolute sets of data comprised the standard table showing the size of particles pressure 200 mm Hg. These sets of data output from the Malvern particle sizing detected by each diode band and the are just three from approximately 90 sets 196 INT. SUGAR JNL. 1986. VOL 88 , NO. 1054 Crystal sizing

Table I. Size analysis for the seed crystals

Size band, ~m % Weight in band 118.4 - 54.9 0 54.9 - 33.7 0.1 33.7 - 23.7 0.3 23.7 - 17.7 1. 2 17.7 - 13.6 3.3 13.6 - 10.5 5.2 10.5 - 8.2 9.5 8.2 - 6.4 14. 2 6.4 - 5.0 18. 1 5.0 - 3.9 17.8 3.9 - 3.0 12.8 3.0 - 2.4 9.5 2.4 - 1.9 4.9 1.9 - 1.5 1.5 1.5 - 1.2 0.6 measured during tllis particular run. It is very easy to see from the hi stogram on each set of resul ts just , how the sugar crystals are growing wi tll time and also how the distribution within each set of results changes with equipment would fit in with real pan equipment allows measurement time. operati ons. At seeding, the concentration of the crystal size at approximately one­ The laser diffraction method of wou ld be approximately 6 x 10-5% by minute intervals. This allows time for: particle sizing does have limitations in volume. Using video film recorded from (a) sufficient particles to be counted in that accurate measurements can onl y be pan microscopes it was estimated that anyone measurement, and (b) the data to taken within a range of concentrations crystal concentration would ri se to be analysed and shown on the screen of that is dependent on c rys t a ~ size. In low 0.001 % by volume after 5 minutes from the micro-computer for inspection. All concentrati on suspensions, the number seeding. The concentration after 25 the data accumulated is stored in the of particles is too low for accurate minu tes wou Id have risen to computer memory bank to be either measurements to be obtained. Then there approximately 0.8% by volume and thu s printed, stored on a disk or both at the is a long range of particle concentration the beam would be more than 85% end of the experiment. when the sizer operates well. As tlle obscured. When the laser beam is more than concentration grows there comes a point 50% obscured, which occurs after about when the obscuration of the beam is so Factory tests 25 minutes, the data analysis becomes high that the measurement is no longer complicated owing to multiple possible. The results obtained from the A schematic diagram of the pl ant scattering, i.e. the beam being diffracted set-up is shown in Figure 10, together various trials refl ected this limitation. In by a number of particles before reaching the very early stages after seeding, with a photograph in Figure I I. The the detector. Efforts are being made at operating conditions for the concentrations of less than 0.0001 % Sheffield University to develop the crystall ization vessel (Pan 2) were exist and the concentration has to ri se to theory to account for mu ltiple scattering; approximately the same as in the about 0.001% by volume before reliable however, the results reported here on ly laboratory tri als. A sample of the sugar res ults can be obtained. Readings cannot apply to obscurations below 0.50. suspension was pumped continuously be taken after 85% obscuration which (to be continued) corresponds to a concentration between ou t of Pan 2 and tllIough the fl ow cell before being discharged into Pan The 0.2% and 0.8% by volume depending on 1. Turkey s ug ar fa ctory construction l the crystal sizes. sample was not returned to Pan 2, so as Foll owing th e success of tllese to avoid any adverse effects on the cryst­ ~nstruc li o n due to have started in Turkey mcludes three new sugar factory projects at laboratory trials, it was decided tll at plant al growth there. In order to increase the Konya-Ereglisi, Cankiri-Corum and Van-Ercis trials on a full-sized vacuum pan would measurement time as much as possible, modernization ofthe tablet sugar and small . be carried out at Newark factory. Some the path length in the flow cell was set packaging station at the Ankara - Etimesgut at 2 mm (as opposed to 6 mm in the fa ctory and a tablet sugar plant at the new rough calcul ati ons were carried out to see fa ctory at Mus. how the measuring range of tlle laboratory experiments.) The Malvern I Zuclurin.dustrie, 1986. 111, 804.

INT. SUGAR JNL, 1986, VOL. 88, NO. 1054 197 New books

Handbook of cane sugar Proceedings of the 3rd book, sub-titled " A celebration of 50 engineering. 3rd Edition Annual Conference, Barbados years achievement", and it provides an account of the modem British beet sugar E. Hugot (translated by G. H. Jenkins). Sugar Technologists Association, 1985 industry in photographs and story, as 1166 pp; 16.5 x 24.1 cm (Elsevier well as providing information on sugar Science Publishers, P.O. Box 330, 1000 Such works as this volume of itself, on the sugar beet, etc. An AH Amsterdam, Holland; P.O. Box B.S.T.A. Proceedings are not acquired attractive, well-produced work, it is a 1663, Grand Central Station, New York, for the fineness of their bindings and fitting tribute to the many people who NY 10163, U.S.A.) 1986. Price: 725 similar qualities but for the technology have built up British Sugar over the past Dutch florins; $268.50. included within their covers. This is 50 years. perhaps as well in the present instance, Since the 2nd edition of this since the work is formed by a substantial renowned handbook was published, the Monosaccharides in alkaline collection of individually paginated technology of sugar manufacture has medium: isomerization, papers, preceded by a contents page, all evolved remarkably and the author has degradation, oligomerization stapled together .and accompanied by a carried out complete revision of his work separate set of reports on the Barbados 1. M. de Bruijin. 163 pp; 16.4 x 24 cm. to such an extent that numerous entirely sugar crop of 1985. The papers include (CSM Suiker ~.V., Breda, Holland.) new sections have been added while a 13 for the Field Section of the 1986. few outdated or obsolete sections have Association and ten for the Factory been deleted. Thus, in addition to the This thesis for a doctorate in technical Section, with another paper presented to updated text on subjects covered in the sciences granted to the author for work both Sections. Abstracts of these papers 1972 edition Mr. Hugot's throughness conducted at Delft Technical University will be published in this Journal and and expertise have been applied to deals with the isomerization and Sugar Cane in due course and readers descriptions and discussions on such degradation reactions involvi ng will be able to judge whether, as in the plant as modem shredders, pressure monosaccharides in aqueous alkaline case of previous Proceedings, they wish feeders, mill rollers including the Lotus solutions. It is divided into nine to acquire the complete volume, which roller, the FS-van Hengel cane diffuser, chapters: Introduction; Reactions of is available at a price of US $10 from saccharate liming, rapid clarifiers, falling­ monosaccharides in aqueous alkaline the B.S.T.A., c/o Sugar Technology film and other modem evaporators, solutions (including initial trans­ Research Unit, Edgehill, St. Thomas, continuous vacuum pans, vertical formation, alkaline degradation reactions Barbados. crystallizers, continuous centrifugals, and the effect of reaction variables on sugar dryers, liquid ring pumps, forced­ product formation); Influence of reaction Crystal Jubilee draft cooling towers, modem condensers parameters on the composition of the final product from alkaline degrad-ation and bagasse drying and pelleting 41 pp; 20.9 x 29.6 cm. (British Sugar of monosaccharides; Characterization of equipment He has extended the range of pic, Oundle Road, Peterborough, oligomeric products formed during calculations and formulae to cover the Cambs., England.) 1986. maximal speed of mills, mill capacity, alkaline degradation; Kinetics of alkaline power requirements, reduced extraction This year sees the 50th anniversary isomerization and degradation of mono­ and material balances in milling, heat of the founding of the single company saccharides; Mechanistic picture of transfer in heaters and factory heat which unified the United Kingdom's beet alkaline degradation; A note on alkaline balance, steam flow and consumption in sugar industry. The first beet sugar degradation of D-fructose in the presence pans, and factory steam balance. A factory in England had been established of formaldehyde; I3C nuclear magnetic completely new chapter has also been at Cantley in 1921 and a number of resonance spectroscopy of alkaline added on au tomation and data processing, sugar companies carne into existence in degradation products of monosaccharides; contributed by MM. G. Windal and J. C. the 1920's. An Act of Parliament and Analysis of carboxylic acids formed Giorgi of the French Sugar Industry brought the British Sugar Corporation by alkaline degradation of invert sugar: Research Institute who are well-known into existence in 1936 to take over these comparison between liq uid and gas experts in the field. The book is companies and contributed greatly to chromatography. Summaries in English dedicated to the translator, George provision of sugar for the British people and Dutch are appended. Knowledge of Jenkins, who died when it was in the during World War II. In the post-war alkaline transformation of final stages of production, and it is a fine period the country's output of sugar has monosaccharides is of importance for tribute to his contribution to the success increased greatly and output per factory sugar manufacture because of the of this cane sugar engineer's "bible". The even more so as a consequence of degradation of invert sugar during raw price is remarkable - but so is the huge rationalization and closures and juice purification, and this work makes a quantity of information which this latest constantly increasing efficiency. Some significant contribution to an understanding of the subject. edition contains. of the changes are illustrated in this 198 INT. SUGAR JNL.. 1986. VOL. 88. NO. 1054 Facts and figures

:hina sugar imports 19851 biggest cane-growing province, accounting for 35.67 tonnes in the previous season. Of the nearly one-third of the country's total sugar total cane harvest 12,063,000 tanneS were 1985 1984 production. crushed in the centrifugal sugar industry, IOfllU!S, raw WJ/ue compared with 14,692,000 lonnes, while cane sugar production reached 1.10 million tonnes mstralia 452,000 261,697 Egypt sugar imports 19858 680,000 705,054 white value (1,196,000 tannes, raw value) \lb. 1985 1984 iEC 13,000 0 compared with 1.30 million tannes white value, :iji 58,000 20,537 tannes, raw value (1 ,413,

pul before lbe Central Sugar Cane Prices Board exceed 85,000 tonnes, dry weight, and beet The reduced production was due to the drought who also received submissions from local cane sugar 10,000 lonnes per annum. which affected the country in mid-1985 and growers and other interested parties. Eventually excessive rains at harvest time. "me CEA is lbe Board decided lballbe proposals coold not Mexico sugar production, 198518620 rcported2S to be near bankruptcy, with debts be allowed and that CSR was nOl. to be eXCeeding $200 million. It may not be able to exempted from its obligation to crush cane at Production in Mexico in the 19851&6 season process the 1986187 cane harvest and, Goondi during the 1986 season. What will totalled 3,696,000 tonnes, giving a surplus of according to a Vice President of the Council, it happen in the future is tied up with the 270,(0) tonnes which may be exported. A is possible that at least four of the twelve CEA proSpeclS of Babinda mill1Mtich is heavily surplus of 100,(0) tonnes was achieved also in factories would have to be closed if the books indebted and has a question mark over its future. the previous crop aner a balanced situation in are to be balanced. the crop before and deficit in 1982183. An Proposals lor joint Brazil - Cuba estimated 500,(0) tonnes of cane was left Portugal sugar imports 198526 sugar commercializationl6 unharvested in the fields. Export of the 1985186 surplus will depend on whether there is 1985 1984 Brazil, which has nonnalized diplomatic an improvement in market prices, or if better lonnes, raw lIa/1U! relations with Cuba after 22-year break, is deals in exchange for fertilizers, for example, reported to be proposing the fannalion of a can be ananged as in 1985. If nOl, the sugar Argentina 0 13.007 Brazil 52.000 91.041 joint sugar commercialization program aimed at could be held in stock in case of an increase in Colombia 12.000 0 raising the price of sugar on the world market. domestic consumption. Cuba 0 40.364 The I.A.A. President said that Brazil could not EEC 231,000 71.192 propose the plan earlier because of the broken Ghana sugar rehabilitation projectzl Fiji 29.000 0 relations between the two countries; they Guyana 11.000 0 together account for 40% of international sugar A project now under study covers the Malawi 24.000 0 trade with combined annual exports of about 8 rehabilitation of plantations, supply of South Africa 30.000 0 Swaziland 109.000 34.519 million tonnes. He confirmed that exports by equipment to the existing sugar factories and Zimbabwe 64.000 33.885 Brazil during lbe period May 1986/April 1987 technical and management training. Four Other countries were to be limited to roughly 2 million tonnes companies have shown interest up 10 now: one and unknown 13.000 3.906 and that this sugar had already been sold. With British, one Pakistani, one ILalian and one an export provision of 2.7 million tonnes out American. 575.000 287.914 of the 8.56 million tonnes production figure set Panama sugar factory sale to in the 1986187 Brazillian sugar plan, 700,000 Spanish sugar production, 1985/8622 Gualemala27 tonnes are temporarily withheld and, with current market prices below 6 cents/pound, Sugar production in Spain in the 1985/86 lne Government of Panama has unofficially could be held indefinitely. season (July/June) lotalled 902.815 lonnes. indicated that it has sold an antiquated but white value, of which 888,168 tonnes were beet currently oper

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Fontaine Screens have real conical holes or slots which are less prone to clogging, thus ensuring maximum filtering capacity and a uniform product. Fontaine Pure Nickel Screens have a perfectly smooth wortdng face, are acidproof, and are highly resistant to corrosion. The application of a hard-chromium layer to the working face ensures high resistance to abrasion and long screen life. Fontaine screens are made according to the latest technology and are clearty leading in design and wortunanship. When you are thinking of screens, first think of Fontaine.

For full details contact FONTAINE & CO, GmbH, a member of the --F"a...... :;; c: h group.

Fontaine & Co. GmbH · 5100 Aachen/W.-Germany • Telelon (0241) 154033 • Telex 832558 In the USA: H. Putsch & Company, Inc.· P.O. Box 5128 . Asheville, N. C. 28803 • Tel. (704) 684-0671· Telex 577 443