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'Gensan Is Halu-Halo': a Study of Muslim/Christian Social Relations In

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'Gensan Is Halu-Halo': a Study of Muslim/Christian Social Relations In ‘Gensan is halu-halo’: a study of Muslim/Christian social relations in a regional city of the southern Philippines Lois Ann Hall B.A. (Hons) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Western Australia, School of Social and Cultural Studies, Discipline of Anthropology and Sociology 2010 i Abstract This thesis is set in General Santos City (Gensan), a regional city in southern Mindanao, on the geographic fringe of, but largely removed from, the secessionist conflict which has continued to blight the lives of people in the South for over four decades. The land on which the city is located was originally considered to be the homeland of both lumad (originally indigenous animist peoples) and Muslim groups. However, government- sponsored migration programmes to Mindanao, post World War II, have seen the Christian population outnumber the Muslims many times over. In the years 2001-2002, the Muslims comprised just five percent of the city‟s population. While the conflict between armed Muslim separatists and government soldiers in the hinterlands provided an everyday backdrop to life, my challenge was to discover how „ordinary‟ Muslims and Christians - neither elites nor combatants - dealt with the social reality of living in close proximity to each other in an urban setting on the edge of the main conflict zone. Through interviews I investigated the various class positions of individuals as they articulated their dreams for themselves and their families and the manner in which they went about achieving them. At the same time, I recorded the ways in which they viewed themselves, and their near neighbours, in order to elicit how social boundaries were constructed, and maintained, between the two religiously defined groups. Close observation of popular ritual events in the public arena provided ideal opportunities to investigate significant religious and social hierarchies that existed in the city. Good Friday Mass, as well as an Ecumenical service in the public park, enabled analysis of the religious hierarchy, and firmly established the primacy of Christian Catholicism, followed by Protestant Christian denominations, with Islam relegated to the lowest order. Yet other significant religious occasions, such as All Souls‟ Day, demonstrated the manner in which religious categories became blurred. Secular festivals, whilst tending to reinforce religious hierarchies, also illustrated the situational nature of ethnicity and religious identity, and confirmed the class positions that many of the participants and spectators occupied. This thesis provides a valuable contribution to the corpus of literature on Muslim/Christian relations, and speaks, not only to the Philippines, but to similar situations around the globe. It illustrates the problems with essentialising discourses by demonstrating the manner in which religiously-defined boundaries are blurred by ii people acting their lives around and across them, often in accordance with non-religious conditions and circumstances. Despite the usual dichotomised depiction of Muslims and Christians as monolithic and oppositional groups, in General Santos City I found that individuals were marrying across religious boundaries at surprising rates. This resulted in some unusual articulations of identity and practice. The economic imperative that motivated much Christian migration to Mindanao has seen many businesses in Gensan become so successful that the city itself is often referred to as the „Boom City‟ of the Philippines. People from all walks of life were focussed on education and work as the best way to get ahead in this place, which they believed provided untold opportunities for them. Despite usurpation of Muslim land, and ingrained and institutionalised bias against the Muslim population in general, I show that the shared imperative for economic progress is a major contributor to peace in the city; uniting Muslims and Christians, yet also dividing by class, ethnic, and gender distinctions. In the years 2001-2002, „the Muslims‟ and „the Christians‟ in Gensan were not so much two oppositional groups, but a single co-operative community, organised nonetheless through a system of social inequality based on gender, class, and ethnicity, as well as religious affiliation. This thesis explores and documents the complex ways in which these identities intersect, are constructed, and dissolved. An older Muslim woman, when asked who her neighbours were, stated simply, „Gensan is ‘halu-halo’. Usually translated literally into English as „mix-mix‟, it is the fluid character of the heterogeneous „halu-halo’ social order, and the promise of prosperity, that stands against the polarising tendencies of the secessionist struggle further afield in the southern Philippines. iii Acknowledgements Life was so much simpler way back when I began this thesis. The children had all left home; weddings and grandchildren were certainly not contemplated. However, since the process has taken so long, there have been several weddings, and eight grandchildren, and still they continue to arrive. Despite all the distractions, and numerous deviations, I am relieved to say that this personal journey is almost over. The fieldwork for this thesis was undertaken while I was a Visiting Research Associate affiliated with the Institute of Philippine Culture (IPC) at the Ateneo de Manila University in Quezon City. Thank you to the staff at IPC, particularly Cecille Bartolome, who welcomed me and helped me through administrative requirements. I offer my thanks to Cora Bolong, and her colleagues at the Philippine Social Science Council, for the kindness and friendship shown to me during my time in Manila. It was through them that I found my initial contact person in General Santos City and I remain ever grateful. I am indebted to Raul Pertierra who generously allowed me to use his home in Manila in his absence. Manang Kulasing, who was there in Manila when I arrived, showered me with attention, permitted me to accompany her on many forays to the markets and when attending to business. Without her presence, my transition from home to field would have been incredibly difficult and so I extend my love and gratitude to her. Along the way I have accumulated numerous other debts of gratitude. Thanks go to all those people I met in the field who contributed so willing to my project. Without your contributions there would be no thesis. I sincerely hope that I have used your confidences wisely in my search for greater understanding. Special thanks to Rufa Cagoco-Guiam and her family, and to Jane Siao, whose friendship sustained me in the field, and continues to inform me from afar. Thanks again to Jane, and Ligaya Guiampaca, who provided their expertise as interpreters and research assistants in the field. Eilleen and Jojo Villamor, Domingo Non, Datu Al Hassan, Indah Ibrahim, Narodin Manibpod, Arceline Castañares, and the Gensan staff of Western Mining Corporation also provided practical help and friendship to the novice anthropologist in the field. iv My heartfelt gratitude goes to Jane Mulcock for her friendship and support over the long years; without her there would be no final product. She has read drafts, given sage advice, and has absolutely refused to let me be defeated by the enormity of the process. My gratitude also goes to Michaela Evans who shared the journey part of the way. She has offered practical insights, read drafts, and helped with formatting the final product, all the while listening to tales of woe. Over the years, the staff, and a considerable number of other post-graduate colleagues from the Discipline of Anthropology and Sociology, have listened to my bleating and given me encouragement and advice. My thanks go to my supervisors, Michael Pinches and Greg Acciaioli, for reading numerous drafts and providing valuable feedback. Their belief in my ability to see this thesis through to a successful conclusion has also provided the motivation to continue on despite the vicissitudes of life. Special thanks to Michael who inspired me with his knowledge and love of the Philippines, and to Greg for reminding me to continue feeding my soul with the classical music that we both love. Thanks go to Gill Hutcherson, Michael Azariadis, Cath Pattenden, Alison Reif, Manonita Ghosh, and Nita Womersley, who have all offered friendship and encouragement over the years. A big thank you also goes to Jill Woodman (the Boss Woman), for knowing the rules, and for always delivering all her administrative help with a smile. My thanks go to my wonderful children, Melanie, Linda, Marcus, and Kane, and their beautiful families. Without their help I can definitely say the thesis would have been completed some years ago. Long may they have need of me for, without them I am truly diminished. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my husband Don Hall, and to my grandson Harrison Pierce. Don, you are my rock. Thank you for your continuing belief in me, and for your undying love, and support, over the years. And Harrison, I also dedicate this work to you with love because you will never be able to undertake such a journey of discovery. v Table of Contents ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... III TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... V LIST
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