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Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, Vol. 57, Pp. 1–24 On the origin of natural history: Steno’s modern, but forgotten philosophy of science JenS MOrten HanSen Hansen, J. M. 2009–11–01. On the origin of natural history: Steno’s modern, but forgotten philosophy of science © 2009 by Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark, Vol. 57, pp. 1–24. ISSn 0011– 6297. (www.2dgf.dk/publikationer/bulletin) https://doi.org/10.37570/bgsd-2009-57-01 nicolaus Steno (niels Stensen, 1638–86) is considered to be the founder of geology as a discipline of modern science, and is also considered to be founder of scientific conceptions of the human glands, muscles, heart and brain. With respect to his anatomical results the judgment of posterity has always considered Steno to be one of the founders of modern anatomy, whereas Steno’s paternity to the me­ thods known to day of all students of geology was almost forgotten during the 130 yr from 1700 to 1830. Besides geology and anatomy there are still important sides of Steno’s scientific contributions to be rediscovered. Steno’s general philosophy of science is one of the clearest formulated philosophies of modern science as it appeared during the 17th Century. It includes • separation of scientific methods from religious arguments, • a principle of how to seek “demonstrative certainty” by demanding considerations from both reductionist and holist perspectives, • a series of purely structural (semiotic) principles developing a stringent basis for the pragmatic, historic (diachronous) sciences as opposed to the categorical, timeless (achronous) sciences, • “Steno’s ladder of knowledge” by which he formulated the leading principle of modern science i.e., how true knowledge about deeper, hidden causes (“what we are ignorant about”) can be approached by combining analogue experiences with logic reasoning. However, Steno’s ideas and influence on the general principles of modern science are still quite un­ known outside Scandinavia, Italy, France and Germany. this unfortunate situation may be explained with the fact that most of his philosophical statements have not been translated to english until recent decades. Several Latin philologists state that Steno’s Latin language is of great beauty and poetic value, and that translations to other languages cannot give justice to Steno’s texts. thus, translations may have seemed too difficult. Steno’s ideas on the philosophy of science appear in both his many anatomical and in his fewer geological papers, all of which with one exception (in French) were written in Latin. a concentration of his philosophy of science was given by himself in his last scientific lecture “Prooemium” (1673), which was not translated from Latin to english before 1994. therefore, after the decline of Latin as a scientific language Steno’s philosophy of science and ideas on scientific reasoning remained quite unknown, although his ideas should be considered extremely modern and path finding for the scientific revolution of the bio­ and geo­sciences. Moreover, Steno’s philosophy of science is com­ parable to Immanuel Kant’s 80 yr younger theory on perception, Charles S. Peirce’s 230 yr younger theory on abduction, and—especially—Karl r. Popper’s 300 yr younger theory on scientific discovery by conjecture and refutation. the general outset of Steno’s philosophy of science constitutes an important step from the Medi­ eval’s and the renaissance’s way of thinking into the 17th Century’s appearance of modern sciences and the 18th Century’s enlightenment. the 18th Century’s as well as present day’s dichotomy of science into the traditional creationistic and the new historical interpretations to some extent can be traced back to Steno and his methods. Keywords: Steno, Philosophy of science, natural history, Principles of geology, Diachronous science, enlightenment. this paper has been printed in a nearly identical version in Geological Society of america Memoir 203, 2009. Printed herein with GSa’s permission. Jens Morten Hansen, [[email protected]] Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark Hansen: On the origin of natural history: Steno’s modern, but forgotten philosophy of science · 1 as indicated by Steno’s (niels Stensen, 1638­1686; Fig. religion. But it also led to unresolved conflicts between 1) foundation of methods for reconstruction of past the diachronous bio-geo-sciences, where time is an ir­ events and by his description of tuscany’s geologi­ reversible circumstance tying all natural forces and cal history as a succession of developments Steno is events to each other, and—on the other hand—the a forerunner of a pragmatic gradualistic-evolutionary achronous sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry tradition. Following Steno’s historical understanding (except for thermodynamics) and molecular biology of the chaotic development of the earth a series of (except for genetics), where time in all notions and for­ important scientists—such as Leibniz, Buffon, Hutton, mulas is nothing but a reversible measuring parameter. Lamarck, Halley, Lyell, Darwin, Boltzmann, Gilbert, For his time Steno’s ideas on scientific recovery Wegener, and Bohr—became “Stenonian” representa­ represent an extraordinarily stringent methodology tives of a historical and pragmatic understanding of allowing cool science and religious feelings to exist nature. However, in opposition to Steno’s new way of side by side, provided science is considered to be thinking, which later dominated geology and natural “Man’s highest praise to God.” this idea led Steno history, the traditional creationistic or categorical think- to an—for his time—highly unusual humble and ing dominated physics and systematic biology. Great pragmatic attitude to “the search for truth.” the names—such as John ray, newton, Cuvier, Linnaeus, breaking points of Steno’s philosophical ideas—and Laplace, Kelvin, einstein, Hawking and many other his eventual importance for the development of the influential scientists of the enlightenment and the historical or diachronous sciences and their conflicts Modernity—quite successfully tried to maintain a cos­ with some religions as well as with the creationistic mology of divine order and predictability determined or achronous tradition of most disciplines of physics at the Creation (or in our days at the “Big Bang”). and chemistry—can briefly be summarized as follows: especially, after Darwin these opposing viewpoints not only led to severe conflicts between science and Religious arguments are invalid in scientific reasoning. Although God has created Nature this divine cause is not meant to show how to understand nature scientifically. On the contrary true scientific understanding should enlighten the Scripture and is Man’s highest praise to God. as shown by Descartes a few decades previously Steno had agreed that it is necessary to reduce all problems, observations and understandings to a number of simple, separate situations (reductionism). However, after having reduced all problems as much as possible a scientist must also observe, describe, analyze and understand these reduced problems in coherence as complex, interacting systems (i.e. yield a systemic or “holistic” understanding). especially, through his methods of “consequent induction” (recognition, conjecture, refutation and generalization) and through his deductive and forensic methods for chronological reconstruction (“back­stripping”) Steno showed how to integrate such reduced situations to systemic and historic coherent understandings. On their own premises empirical and analytical methods are scientifically fruitful. However, the highest level of scientific understanding can only be approached by iterative interaction of both methods (as illustrated in Figure 2). Figure 1. Portrait of Steno when he was app. 30 yr old, probably as seen from the present day viewpoint, these ideas painted by the dutch artist Justus Sustermans who was a mem­ may appear to be both modern and elementary. But ber of grand duke Ferdinand II’s court. the original painting is that was not the case at Steno’s time. arguments found in the Uffizi gallery in Florence. taken from the Bible were generally considered 2 · Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark superior to any other argument. Moreover, Uniting Steno’s philosophical ideas from analytical reasoning was by most of Steno’s anatomy and geology contemporaneous philosophers held superior to With a few exceptions modern historians of science empirical observations. Many philosophers even do not connect Steno’s many anatomical papers with thought that empirical observations could be directly his no less important geological and paleontological misleading (e.g., Descartes and also Steno’s friend works or with his first scientific thesis on the nature of in rome, the renowned athanasius Kircher). at that heat (“De Solido,” 1669; “Canis Carchariae,” 1667; “De time Descartes’ newly established methodology of thermis,” 1660). For obvious reasons most historians reductionism was about to rule science, whereas of science to some extent are limited by their primary “holistic” or systemic putting things together was still interest of a certain branch of science. Consequently, ruled by speculations on divine forces and powers. important complementary developments from other the tradition of reductionism founded by Descartes disciplines of science may remain undiscussed. More­ was followed by Isaac newton. He also fought against over, some of Steno’s more important papers contain­ his mathematical peer and competitor, G.W. Leibniz,
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