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Home , Resin extraction

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES [CAES]

SCHOOL OF , ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY, TOURISM AND BIODIVERSITY

THE INFLUENCE OF DIAMETER ON YIELD FROM PINUS CARIBAEA AT KIKONDA RESERVE KYANKWANZI DISTRICT

NADIOPE ALLAN

14/U/10800/PS

21400214

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF FORESTRY, GEOGRAPHICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR AWARD OF DEGREE INBACHELOR’S OF SCIENCE IN CONSERVATION FORESTRY AND PRODUCTS ENGINEERING OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

AUGUST 2018 i

DEDICATION I dedicate this report to my family whose love and support has continually inspired my life and academic life as a whole.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am so grateful to the almighty God for everything throughout my academic life, for without him seeing me through would not have made it. I thank you every day of my life.

My appreciation goes to my family more so my dear mum Nakubugo Rehema and dear father Mr. Kalema Steven, Mukyala Daphine, Kagoda Timothy, K. Joel, Sendawula Ibrahim and Nalule Getrude for being there for me in very moment of my life and for the financial support throughout my academic journey, am grateful.

My appreciation goes to the entire management of Global Company Kikonda forest reserve for their support to in all aspects during this research, Mr. Otim Moses, Mr.Zakaliya, Mr. Blessing. Mr. Leo T. Ms. Priscilla, Mugabi Collins, Matovu Brian, Kimuli Nicolas and Kasimu.

My exceptional appreciation goes also to my supervisor Dr. Christine Nagawa for not giving up on me throughout the research study, her advice and guidance has enabled me complete this important part of my life has new adventures awaits me.

God to bless you all.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION...... i DEDICATION...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Back ground ...... 1 1.2 Problem statement ...... 2 1.4 Justification of the study ...... 3 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 4 2.1 Non-timber forest products ...... 4 2.1.1 Natural ...... 4 2.1.2 Types of resins ...... 5 ...... 6 2.2 Uses of resins ...... 7 2.3 Techniques for resin tapping used around the world ...... 8 CHAPTER THREE ...... 13 MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 13 3.1 Description of the study area ...... 13 3.2 Experimental setup ...... 14 3.2.1 Resin tapping process ...... 15 3.3 Data collection ...... 15 3.4 Data analysis ...... 15 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 16 4.1.2 The total amount of resin collected from the sample ...... 17 4.1.3 Amount of resin produced at different diameter classes ...... 17 4.2 The best minimal start diameter for resin tapping ...... 19 4.3 The relationship between the diameter of the trees and resin amount produced ...... 20 4.4 Effect of rain on resin production ...... 21 4.5 Resin production costs and profits ...... 22

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CHAPTER FIVE ...... 24 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 24 5.1 Conclusions ...... 24 5.2 Recommendations ...... 24 References ...... 26

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ABSTRACT

Non- timber forest products obtained from both natural and planted can contribute significantly to poverty alleviation through income generation and employment opportunities. Planted forests are mainly composed of a single crop or tree species such as Pinus species that are grown on both a small and large scale. The main purpose for Pinus species in Uganda is timber production, however, at Kikonda forest reserve extraction and harvesting of resin from the Pinus trees is done. The main objective of the study was to determine the influence of tree diameter on the amount of resin produced when the tree is injured. Two plots were established in different compartments (D07 and E03), 30 trees were tapped for resin for a month using the American method of resin tapping. The trees were grouped into five diameter classes. The total amount of resin collected from compartment D07 and E03 was7.354kg and 5.671kg respectively. Basing on the results from this study, the best minimal start diameter for resin tapping was between 21.0 cm to 25.9 cm Dbh. The relationship between the tree diameter and resin amount produced and collected showed a very weak correlation (0.129). The relationship between tree diameter and resin produce was statistically non significant (p value 0.327<0.05) with a sample of 60 trees. Thus there was no statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis hence it was concluded that diameter does not directly influence the resin amount produced however, the amount of resin produced slightly increased with increase in tree diameter due to the observed positive weak correlation between diameter and resin amount produced. Therefore trees with a minimum diameter of 21.0 cm Dbh should be considered for resin tapping operations.

Key words: Non-timber forest products, Resin, Tree diameter, Resin tapping

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Main species from which resin is produced and their yield ...... 12 Table 2: Total resin amount collected from each individual tree ...... 16 Table 3: Amount of resin collected from compartment D07 and E03 ...... 17 Table 4: Resin amount collected from each class ...... 17 Table 5: Regression analysis between diameter and amount of resin collected ...... 20 Table 6: Costing of resin and profit ...... 22 Table 7: Summary cost for resin production as at Kikonda forest reserve resin department ...... 23

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Showing the five techniques of resin tapping 1. Chinese method 2. American method 3.Hugues or French method 4.Mazek or Rill method 5.Borehole method (Alejandro, 2012) ..... 10 Figure 2: A map showing f Kikonda forest reserve compartment D07 and E03 ...... 13 Figure 3: An established plot in compartment D07 ...... 14 Figure 4: An established plot in compartment E03 ...... 14 Figure 5: Total amount of resin produced...... 18

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Back ground Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are any products or services other than timber that are produced in forests (Cottray, 2006). They include fruits and nuts, vegetables, fish and , medicinal plants, resins, essences and a range of barks and fibers such as , , and a host of other palms and grasses (Shackleton et al., 2011). According to Center for International forestry Research (CIFOR, 2017), over the past two decades, governments, conservation and development agencies and non-government organizations have encouraged the marketing and sale of NTFPs as a way of boosting income for poor people in the tropics and encouraging forest conservation. In addition (Hall and Bawa, 1993) studied non-timber forest products as means of improving the rural economy and the wellbeing of the indigenous societies that rely on the NTFPs for subsistence and cash income.

In Africa, NTFPs play a major role in rural economies despite the fact that information on their overall contribution is not sufficient enough expect for a few species and products of commercial importance (FAO, 2003). Forests are a source of a variety of NTFPs such as fruits, gums and resins, and beeswax, medicinal and aromatic plants, bush meats among others. These products are of great importance to the livelihoods of rural communities, for example some are used as food, medicinal purposes and others are sold for generating income. The commercial species that are being considered include among others the resinous species and particularly in Africa Pinus species being extensively grown (FAO, 2003)

In Uganda, forests and woodlands cover about 2.6 million hectares (UBOS, 2011) and about 9% of the total land area is established as a permanent forest for protecting the environment and providing forest products and services to the society. However, increased population pressure is leading to depletion of forest resources thus conservation agencies like CIFOR, Eco trust Uganda, Environmental Alert among others are encouraging people to use the forests sustainably by collecting non-timber forest products as compared to extraction of timber products. Commercialization of NTFPs generates about US$ 33million per year around the world. (IFPRI, 2002) However, Uganda is not offering much of non-timber forest products at the international

1 level because the bulk of the NTFPs being exported are in a raw form reducing their market and value addition (Kanabahita, 2001). Uganda is endowed with a variety of NTFPs that can be commercialized thus improving livelihood through poverty reduction. Market for these products in Uganda is growing as the population is becoming more aware of their economic values (Kaboggoza, 2011). According to the World Bank collection of development indicators in 2011 reported in increase in Uganda forest products exports to be at 9944000(FAO current US$).

In Uganda, the extraction of resin as a non-timber is entirely a new venture that not many companies and forest owners are engaged. Currently resin is being tapped at Kikonda forest reserve under Global Woods AG and the species being tapped is Pinus carribaea, but since the activity is new there is need for more research in the extraction processes and improvement of this NTFP so as to be able to attract and encourage other forest owners and companies to get involved in the tapping of resin.

1.2 Problem statement In Uganda, many plantations have been established by different individuals and organizations mainly for timber production (Kaboggoza, 2011). However, because of the longer periods these trees take to be mature for harvest, the owners have to be patient before they can get any returns from these plantations. This has therefore encouraged extraction of non-timber forest products that could generate income as the trees mature (Cottray et al., 2006). Among these NTFPs is resin, obtained from Pinus species.

The fact that there is variation in diameter among even-aged pine trees possesses a question on whether all the trees in a given can be tapped for resin ( Hadiyane et al., 2015). Basing on the trees at the reserve there is need for information about the amount of resin produced by trees at different diameters and thus the minimal diameter at which trees can be selected for resin tapping to generate reasonably feasible returns from this alternative source of income to the forest reserve. 1.3 Objectives General objective To determine the amount of resin produced by Pinus carribaea at Kikonda forest reserve.

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Specific objectives 1. To determine the amount of resin produced by pine of different diameters 2. To determine the best minimal start tree diameter for resin tapping 3. To determine the relationship between diameter of the tree and amount of resin produced. Hypothesis

Ho: The amount of resin produced does not increase with increase in tree diameter

1.4 Justification of the study In Uganda, establishment of plantations especially for eucalyptus and pine on both private and public depleted forest reserve land is increasing everyday as a way of conservation and protection of this land. Since pine plantations take long to mature, extraction of resin becomes a possible activity that can generate extra income from the plantation as it matures.

Resin tapping is an important economic activity in many parts of the world (Giri et al., 2008), it allows for added value during rotation period of pine plantations. The added value is seen in the diversification of the outputs and economic benefits the owners obtain without compromising the production for the traditional markets (Susaetaet al., 2014). Hence this study will provide information on how to best fulfill the utilization objectives for pine plantations.

The results and conclusions from the study can be used by other forest owners, forestry companies and nevertheless forestry investors to assess if they can also carry out resin tapping in their own pine plantations especially by use of the minimal diameter from which resin tapping can be started at in plantations that are in their earlier years.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Non-timber forest products

Non- timber forest products include products such , leaves, fruits, seeds, honey, fuel wood, gums and resins (Sunderland et al., 2003). According to (Mulenga et al., 2011). Over 60 percent of the Sub Sahara Africa’s population live near forested areas and they therefore rely on NTFPs in order to satisfy their basic needs such as income, food, medicine, wood, shade, soil fertilization, and fodder for animals (Belem et al., 2007) thus NTFPs is important to rural households in developing countries. Resins are naturally synthesized organic substances that are produced in the resin ducts as a response to damage or injury to the plant surface (Langenheim, 2003). Resins and gums occupy a prime place among the NTFPs and perhaps the most widely used and traded non-timber forest product other than items consumed directly as food, fodder for animals and medicine (Giri et al., 2008). Use of gums and resins for domestic consumption and sale to earn some income is a way common among forest dwelling communities.

Examples of non-timber forest products that are being extracted specifically for commercial purpose is the resin from the Pinus species (Coppen and Hone 1995). The extaction of resin on a large scale is possible because of the many pine plantations that are established on both depleted forest reserves and on private land. Resin is produced as a response to injury or damage to the plant stem or when the bark of the tree is removed (CIFOR, 2017). There are many Pinus species in different countries that are being tapped for resin, for example in Brazil, Argentina and South Africa Pinus elliotti is being tapped for resin, in Portugal –Pinus pinaster, Pinusoccarpa in Mexico and Honduras and in Kenya Pinus radiata and Pinus carribaea are being tapped for resin (Alejandro, 2012).

2.1.1 Natural resins

The resins of , Pinus species are synthesized and stored in resin ducts and like all other secondary metabolites they function as a chemical defense mechanism against pathogens and

4 herbivores (Langenheim, 2003). Injuries to resin duct system causes the accumulation of oleoresins at the injury site (Martin et al., 2002) forming a physical barrier against the boring insects and also act on vectors of pathogenic fungi (Wallis et al., 2003). Resin flow is a defense mechanism response controlled by various environmental factors such as the amount of sunlight, rainfall among others (Rogrigues et al., 2009). When a stem of the tree is damaged or injured, the resin will ooze out. On exposure to air the resin produced hardens so as to seal the injured or damaged area. Natural resins of particular importance to the furniture coatings are rosin, dammar, copal, sandarac, amber, and manila (Mantell, 2003). The principal characteristics of resins are: they are insoluble in water, they are soluble in ordinary solvents like alcohol, ether and , they are brittle, amorphous and are transparent or semi-transparent, and they have a characteristic luster, are ordinary fusible and when ignited, resins burn with a smoky flame.

2.1.2 Types of resins There are different types of resins that are being used for different purposes around the world (Rawat, 2000) for example; Hard Resins: These are resins that are not surprisingly hard and they include;  Dammar – obtained from the Dipterocarpaceae family of lowland, tropical trees from around the globe and the Agathis trees of Southeast Asia and northern Australia. Dammar is used as a glaze for foods, crafts, incense, , and more.  – obtained from the Mediterranean Mastic Tree (Pistacialentiscus). Mastic was commonly used as a natural , but it is also used in ice creams, puddings, pastries, nougat, sauces, soups, fruit and vegetable preserves, soft drinks, coffee, liqueurs, and many other foods. It has a long history as a medicinal and incense, and is also used in perfumes and cosmetics and even in . (Aksoy et al., 2006)  Sandarac – obtained from the Sandarac Tree (Tetraclinisarticulata) of North Africa in a dry, Mediterranean climate. Sandarac is used for varnish and .

Oleoresins: These are resins that contain an oil component naturally made by the tree. They typically stay soft or gum-like examples include  Balsams – obtained from a variety of trees and shrubs. Balsams contain certain esters (e.g. benzoic or cinnamic acid) that are aromatic, and therefore, balsam is commonly used for as a fragrance and a traditional medicine.

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 Copaiba – obtained from the Copaifera genus of leguminous trees of South America. Used in varnishes and .  Elemi – obtained from the Elemi Tree (Canariumluzonicum) tree of the Philippines. Used in varnishes, lacquers, and traditional medicine.  Labdanum – obtained from the Rockrose (Cistus species) from the Mediterranean. Used in traditional medicine and perfumes.  High-Terpene Resins – obtained most commonly from pine Trees (Pinus species). Terpetines can be a good reference to these oleoresins examples.

Gum Resins: These are produced with a (sugars/polysaccharides) instead of oil. Examples of gum resins include:  – obtained from the Boswellia genus of trees from tropical Africa and Asia. Used as incense, perfume, medicinal, and had many religious ties.  Guggal – obtained from the Guggal Tree (Commiphorawightii) of North Africa and central Asia. Used as a traditional medicine for circulatory problems and nervous system disorders  – obtained from the Commiphora genus of tree of tropical Africa, Asia, and South America. Used as a fragrance and medicine for mouthwashes and circulatory problems. Fossilized Resins:

 Amber – the color “amber” is named after this amber-colored plant resin that has (been) fossilized, although there is blue amber that is stunning. Amber sometime contains animals or insects and is used in paleontology. Amber is used in jewelry, traditional medicine, perfumes, incense, varnishes, and lacquers.  Copal – this is a resin that has not quite been fossilized yet, so it can be considered a resin that is on its way to become amber. It has been used as incense and medicine and varnish.

Rosin Solidified resin from which the volatile terpene components have been removed by distillation is known as rosin. Rosin is a solid resin obtained from and some other plants, mostly conifers. These may also be produced by heating fresh liquid resin to vaporize the volatile liquid

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(terpene) components. Typical rosin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown color, non-odorous or having only a slight turpentine odor and taste. Rosin is insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether and hot fatty oils, and softens and melts under the influence of heat, and burns with a bright but smoky flame. (Fiebach and Grimm, 2000). Rosin consists of a complex mixture of different substances including organic acids called the resin acids. These are closely related to the terpenes, and are derived from them through partial oxidation. Resin acids can be dissolved in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the purified resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids. Examples of resin acids are abietic acid (sylvic acid), C20H30O2, plicatic acid contained in cedar, and pimaric acid, C20H30O2, a constituent of galipot resin. Abietic acid can also be extracted from rosin by means of hot alcohol; it crystallizes in leaflets, and on oxidation yields trimellitic acid, isophthalic acid and terebic acid. Pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when distilled in a vacuum; it has been supposed to consist of three isomers.

2.2 Uses of resins  The exploration of oleoresin derived terpenes form renewable pine forests is used as fuel for jets and rockets thus in total or partial replacement of conventional fuel engines. (Rogrigues- correaa et al., 2013). Therefore both quantitative and qualitative aspects of oleoresin from pines give support to a wide range of candidate terpenes for the development of utilisation of biofuels. Olersins are considered alternative biofuels because of the potential net heat combustion of their dimers which is compared to that heat of conventional fuels (Harvey and Farizul, 2011)  Most chemical insecticides are potentially harmful molecules to human health and the environment (Langley and Mort, 2012). As an alternative, oleoresins derived terpenes can be used as renewable and environmentally friendly products used in production of insecticides. This is because of the repellent property of the oleoresin.  Foodsafety is matter of great importance of major concerns for society in general. Terpenes from resins are used as an alternative tool for reserving and food protection, forexamaple in softdrinks and packed food (Belleti et al., 2010).  Pine oleoresin and , low cost methods to mitigate the increasing levels of carbondioxide in the atmosphere and there implications on global climate change have received considerable attention in recent years (Daniel and Winner, 2009). is therefore an alternative to reduce the rise in atmospheric carbondioxide concentration due to the

7 forest system ability to fix carbon in plant and soil (Coyle et al., 2016). Nature and commercial pine forests are able to sequester and stablise carbon from the atmosphere and potentailly to contribute to counterracting the green house effect. Studies show that monocultures platations exhibit superior ability in sequestering carbon (Balboa-Murias et al., 2006)

2.3 Techniques for resin tapping used around the world Around 1850, Pierre Hugues develops the first pine resin tapping technique in the Landes de Gascogne, France, system that is applied even now days, for example, in Indonesia. We can identify four tapping techniques currently used around the world. Oleoresin production can be modulated by resin-tapping methods (Cunningham, 2012) associated with chemical stimulation treatment (Rodrigues-Corrêa and Fett-Neto 2012) for example the bore hole or drill method produces more resin compared to other methods. Pine resin tapping techniques used around the world

 Chinese method A downward-pointing V-shaped groove is cut every day, deep enough to reach the secondary xylem. The first groove is cut about 1.2 m above the ground, and subsequent grooves are cut below it. The groove reaches roughly half way around tree’s circumference. No chemical stimulant is used. This method is used mainly in China. (Alejandro, 2012)

 American method A horizontal groove is cut every 15 to 18 days. The grooves are cut upward, the first at 20 cm above the ground. Only the bark and phloem are removed. The length of the grooves is about one third of the tree’s circumference and the height varies from 2 to 3 cm. A stimulant paste with 18 to 24 percent sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is applied. In the paste formulation, stimulants are also used as chemical adjuvants, such as, for example, CEPA (2-chloroethyl-phosphonic acid, anethylene precursor) or salicylic acid. This method is used in Brazil, Argentina, Portugal and Spain. The method has less damage to the surface as a small face is cut to fit the polythene bag and several cuts can be made from the same site without necessary changing the face. However, the surface is left exposed to attack from pathogens.

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 Hugues or French method Also known as Cup and Lip method, Slices of 8 to 10 cm wide are cut into the trunk every 10 to 15 days, reaching the secondary xylem. The cut surface may extend to 1.8 m from the ground after two years of extraction. This method was developed in the mid-nineteenth century in France and is now used mainly in Indonesia. The lip covers the pot partially to prevent pieces of the bark and dirt from falling into the cone. It also minimizes the evaporation of resin that accumulates into it. The cup and lip method has disadvantages that the blazes very often their depth into the wood exceeds the prescribed limit. The deep holes results in loss of timber and make the trees less resistant to wind. The method can only be used for one cycle of tapping.

 Mazek or Rill method This is an improved method, to overcome the disadvantages of the cup and lip method. In rill method, the bark of the tree over a surface area of about 45 cm in height and 30 cm in width is removed with the help of a bark shaver. The surface is made very smooth and the thickness of the bark left should not be more than 2 mm to facilitate freshening of the blaze. The blaze frame is kept on the stem in the vertical portion 15 cm above the ground level and the position of the blaze is marked with a marking gauge. The control groove is cut with a grove cutter by drawing it from top to bottom. The lip is then fixed in the tree with nails. For freshening of the blaze, the tapper stands near the tree on one side of the blaze and holds the freshening knife at the lowest point of the control groove. The tapper along with blaze line marked on the tree then pulls up the knife. The depth of the rill is about 2mm into the wood. After making a freshening on both arms of the blaze a 1:1 mixture of dilute sulphuric acid (20%) and dilute nitric acid (20%) is sprayed on the freshly cut rill with the help of spray bottle. Exudation of oleoresin starts soon after the rills are made. The pot containing the oleoresin is emptied into a collection can. The resin adhering to the pot is removed with the help of a scraper. The control groove is also increased to avoid accumulation of resin in it. The advantage of the rill method is that there is less damage to the timber as the cuts are made on the surface.

 Borehole method: In this method holes are made near the ground level with the help of a machine into tree's sapwood to open the resin ducts and exuding resin is collected in a closed container. The hole in

9 each tree is done approximately 10 cm above the ground. The holes are drilled straight into the tree stem with a slight slope towards the opening so that resin drains freely. Immediately after making the hole the stimulants/ chemicals are sprayed inside each freshly made hole. Chemical treatment is done once only, immediately after boring holes. After treatment a spout is installed inside the hole by gently hammering with a small mallet or pushing with palm of the hand to achieve compression fitting in the hole. The spout is meant for joining the collection container tightened to each spout. Once the container is filled with resin, it is removed from the tree and poured into a collection can and immediately a new container is tied for future collection of resin advantages of bore hole method of resin extraction are as follows There is less stress due to small size (2.5 cm diameter) of the hole. The hole heals fast. The technique is very suitable for the protection of tree against fire, insect, pest and diseases. Prolong resin flow can be obtained from bore hole for a period of several months without wounding the stem. The holes are made with the help of a machine therefore the labor productivity of the technique is several folds greater than other method. The technique could be very effective in conservation and management of pine resources. (Utkarsh, 2016)

1 2 3 4 5

Source: Database: Forestry media base FAO (2010)

Figure 1: Showing the five techniques of resin tapping 1. Chinese method 2. American method 3.Hugues or French method 4.Mazek or Rill method 5.Borehole method (Alejandro, 2012)

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2.4 Factors that affect production of resin Resin production is mostly influenced by genetic background, which is dependent on each pine species though all species do produce the resin (Southerton and Butcher, 2007). Depending on a given species of pine, the amount of resin produced differs as some species can produce more resin than the others for example Pinus carribaea produced more resin (5.2kg) than Pinus elliottii (2.9kg) mean monthly production (Chikamai, 1995).

Some factors are largely related to the management practices that are undertaken in the plantation for example tree spacing in the plantation whereby more resin is produced in open forests as compared to crowded forests (Lombardero et al., 2000; Aguiar et al., 2012).

Plant age can also affect the quality and quantity of oleoresin that is produced by a given tree species (Wang et al., 2006). Trees that are in their infant stage tend to divert all their resources in growth parts rather than in defense mechanisms thus when injured less resin is produced compared to mature trees that invest much in their defense for survival reasons.

Geographical origin with different stresses, such as drought (Turtola et al., 2003), trees that are grown in higher or slope areas have a higher resin yield than those that are grown on plains (Coppen et al., 1988b, Silvestre and Gandini 2008).

Prescribed fire, that is used as a measure of controlling fire outbreak during summer/dry seasons (Cannac et al., 2009). Resin yield in areas that were previously exposed to fire is less compared to the unexposed areas.

Extreme temperature more so during dry seasons (Tingey et al., 1980; Peñuelas and Llusià 1999). More resin is produced in higher temperatures than in lower temperatures. This could be due to high heat of vaporization that allows the resin to lose moisture and easily ooze out of the tree wounds. When the temperatures a low especially in the rainy seasons flooding occurs which much further leads to low release of resin from the resin ducts (Ferreira et al., 2011).

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Resin production however, cannot be influenced by one factor as listed above rather its influenced by a combination of more than one factor.

2.5 Market or trade of resin as a non-timber forest product

The principal products of plant resin are rosin and turpentine oil (both obtained by distillation of pine resin) and which are used in paints, varnishes and soap and among others medicinal values that can be used in stimulant, anti-spasmodic, astringent, diuretic and anti- pathogenic (Gotame, 2014). More than 90% of pine production is concentrated in China, Brazil and Indonesia. Other countries like India, Argentina, Honduras, Colombia, Malaysia, Spain, Portugal, Mexico, South Africa, and Kenya are among the producers of pine resin in the world.

In 2010, the total world production of resin had reached 1,114,000 metric tons with China as the leading producer with 830,000 metric tons followed by Brazil and Indonesia with 180,000 metric tons per year. (Alejandro, 2012). Many species are tapped for resin production, but 90% of the resin produced on the world market is from mainly five species as shown in table 1 (Alejandro, 2012) Table 1: Main species from which resin is produced and their yield

Species China Brazil Indonesia Others Total Percentage (%)

Pinus manoniana 610,000 610,000 54.7

Pinus yunnanensi 150,000 150,000 13.4

Pinus elliottii 60,000 50,000 30,000 140,000 12.6

Pinuscaribaea 10,000 45,000 30,000 85,000 7.6

Pinus merkussii 69,000 69,000 6.2

Others 10,000 5,000 45,000 60,000 5.5

Total 830,000 105,000 74,000 105,000 1,114,000 100

Source: Global Engineering Resins: Chemical Market Advisory Services 2010

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CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the study area

The study was carried out at Global- woods AG, Kikonda forest reserve in Kyankwanzi district. It is situated along Kampala-Hoima highway. It is about 38 km east of Hoima and 40 km west of Kiboga towns respectively, and about 15 km to Kafu River along Hoima-Kiboga main road. At latitudes and longitudes 31033’05.6’’Eand1013’38.2” N respectively.The study research was carried out on plantation compartments DO7 and EO3 found in blocks D, and E respectively. DO7 is 38.7 hectares established in 2007, 11years while EO3 is 44.4 hectares established in 2006 thus 12 years

Figure 2: A map showing f Kikonda forest reserve compartment D07 and E03

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3.2 Experimental setup Resin tapping was carried out in two compartments DO7 and EO3 found in blocks (D and E) respectively at the forestry reserve. In each of the compartments a plot of 18 x 18 planting spot (at a spacing of 3x3) was established. From each of the established plot, 30 trees were randomly selected, marked and assigned serial numbers (numbered from 1 to 30), the diameter at breast height of all the selected sample trees was measured and recorded using a diameter tape. The selected trees were then prepared and tapped for resin for a period of 30 days.

Figure 3: An established plot in compartment D07

Figure 4: An established plot in compartment E03

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3.2.1 Resin tapping process The American method (Alejandro, 2012) of resin tapping was used in the study. From each established plot, a tree randomly selected with its serial number was cleaned using the tool to remove the bark of the tree by making upward movements in the same direction of the blade. The incision tool was then used to make a vertical cut on to the tree 20cm from the ground. At the bottom of the wounded area, a plastic bag was attached and a chemical paste added on the cut area to ensure a continuous flow of the resin into the plastic bag below. A new cut was made every after measuring of the tapped resin thus five cuts were made during the study period. After each new cut reapplication of the chemical paste was done.

3.3 Data collection The diameters of all the selected and tapped trees were recorded as part of the data for the study. Tree diameters were then grouped into five different diameter classes (table 4). At the end of every six days for a month, the resin tapped in the plastic bag was measured using a weighing scale and the results recorded.

3.4 Data analysis Descriptive statistics was used to obtain the summation values of the amount of resin collected, and the graphs for the amount of resin collected from the two compartments and the resin amount collected from the different diameter classes. Regression analysis was also run to determine the relationship between tree diameter and the amount of resin produced.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 The amount of resin produced by individual trees The amount of resin produced by the all sample trees was weighed and summed up for each individual tree (Table 2) Table 2: Total resin amount collected from each individual tree

D07 E03 Tree no. Diameter Total amount collected Tree no. Diameter (cm) Total amount (cm) collected 1 22.6 268 1 30.5 389 2 26.3 336 2 31.5 143 3 30.5 285 3 25.3 112 4 26.8 106 4 25.5 68 5 27.1 113 5 33.6 90 6 24.6 52 6 18.6 252 7 24.0 52 7 31.2 97 8 24.1 203 8 29.8 207 9 29.0 273 9 20.0 123 10 20.6 204 10 29.0 268 11 24.9 203 11 34.5 315 12 20.0 240 12 32.2 124 13 21.7 398 13 34.9 246 14 27.5 222 14 23.2 154 15 20.6 55 15 20.7 166 16 22.6 193 16 23.0 150 17 23.4 200 17 31.2 108 18 23.2 513 18 27.1 144 19 31.1 295 19 19.9 185 20 27.6 190 20 21.5 172 21 28.5 145 21 32.5 135 22 19.2 163 22 30.1 337 23 32.0 244 23 16.5 183 24 19.6 306 24 28.1 186 25 37.7 282 25 20.0 87 26 35.3 410 26 18.5 453 27 25.8 389 27 22.1 247 28 27.4 192 28 24.7 44 29 36.1 497 29 21.6 311 30 18.0 325 30 28.4 175 Total 7354 5671

16

4.1.2 The total amount of resin collected from the sample trees

From the 30 sample trees in each established compartment plot the total amount of resin produced was7.354kg and 5.671kg from compartment D07 and E03 respectively. (Table 3)

Table 3: Amount of resin collected from compartment D07 and E03

Resin collected (g) Compartment WK 1 WK 2 WK 3 WK 4 WK 5 TOTAL D07 843 371 527 488 5125 7354 E03 401 502 3764 481 465 5671

4.1.3 Amount of resin produced at different diameter classes

Amountof resin produced and collected when the samples were grouped (Table 4), diameter class 2 (21.0-25.9) produced the most resin (3.729kg) followed by diameter class 3(3.231kg) then diameter class 1(2.742kg), diameter class 4(2.544kg) and then diameter class 5(0.779kg) (table 4). Table 4: Resin amount collected from each class

Diameter class Resin amount collected 16.0 - 20.9 2742

21.0 - 25.9 3729

26.0 - 30.9 3231

31.0 - 35.9 2544

36.0 - 40.9 779

Trees with different diameters produce different quantities of compounds in response to a given situation (Lambers et al., 1998), thus from each sample tree of a different diameter different amounts of resin were produced and collected in response to the cut injury. Resin is produced in the resin ducts in the stem areas of the tree. The resin is released from the resin ducts in response to injury on the cambium of the stem area. According to Hadiyane et al.,

17

2015, increase in diameter increases the amount of resin that is produced by a given tree. Therefore trees with bigger diameters would often be opted for resin tapping since they have more resin ducts.

The amount of resin produced from diameter class 1-3 followed the trend that resin production increases with increase in tree size (Lombardero et al., 2000; Rodrigues et al., 2008). Rodrigues et al., 2008, studied the effect of tree size on oleoresin production yield of Pinus elliottii in Brazil and found out that bigger trees (22-23.5 cm Dbh ) gave 20-25% higher oleoresin yield than smaller trees of diameters 18.0- 19.5 cm Dbh. Higher resin yield in bigger trees may result from the larger resin stocks and probably the larger resource acquisition capacities that allow for more resin production and more resin canals in the trunks of bigger trees (Lambers et al., 1998) Resin production also increased with increase in tapping cuts or spots on the same tree (five cutting cuts were made). Similar results were also obtained in the study of gum aradic production by Acacia senegal in Sudan (Ballal et al., 2005). Therefore the increase in resin production is due to more resin canals that are opened each time a new cut is made. (Trapp and Croteau 2001).

In the same way (Klepzig et al., 2005) in the study of resin production by loblolly pine concluded that production of plant defense was proportional to the the injury applied. The graph in figure 5 shows the total amount of resin that was collected during the research period at Kikonda forest resrve.

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 DO7 3000 EO3 2000 1000 0 DO7 EO3

Figure 5: Total amount of resin produced

18

4.2 The best minimal start tree diameter for resin tapping From the results obtained, it was observed that for effective resin tapping the best minimal diameter at which tapping can be started is between 21.0 cm to 25.9 cm as shown in figure 6.

4000

3500

3000 16.0 - 20.9 21.0 - 25.9 2500 26.0 - 30.9 2000 31.0 - 35.9 1500 36.0 - 40.9 1000

500

0 16.0 - 20.9 21.0 - 25.9 26.0 - 30.9 31.0 - 35.9 36.0 - 40.9

Figure 6: The amount of resin collected for the different tree diameter classes

The minimum tree diameter to start resin tapping determined was between 21.0 cm to 25.9 cm since sample trees with this diameter produced more resin during the study period. This diameter class is close to diameters earlier reported in studies. For example, studies of commercial resin production by Pinus species, obligatory minimum tree size limits for tapping are 20cm Dbh in China and in other countries the recommended Dbh is from 20cm to 25 cm. (Coppen and Hone 1995; Wang et al., 2006). The smaller trees are normally not tapped for resin on a commercial basis because in the tapping process, a number of cuts have to be made on the tree surfaces thus with a small tree diameter the tree will be over exposed at the same time endangering and making it susceptible to insect attack and diseases thus reduction in its growth (Langenheim, 2003). In addition, some tapping techniques can be highly lethal if a tree with a smaller diameter is used for example the drill method thus the tree diameter has to be relatively bigger to avoid tree damage that can occur has a result of resin tapping.

19

4.3 The relationship between the diameter of the trees and resin amount produced

Basing on the obtained results, the relationship between the tree diameter and resin amount produced and collected showed a very weak correlation (0.129). The relationship is statistically non-significant (p value 0.327<0.05) with a sample of 60 trees as shown in table 5.

Table 5: Regression analysis between diameter and amount of resin collected

Model R Sign. 1 0.129 0.327 Regression model; y = 12.574x + 185.230 Where; y = Amount of resin (g) x = Tree diameter (cm) According to the model there is a positive weak correlation between tree diameter and amount of resin produced by Pinus carribaea. This means that as the diameter increases by 1 cm, the resin produced increases by 12.574 g. However, basing on the obtained results no statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis hence it is concluded that diameter does not directly influence the resin amount produced. From the obtained results however, the amount of resin produced slightly increased with increase in tree diameter due to the observed positive weak correlation between diameter and resin amount produced. This was observed for the diameter classes (16.0 - 20.9 cm and 21.0 - 25.9cm) where the increase in diameter showed increase in resin amount being produced. Therefore, there could be other factors that influence resin production other than diameter size especially at diameters greater than 26cm.

The change from the expected results and the relationship between tree diameter and the amount of resin produced in the research study can be explained in the following ways basing on other studies that were carried out in resin tapping operations: -

The short length of the tapping season, and the small number of wounds may justify the low resin yield obtained and the obtained weak correlation. However, according to Palma,

20

Pereira, & Soares(2016),resin was tapped throughout all the season (May-November) but the relation between diameter and resin yield was not observed. Rodriguez-Garcia et al.,(2014) found that, on average, high yielder trees were taller and had larger diameter than low yielders with a correlation coefficient (0.38) between resin yield and diameter. Resin yield has been reported to increase, in high yielders, in the years following the first wound opening (Rodriguez-Garcia et al., 2014). Hence, considering that pine trees that were tapped for the first time in 2014, it is possible to admit that in next campaigns greater resin yields will be obtained in the studied plots.

The plots in the study were newly established and thus the trees selected for tapping had not been tapped before. A similar scenario produced the same results in a study by (Rodriguez- Garcia et al., 2014) thus after wounding the resin flow decreases with the sealing of the small radial canals. Plants also tend to invest more of their energy in growth and reproductive processes than in defense processes (Herms and Mattson 1992) than the production of resin can be slowed down partially or completely.

4.4 Effect of rain on resin production

The study was conducted during a rainy season at the forest reserve , this could also have impacted on on the resin production of these newly tapped trees. When it rains, the chemical stimulate that is sprayed on the injured area is washed away thus the resin flow stops due to solidification of the resin on exposure to atmosphereic air. In addition, during rainy season, the temperatures tend to be lower than in the dry seasons aslo causing solidification in the resin canals hindering resin flow. (Chikamai, 1995; Rodríguez-Garcíaa et al., 2014). The same effects of rain were observed during the resaerch period at kikonda forest reserve. Therefore whenever it rained, the solidified resin on the cut area would be removed and slightly reinjuring the same cut line or spot. After that a chemical paste would be reapplied to enusre continous resin flow into the collecting bag. All the collection bags on sample trees are also checked to ensure there still in the right position and the accumulated water removed by piercing a hole at the corner of the bag. In one of the tapping seasons at kikonda forest reserve, they recoered the amount of resin collected in each month against the rainfall in each month of the year(appendix 4). The results obtained show that generally in month where

21

rainfall is much, the amount of resin collected is always lower as compared to the dry monthas. Consequestly The amount of resin collected and weighed during my research period, was lower on particular days when it rained compared to days when it did not rain.

4.5 Resin production costs and profits

Under proper management, pine forests can provide multiple economic benefits. Resin tapping can be economically beneficial to forest owners in that it can add value to their forests in terms of income that can be generated. The costing of resin production is very important if the forest owners are to benefit and make profit from the production process.(Table 6)

Table 5: Costing of resin and profit

Trees Amount of resin on Cost of production (US $) Resin cost (US $) Profit (US $) number average (Kg)

1 4 0.51 0.9 0.39

250 1000 127.5 900 772.5

Source: Kikonda forest reserve database resin department

Therefore, depending on the number of trees in a plantation, the owner can make enough profit that can sustain the plantation through the income that can be generated through resin tapping.

Resin tapping activity can be a reliable source of income for the maintenance and enhancement of pine forests, as it increases its internal rate of return and allows the forest owner to obtain annual revenues to practice more active . However, forest owners show little interest to restart or maintain the activity (Ballal, 2005). Hence, promoting resin tapping as a financially attractive activity is essential to encourage all stake holders like the government,

22 individual forest owners and companies to, invest in resin production since it depends essentially on forest owners.

Depending on the number of trees in the plantation, number of workers used, cost of the chemical stimulant when using the American method of tapping, the plastic bags used and storage drums. The cost of production can be summarized in the following (Table7)

Table 6: Summary cost for resin production as at Kikonda forest reserve resin department

Per tree Cost (Uganda shillings) Cost (US $)

Material 1581 0.44

Labour 253 0.07

Total 1834 0.51

Source: Kikonda forest reserve database resin department

23

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The study aimed at determining the influence of diameter on resin yield of Pinus carribaea and the following are the conclusions drawn from the study.

From the sample trees the least amount of resin collected during the research period was 44g and the highest amount collected was 513g of resin thus in resin tapping each tree can not fail to produce some amount of resin.

It can also be concluded that trees with different diameters produce varying amounts of resin despite the same way or technique of resin tapping used.

The best minimum diameter at which to start resin production ranges between 21.0cm and 25.9cm Dbh. At this Dbh the trees have enough size to withstand the tapping intensity without hindering their growth.

Generally, diameter influences the amount of resin produced as trees with bigger diameter produced more resin as compared with those with smaller diameter.

5.2 Recommendations

Further research can also be carried to determine the difference in the amount of resin produced by trees that are exposed to fires and those that are not exposed.

Resin tapping can be done using different tapping techniques and thus research to compare and determine the best suitable and efficient tapping technique can be carried out.

Further research can also be carried out in Uganda as regards looking for market and also increasing the possibilities and awareness of other forest owners and companies in country to venture and invest in resin tapping.

24

The venture of resin tapping in Uganda should be sold out to the government in particularly its forestry arm the National Forestry Authority (NFA) to start tapping resin in pine plantations under their management. This in turn would create employment opportunities for people especially the youth in the country. This can be realized based on the current cost of resin being US $900 per tonne, which on average can be obtained from 250 trees if a tree on average produces 4Kg of resin, thus with one hectare of plantation with a minimum of 900 trees, 3.6 tonnes of resin can be collected. Monthly this can generate about US 3240 $ annually with two tapping seasons about US $6480 can be generated. Minus the expenses that are incurred this income would change the life of people involved this activity.

25

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX 1: DATA COLLECTION SHEET Compartment …………………………………………

Tree number Diameter (cm) Diameter class Resin collected (g)

30

Appendix 2: Recorded diameters for all the sample tress.

Tree no. DO7- Diameter (cm) EO3-Diamter (cm) 1 22.6 30.5 2 26.3 31.5 3 30.5 25.3 4 26.8 25.5 5 27.1 33.6 6 24.6 18.6 7 24.0 31.2 8 24.1 29.8 9 29.0 20.0 10 20.6 29.0 11 24.9 34.5 12 20.0 32.2 13 21.7 34.9 14 27.5 23.2 15 20.6 20.7 16 22.6 23.0 17 23.4 31.2 18 23.2 27.1 19 31.1 19.9 20 27.6 21.5 21 28.5 32.5 22 19.2 30.1 23 32.0 16.5 24 19.6 28.1 25 37.7 20.0 26 35.3 18.5 27 25.8 22.1 28 27.4 24.7 29 36.1 21.6 30 18.0 28.4

1

Appendix 3: Rainfall received at Kikonda forest reserve.

140.0

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0 Rainfall Rainfall (mm) 40.0

20.0

0.0 November December January Feburary March April May Months

Source: Kikonda forest reserve weather station database

Appendix 4: A graph showing amount of resin against rainfall received

150

1400

1200 120

1000 90 800

600 60

400

Amount resin of harvested Kg 30 Amount of Rain reciieved Amount Rain of reciieved (mm) 200

0 0 NovemberDecember January Feburary March April May June Months of active tapping Rainfall (mm) Resin Harvested(Kg)

Source: Kikonda forest reserve weather station database

2

Appendix 5: Compartment size and number of trees

Compartment Size (Hectares) Number of trees

D07 38.7 23,491

E03 44.4 28,105

Source: Kikonda forest reserve database

Appendix 6: Costing of resin

Amount of resin (Kg) Cost (US $)

1000 900.

1 0.9

Source: Kikonda forest reserve database Resin department

3