DOCSLIB.ORG

Financial Literacy: an Overview of Practice, Research, and Policy

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Financial Literacy: an Overview of Practice, Research, and Policy Financial Literacy: An Overview of Practice, Research, and Policy Sandra Braunstein and Carolyn Welch, of the Board's cial information. The timing and format of training, Division of Consumer and Community Affairs, pre- as well as human traits such as aversion to change, pared this article. play a role in whether programs will effect positive change that contributes to households' long-term In recent years, financial literacy has gained the atten- financial well-being. Accounting for all the variables tion of a wide range of major banking companies, associated with financial literacy training—when, government agencies, grass-roots consumer and com- how, and where it is delivered, who is trained, munity interest groups, and other organizations. Inter- and what information is presented—poses a great ested groups, including policymakers, are concerned challenge for program developers. Given the that consumers lack a working knowledge of finan- resources now devoted to financial literacy training, cial concepts and do not have the tools they need to this is an opportune time to evaluate the research, make decisions most advantageous to their economic identify best practices, and consider public policy well-being. Such financial literacy deficiencies can options that would further the goal of creating more affect an individual's or family's day-to-day money financially savvy consumers. management and ability to save for long-term goals such as buying a home, seeking higher education, or financing retirement. Ineffective money management CHANGES PROMPTING INCREASED ATTENTION can also result in behaviors that make consumers TO FINANCIAL LITERACY. vulnerable to severe financial crises. Numerous factors have led to a complex, specialized From a broader perspective, market operations and financial services marketplace that requires consum- competitive forces are compromised when consum- ers to be actively engaged if they are to manage their ers do not have the skills to manage their finances finances effectively. The forces of technology and effectively. Informed participants help create a more market innovation, driven by increased competition, competitive, more efficient market. As knowledge- have resulted in a sophisticated industry in which able consumers demand products that meet their consumers are offered a broad spectrum of services short- and long-term financial needs, providers com- by a wide array of providers. Compelling consumer pete to create products having the characteristics that issues, such as the very visible issue of predatory best respond to those demands. lending, high levels of consumer debt, and low sav- As concern about financial literacy has increased, ing rates, have also added to the sense of urgency so too have the number and variety of financial surrounding financial literacy. Other important demo- literacy training programs and program providers— graphic and market trends contributing to concerns some offering comprehensive information on sav- include increased diversity of the population, result- ings, credit, and similar topics for a broad audience ing in households that may face language, cultural, or and others tailored to a specific group, such as youth other barriers to establishing a banking relationship; or military personnel, or focused on a specific goal, expanded access to credit for younger populations; such as home ownership or savings. and increased employee responsibility for directing The findings of studies of the effectiveness their own investments in employer-sponsored retire- of financial literacy training have been mixed. ment and pension plans. Although some programs, particularly those having discrete objectives, have succeeded in improving certain aspects of consumers' personal financial Technological Changes management—such as maintaining a mortgage, and Market Innovation. increasing savings, or participating in employer- sponsored benefit plans—improved financial behav- Over the past decade, technological advances have ior does not necessarily follow from increased finan- transformed nearly every aspect of the marketing, delivery, and processing of financial products and However, consumers may have difficulty assessing services. The expansion of the Internet as a means the options, and a misguided choice can result in of communicating and delivering services has also higher costs due to monthly fees, overdrafts, or exces- enabled financial services providers to market finan- sive transactions. cial products and serve customers more efficiently. Market innovation has also prompted deregulation Communication and delivery innovations increase of the banking industry. As competition from non- the amount of information available to consumers banking institutions has increased over time, banks and allow them to shop for and choose from a wide have devised ways to offer products to customers array of products and services without geographic outside the bank-regulated structure. In response to limitation. To benefit from the innovations, however, these market realities, legislation was passed in 1999 consumers need a base level of financial knowledge, to eliminate the regulatory barriers that had prohib- so that they can identify and access pertinent informa- ited banks from engaging in the sale of securities tion as well as evaluate the credibility of the source and insurance, enabling bank-owned financial hold- of the information. ing companies to become one-stop financial services Technological advances have also increased the providers. This legislation (the Gramm-Leach-Bliley capacity for targeted marketing to consumers, with Act), recognizing the activities already occurring robust databases of consumer information making it within the marketplace, facilitated financial modern- possible to match household characteristics and pref- ization and promoted a more efficient financial ser- erences with product offerings. This application of vices industry. However, the expansion of financial technology can promote competition and improve products offered by banking organizations, for exam- customer service. However, its misuse can increase ple, securities and insurance, requires consumers to consumer vulnerability to unscrupulous lenders. become more aware of the distinction between these Questionable marketing and sales tactics may induce products and to recognize that they do not convey the consumers to acquire products that they do not need same consumer protections and rights as traditional or that are inappropriate for their circumstances. banking products. In addition to broadening the application of data- bases in marketing, technology has enabled the use of databases in loan underwriting. Using statistical mod- Rise in Questionable eling, sophisticated computer programs produce a Mortgage Lending Practices. numerically based risk profile of consumers to estab- lish a range of acceptable risk and to develop guide- An increase in anecdotal reports of unfair and lines for pricing credit. While credit-scoring tech- deceptive home equity lending practices in the late nology has increased loan production and decreased 1990s raised concerns about the scope and impact creditor costs, it has also diminished lender-customer of unscrupulous credit arrangements, commonly interaction. With the lack of personal involve- referred to as predatory lending. Investigations and ment, consumers, particularly those unfamiliar with public hearings by federal, state, and local govern- banking and credit systems, have limited means ment agencies to identify possibly unethical or preda- for obtaining insight on the elements in their finan- tory mortgage lending practices revealed that in many cial profile that affect decisionmaking and guidance cases the terms of such contracts are not technically on the course of action necessary to improve their illegal but rather are inappropriate for and disadvanta- creditworthiness. geous to consumers. An example is a loan structured Market innovation and competition within the with relatively small fixed payments in the early financial services industry can also be seen in the years but a large ''balloon'' payment at the end of the increase in the variety of products offered by deposi- loan term. Such a structure recognizes that a younger tory institutions. For example, basic deposit and borrower's future earning potential is generally credit products have multiplied and become highly greater than his or her current income and assumes specialized. In addition, there has been a proliferation that the borrower will be able to refinance at the end of nonbank providers of financial services, such as of the loan term. While the arrangement makes mort- payday lenders and check cashers. (The number of gage payments more affordable for some borrowers, check-cashing centers has doubled over the past five it can be devastating to those living on fixed incomes. years, according to Financial Service Centers of Efforts by government agencies to better under- America, Inc.) These developments have given con- stand predatory lending have generally found that the sumers more options and greater flexibility in creat- distortion or inappropriate use of credit provisions, ing financial arrangements that best suit their needs. coupled with the inherent complexity of mortgage lending, sometimes results in borrowers becoming payments on mortgage and consumer debt as a share entangled in a financially devastating credit quag- of disposable income—reaching near-record levels. mire.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Financial Literacy: an Essential Tool for Informed Consumer Choice?
    NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES FINANCIAL LITERACY: AN ESSENTIAL TOOL FOR INFORMED CONSUMER CHOICE? Annamaria Lusardi Working Paper 14084 http://www.nber.org/papers/w14084 NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 June 2008 I would like to thank Keith Ernst, Howell Jackson, Kevin Rhein, Peter Tufano, and participants to the conference "Understanding Consumer Credit: A National Symposium on Expanding Access, Informing Choices, and Protecting Consumers," Harvard Business School, November 2007, and the conference "Consumer Information and the Mortgage Market," Federal Trade Commission, Washington, D.C., May 2008 for suggestions and comments. This paper builds on several projects I have written in collaboration with Olivia Mitchell, whom I would like to thank for her encouragement, support, and many suggestions. Audrey Brown provided excellent research assistance. Any errors are my responsibility. This paper was written while visiting Harvard Business School and I would like to thank them, and in particular Peter Tufano, for their hospitality. The views expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research. NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer- reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official NBER publications. © 2008 by Annamaria Lusardi. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source. Financial Literacy: An Essential Tool for Informed Consumer Choice? Annamaria Lusardi NBER Working Paper No.
    [Show full text]
  • President's Advisory Council on Financial Literacy
    President’s Advisory Council on Financial Literacy A D V I S O ’ S R T Y N C E O D U I N S C E I R L P O Y N C A F R I N E A I T N C I A L L 2008 Annual Report to the President President’s Advisory Council on Financial Literacy “ We want people to own assets; we want people to be able to manage their assets. We want people to understand basic financial concepts, and how credit cards work and how credit scores affect you, how you can benefit from a savings account or a bank account. That’s what we want. And this group of citizens has taken the lead, and I really thank them…” “ When we look back at this council…people will say we’re glad that the administration took the action it took because somebody’s life is going to be better as a result of it.” President George W. Bush January 22, 2008 THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY III President’s Advisory Council on Financial Literacy Members of the President’s Advisory Council on Financial Literacy Charles R. Schwab, Chairman and Founder, The Charles Schwab Corporation, San Francisco, California – Chairman John Hope Bryant, CEO and Founder, Operation HOPE, Los Angeles, California – Vice Chairman Ted Beck, President and CEO, National Endowment for Financial Education (NEFE), Greenwood Village, Colorado Ted Daniels, President and CEO, Society for Financial Education and Professional Development, Arlington, Virginia Vice Admiral Cutler Dawson, President and CEO, Navy Federal Credit Union, Vienna, Virginia Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • State Banking on Financial Literacy New Model Debt Policy Released; Deadline for Public Input Sept 15
    1-TENNESSEE TOWN & CITY/AUGUST 23, 2010 www.TML1.org 6,250 subscribers www.TML1.org Volume 61, Number 14 August 23, 2010 Haslam, McWherter to face off in November GOP candidate Knoxville Mayor Bill Haslam prevailed in a three-way Republican primary race for governor. He won with 47 percent of votes, followed by 3rd District U.S. Rep. Zach Wamp in second place with almost 30 percent and Lt. Governor Ron Ramsey in third with 22 percent. Save the Dates! Meanwhile, West Tennessee businessman Mike McWherter is uncontested on the Demo- TML Annual Conference cratic side. He was unopposed after four Democratic opponents withdrew from the race. The two candidates will square off in three June 12 - 14, 2011 gubernatorial debates planned for this fall with the first scheduled for Sept. 14 in Cookeville. Congress Murfreesboro Convention Center Several Congressional races were also hotly contested. In District 9, incumbent Steve Cohen easily won his democratic primary over New Model Debt Policy former Memphis Mayor Willie Herenton. Cohen received 79 percent of the vote over GOP candidate Knoxville Herenton’s 21 percent. Mayor Bill Haslam will released; deadline for GOP challengers battled it out in District 8, face Democratic nomi- with Stephen Fincher winning the primary with nee Mike McWherter in 48.5 percent over Ron Kirkland’s 24.4 percent the November general public input Sept 15 and George Flinn’s 24 percent. Fincher will election, to determine face state Sen. Roy Herron, the Democratic who will serve as the 49th State Comptroller Justin Wilson Tennessee governmental debt issu- nominee, in the general election for the chance Governor of Tennessee.
    [Show full text]
  • Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Kindergarten §110.11. English
    revised August 2017 Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Kindergarten §110.11. English Language Arts and Reading §116.2. Physical Education §111.2. Mathematics §117.102. Art §112.11. Science §117.103. Music §113.11. Social Studies §117.104. Theatre §114.4. Languages Other Than English §126.6. Technology Applications §115.2. Health Education §110.11. English Language Arts and Reading, Kindergarten, Beginning with School Year 2009-2010. (a) Introduction. (1) The English Language Arts and Reading Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) are organized into the following strands: Reading, where students read and understand a wide variety of literary and informational texts; Writing, where students compose a variety of written texts with a clear controlling idea, coherent organization, and sufficient detail; Research, where students are expected to know how to locate a range of relevant sources and evaluate, synthesize, and present ideas and information; Listening and Speaking, where students listen and respond to the ideas of others while contributing their own ideas in conversations and in groups; and Oral and Written Conventions, where students learn how to use the oral and written conventions of the English language in speaking and writing. The Reading strand is structured to reflect the major topic areas of the National Reading Panel Report. In Kindergarten, students engage in activities that build on their natural curiosity and prior knowledge to develop their reading, writing, and oral language skills. (2) For students whose first language is not English, the students' native language serves as a foundation for English language acquisition. (A) English language learners (ELLs) are acquiring English, learning content in English, and learning to read simultaneously.
    [Show full text]
  • School Shooting, Violence and the Reconstruction of Education
    Forthcoming in The Possibility/Impossibility of a New Critical Language in Education, edited by Ilan Gur-Zeev. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. School Shootings, Violence, and the Reconstruction of Education: Some Proposals Douglas Kellner In my book Guys and Guns Amok: Domestic Terrorism and School Shootings from the Oklahoma City Bombings to the Virginia Tech Massacre (Kellner 2008), I have argued that there are many causes to the rise of school violence and events like the Columbine and Virginia Tech school shootings. Complex historical events like the Iraq invasion or the Virginia Tech and Columbine shootings require a multiperspectivist vision and interpretation of key factors that constitute the constellation from which events can be interpreted, explained, and better understood. Thus addressing the causes of problems like societal violence and school shootings involves a range of apparently disparate things such as critique of male socialization and construction of ultramasculine male identities, the prevalence of gun culture and militarism, and a media culture that promotes violence and retribution, while circulating and sensationalizing media spectacle and a culture of celebrity. Such a constellation helps construct the identities, values, and behaviour that helps incite individuals to use violence to resolve their crises of masculinity through creation of an ultramasculine identity and media spectacle, producing guys and guns amok. Accordingly, solutions that I suggest to the problems of school violence and shootings in Guys and Guns Amok range from more robust and rational gun laws, to better school and workplace security with stronger mental health institutions and better communication between legal, medical, and school administrations, to the reconstruction of masculinity and the reconstruction of education for democracy.
    [Show full text]
  • Grade 11 Argumentative Performance Task: Mandatory Financial Literacy Classes 1
    Grade 11 Writing Prompt Write an essay for your state school board arguing whether or not credit from a financial literacy class should be required for graduation. Your essay must be based on ideas, concepts, and information from the “Mandatory Financial Literacy?” passage set. Manage your time carefully so you can • plan your essay; • write your essay; and • revise and edit your essay. Be sure to • include a claim; • address counterclaims; • use evidence from multiple sources. Do not over rely on one source. Type your answer in the space provided. Grade 11 Argumentative Performance Task: Mandatory Financial Literacy Classes 1 Working Financial Literacy in With the Three R's by Tara Siegel Bernard Most Americans aren't fluent in the language of money. Yet we're expected to make big financial decisions as early as our teens—Should I take on thousands of dollars of student debt? Should I buy a car?—even though most of us received no formal instruction on financial matters until it was too late. While no course in personal finance could have prevented many Americans from getting caught up in the housing bubble, 1 it's clear that most of us need some help, preferably starting when we're still in school. And I'm not just talking about learning to balance your checkbook. It's about understanding concepts like the time value of money, risk, and reward, and, yes, the importance of savings. All of this raises these questions: What's happening inside our classrooms? And how many schools even broach the topic? As it turns out, for a country that prizes personal responsibility, we're doing very little.
    [Show full text]
  • Critical Review of the Goals for Financial Literacy
    Philippe Turineck Critical review of the goals for financial literacy Critical review of the goals for financial literacy Abstract: Financial literacy is an emerging field that is still in a phase of transition into K-12 schools. The importance of teaching financial literacy in schools is now highly recognized (Lusardi & Mitchell, 2014). Not only is financial literacy education implemented in many curricula around the world, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has administered a financial literacy assessment in 2012 and 2015 via their triennial Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). This sent an important message around the world about the importance of financial literacy in schools. The field has not had all its parameters defined and there is a need to identify what is meant by “financial literacy” and what are the goals of this new emerging field. Thus, this review seeks to synthesize and summarize common themes and trends among financial literacy literature to shed light on the goals and definitions of financial literacy. An exploration of how this field is defined within mathematics and the goals for teaching this within the discipline of mathematics will explored. Further, this review will explore how financial literacy tasks are used in the mathematics classroom and how researchers design and implement these tasks. Motivation problem: The importance of Financial Literacy Education has been fueled by the most recent financial crisis in 2008. This led many of scholars to recognize how financial literacy education can contribute to sustainable economic development and individuals’ economic well beings (Arthur, 2012). It maintains that financial literacy is a competency combined from life skills, thinking skills, financial knowledge and empowerment (Arthur, 2012).
    [Show full text]
  • OECD/INFE 2020 International Survey of Adult Financial Literacy
    OECD/INFE 2020 International Survey of Adult Financial Literacy 1 OECD/INFE 2020 International Survey of Adult Financial Literacy OECD/INFE INTERNATIONAL SURVEY OF ADULT FINANCIAL LITERACY © OECD 2020 2 Please cite this publication as: OECD (2020), OECD/INFE 2020 International Survey of Adult Financial Literacy www.oecd.org/financial/education/launchoftheoecdinfeglobalfinancialliteracysurveyreport.htm This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. © OECD 2020 You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications, databases and multimedia products in your own documents, presentations, blogs, websites and teaching materials, provided that suitable acknowledgment of OECD as source and copyright owner is given. All requests for commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to [email protected]. OECD/INFE INTERNATIONAL SURVEY OF ADULT FINANCIAL LITERACY © OECD 2020 3 Foreword Financial education, financial consumer protection and financial inclusion are recognised at the highest policy level as three essential ingredients for the financial empowerment of individuals and the overall stability of the financial system, as highlighted through three sets of high-level principles endorsed by G20 leaders: Innovative Financial Inclusion (2010); Financial Consumer Protection (2011); and National Strategies for Financial Education (2012). As indicated in the High-level Principles on National Strategies, developed by the OECD International Network on Financial Education (OECD/INFE), assessing the financial literacy competencies of the population is a key component of a successful national strategy.
    [Show full text]
  • Senate Bill No. 314–Senators Woodhouse, Denis, Dondero Loop, Parks; Brooks and Cancela
    Senate Bill No. 314–Senators Woodhouse, Denis, Dondero Loop, Parks; Brooks and Cancela CHAPTER.......... AN ACT relating to education; establishing a State Seal of Financial Literacy; requiring the Department of Education to establish a Financial Literacy Month; establishing the State Financial Literacy Advisory Council; establishing provisions relating to obtaining an endorsement to teach courses relating to financial literacy; and providing other matters properly relating thereto. Legislative Counsel’s Digest: Existing law establishes the State Seal of STEM and the State Seal of STEAM. (NRS 388.594-388.5975) Section 3 of this bill similarly establishes a State Seal of Financial Literacy. Section 4 of this bill establishes the requirements for earning a State Seal of Financial Literacy. Section 5 of this bill requires the Department of Education to establish a Financial Literacy Month, to be held once each school year. Section 5 further requires certain activities to be included in the Financial Literacy Month to the extent money is available. Section 7 of this bill requires the governing body of each regional training program for the professional development of teachers and administrators to coordinate with the Department of Education to provide an annual summit at the beginning of Financial Literacy Month. Section 5.5 of this bill establishes the State Financial Literacy Advisory Council. Section 5.7 of this bill outlines the responsibilities of the Council. Section 6 of this bill requires the Commission on Professional Standards in Education to establish the requirements for obtaining an endorsement in teaching courses relating to financial literacy. (NRS 391.019) Existing law also requires a regional training program for the professional development of teachers and administrators to provide certain training for educational personnel.
    [Show full text]
  • Teaching Financial Literacy Education Needs to Be on the Forefront of Economic Policy and Education
    33 Queens Street, Suite 100, Syosset, NY 11791 VOICE (800) NUA-4556 or (516) 802-4192, FAX (516) 921-0298 www.nuatc.org Teaching Financial Literacy Education needs to be on the forefront of economic policy and education. “Literacy in schools often refers to reading, writing and arithmetic. However real life learning, as demonstrated by our current economic crisis, reinforces our belief that the teaching of financial literacy should no longer be an option for the children in our nation’s schools. Our job is to help teachers integrate financial literacy into existing curriculum and to make learning relevant to the needs of today’s students.”1 - Dr. Gerald Lauber, National Urban Alliance It has become increasingly evident that nations around the globe are still in the grip of the worst economic freefall since the Great Depression. Crisis, as we know, also provides opportunity. Over fifty years ago, the launching of Sputnik jarred our national view of science education and provided the impetus for refocusing our nation’s priorities. Today this epic financial crisis must turn our attention to how and what we teach our children about sound financial practices. America's promise, self-actualization for all citizens, should be founded on education and critical thinking with an emphasis on financial literacy. For decades, our education system has failed to equip Americans with basic financial knowledge and thinking strategies needed to insure that we have educated consumers. The symptoms of this lack of financial literacy are all around us and are reflected in the current low savings rates, the mortgage crisis, the debt burden carried by so many Americans, and their increasing sense of fiscal and personal despair.
    [Show full text]
  • Paulo Freire's Influence in Rural Uganda
    DSJ, 6(1), 65-82 ISSN: 2578-2029 Copyright © 2021 Research Articles Challenging Socio-Economic Marginalization: Paulo Freire’s Influence in Rural Uganda Fred Jenga University of Texas at Austin INTRODUCTION aulo Freire’s thinking on marginalization, adult education, and sustainable development has been explored in different parts of Africa (Alexander, 1990; Ikechukwu, 1995; Mda, 1994; P Nekhwevha, 2002; Okigbo,1991; Prinsloo, 1987; Vally, 2007; Wamba dia Wamba, 1994), but none of the studies pays attention to the element of theology. This essay explores the intersection of Freirean thinking on adult education, Catholic social teaching, and liberation theology in addressing socio-economic marginalization in rural Uganda. Through the work of Atanansi Community Based Organization in rural Uganda, the study illustrates the effectiveness of Freirean methods in undoing the complex process of marginalization, and the ensuing self- empowerment of rural communities. In the first section I highlight the global and local background upon which the marginalization of people in rural Uganda has been built, and in the second section I explain the Christian faith impulses that drove the local interventions. In the third section I explain the application of the ideas of liberation theology and Paulo Freire in the founding and operation of Atanansi Community Based Organization. In the last section I discuss the social impact of Freire’s ideas in the community, and on me personally. NEOLIBERAL REFORMS, CORRUPTION, AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC EXCLUSION IN UGANDA eidhues and Obare (2011) argue that in the 1960s when most African countries got independence, the majority of African leaders believed that the private sector was too Hback -ward and that government had to play the dominant role.
    [Show full text]
  • Grade 11 Argumentative Performance Task: Mandatory Financial Literacy Classes 1 Sources for Performance Task
    Grade 11 Argumentative Performance Task: Mandatory Financial Literacy Classes Task: In your economics class, you are discussing the importance of making smart financial decisions. Your teacher tells you that, in some school districts, students are required to take a financial literacy class before graduating. Your school board is hosting a meeting to decide whether to offer such a course for graduation and wants students to contribute their perspectives. As part of your initial research, you have found four sources about financial literacy classes. After you have reviewed these sources, you will answer some questions about them. Briefly scan the sources and the three questions that follow. Then, go back and read the sources carefully so you will have the information you will need to answer the questions and finalize your research. In Part 1, you will answer questions about the reading passages. In Part 2, you will write an argumentative essay using information you have read. Directions for Beginning: You will now examine several sources. You can re-examine any of the sources as often as you like. Research Questions: After examining the research sources, use the rest of the time in Part 1 to answer three questions about them. Your answers to these questions will be scored. Also, your answers will help you think about the information you have read and reviewed, and should help you write your argumentative essay. Answer the questions in the spaces below the items. Grade 11 Argumentative Performance Task: Mandatory Financial Literacy Classes 1 Sources for Performance Task: Source #1 This article, from April 9, 2010, is from the New York Times, and is about the potential benefits of financial literacy courses.
    [Show full text]