Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Publications Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

6-1-2021

Waste to phosphorus: A transdisciplinary solution to P recovery from wastewater based on the TRIZ approach

Anna Jama-Rodzeńska Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences

Andrzej Białowiec Iowa State University and Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences

Jacek A. Koziel Iowa State University, [email protected]

Józef Sowiński Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences

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Abstract Phosphorus (P) is a limited yet essential resource. P cannot be replaced, but it can be recovered from waste. We proposed the TRIZ approach (Teoria reszenija izobretatielskich zadacz - Rus., Theory of Inventive Problem Solving - Eng.) to identify a feasible solution. We aimed at minimizing the environmental impact and, by eliminating contradictions, proposed viable technical solutions. P recovery can be more sustainable based on circular economy and 4Rs (reduction, recovery, reuse, and recycling). The TRIZ approach identified sewage sludge (SS) as waste with a large potential for P recovery (up to 90%). Successful selection and application of SS management and P recovery require a transdisciplinary approach to overcome the various socio-economic, environmental, technical, and legal aspects. The review provides an understanding of principles that must be taken to improve understanding of the whole process of P recovery from wastewater while building on the last two decades of research.

Keywords Phosphorus, Sustainability, Wastewater treatment, Sewage sludge, TRIZ, Circular economy

Disciplines Bioresource and Agricultural Engineering | Environmental Engineering | Environmental Health | Sustainability

Comments This article is published as Jama-Rodzeńska, Anna, Andrzej Białowiec, Jacek A. Koziel, and Józef Sowiński. "Waste to phosphorus: A transdisciplinary solution to P recovery from wastewater based on the TRIZ approach." Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021): 112235. DOI: 10.1016/ j.jenvman.2021.112235. Posted with permission.

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This article is available at Iowa State University Digital Repository: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/abe_eng_pubs/1192 Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Review Waste to phosphorus: A transdisciplinary solution to P recovery from wastewater based on the TRIZ approach

Anna Jama-Rodzenska´ a, Andrzej Białowiec b,c,*, Jacek A. Koziel c, Jozef´ Sowinski´ a a Institute of Agroecology and Plant Production, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 24a Grunwaldzki Square, 53-363, Wrocław, Poland b Department of Applied Bioeconomy, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 37a Chełmonskiego´ Str., 51–630, Wrocław, Poland c Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, 4350 Elings Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Phosphorus (P) is a limited yet essential resource. P cannot be replaced, but it can be recovered from waste. We Phosphorus proposed the TRIZ approach (Teoria reszenija izobretatielskich zadacz - Rus., Theory of Inventive Problem Sustainability Solving - Eng.) to identify a feasible solution. We aimed at minimizing the environmental impact and, by Wastewater treatment eliminating contradictions, proposed viable technical solutions. P recovery can be more sustainable based on Sewage sludge circular economy and 4Rs (reduction, recovery, reuse, and recycling). The TRIZ approach identified sewage TRIZ Circular economy sludge (SS) as waste with a large potential for P recovery (up to 90%). Successful selection and application of SS management and P recovery require a transdisciplinary approach to overcome the various socio-economic, environmental, technical, and legal aspects. The review provides an understanding of principles that must be taken to improve understanding of the whole process of P recovery from wastewater while building on the last two decades of research.

1. Introduction standards drive P’s increasing agricultural demand (Jankowska et al., 2012). The lack of access or P shortage can disrupt the entire world Sustainability is a broad concept comprising many aspects of human economy. An increase in the P price combined with increasing demand life. Sustainable consciousness about the environment has increased and and depletion may lead to increased food prices and the resulting has become global. The recent emphasis is on circular economy (CE), geopolitical disputes (Sengupta et al., 2015; Teah and Onuki, 2017). P’s reuse of materials with valuable properties (European Commission. sustainable recovery can be influenced by many factors summarized in Disposal and Recycling Routes for sewage sludge 2001; Guedes et al., Fig. 1, Table A1. 2017; Kirchmann et al., 2017; Magid et al., 2006) such as phosphorus Wastewater treatment is an abundant potential source of P recovery. (P), one of the essential yet limited resources (Egle et al., 2016). P in wastewater accounts for >70% of P imported in fertilizers in Decreasing natural P sources (phosphate rock deposits) is one of the selected countries in Europe. P recovery from SS could increase collat­ strategic global-scale pivotal issues that, in effect, could lead to a global erally with improved technology and removed SS application re­ crisis in food production. The inconsistent forecasting about the P strictions in European agriculture (Kacprzak et al., 2017). depletion timeline is due to the lack of comprehensive resource assess­ To date, P recovery was mainly presented in comparative studies ment (Childers et al., 2011; Cordell et al., 2011). separately treating the technological, economic, and environmental The problem with the P depletion timeline (according to U.S. aspects of P management (Amann et al., 2018; Cie´slik and Konieczka, Geological Survey) is the comprehensive estimate of phosphate reserves, 2017; Cordell et al., 2011; Cornel and Schaum, 2009; Egle et al, 2015, currently at 30–300 years (Cordell and White, 2011). It is estimated that 2016; Guedes et al., 2017; Hudziak et al., 2012; Kalmykova and Karl­ with a high P rate of agricultural usage, >50% of the resources will be feldt Fedje, 2013; Kasprzyk and Gajewska, 2019; Le Corre et al., 2009; Li ´ depleted by 2100 (Amann et al., 2018). et al., 2019; Morse et al., 1998; Poluszynska´ and Slęzak, 2015; Sengupta Population growth and diet changes resulting from rising living et al., 2015; Szaja 2013; Senthilkumar et al., 2014). The P recovery

* Corresponding author. Department of Applied Bioeconomy, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 37a Chełmonskiego´ Str., 51–630 Wrocław, Poland. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Jama-Rodzenska),´ [email protected], [email protected] (A. Białowiec), [email protected] (J.A. Koziel), [email protected] (J. Sowinski).´ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112235 Received 31 July 2020; Received in revised form 12 February 2021; Accepted 18 February 2021 0301-4797/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235

Fig. 1. The super-system diagram of spheres of P management. reviews were published for individual disciplines (Bunce et al., 2018; P management based on system theory and the TRIZ method (‘Teoria Egle et al., 2015; Kalmykova and Karlfeldt Fedje, 2013; Le Corre et al., reszenija izobretatielskich zadacz’ – Rus.). The TRIZ analyzes all aspects 2009; Li et al., 2019; Mayer et al., 2016; Morse et al., 1998; Poluszynska´ affecting P management and develops a plan for refining potential so­ ´ and Slęzak, 2015; Senthilkumar et al., 2014) or as multidisciplinary lutions and permanent removal of root causes of P management prob­ reviews (Amann et al., 2018; Egle et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2018; Roy, lems (Triz journal 2020). Careful, holistic considerations of P recovery 2017) comparing and describing the economic/environmental impacts within the system of theory (as the characteristics of three functional of methods and technologies, without considering a holistic picture spheres: super-system, system, sub-system) have not been analyzed yet within last twenty years. None of the reviews were scoped wider and in the case of P recovery. analyzed a transdisciplinary and holistic approach to P management Map of Hypotheses was developed as the interaction of each sphere focused on recovery from SS as the most abundant and likely source. within TRIZ. The review presents and organizes the main areas and Holistic meaning that all aspects such as importance in nature, agri­ factors that influence P management. This review presents P manage­ culture, socioeconomy, and industry are considered. Transdisciplinary ment orderly starting from primary resources through exploitation, means that concepts (e.g., means of solving a problem) developed in one processing, industrial application, primary and secondary food pro­ discipline can be applied in other disciplines and/or problems with duction, consumption, natural P cycling and its importance in multiple aspects beyond one discipline. biogeochemical-cycles and recovery as an integrated approach grouped Therefore, this review’s goal is a transdisciplinary approach towards in many spheres of the life: social, economic, laws, waste management. P

Fig. 2. Map of hypotheses on phosphorus supply (resources) and demand (humanity) problem with the super-system, systems, and sub-system elements.

2 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235 recovery assessment through TRIZ is organized based on P function, DP1 Natural biogeochemical P cycles, role, occurrence, resulting in practical ways of its recovery. The method DP2 Need for food consumption, allows generalizing the problem with P recovery and solution by elim­ DP3 Life in the polluted environment, inating contradictions during the whole process. DP4 P importance to natural and industrial processes, DP5 Know-how on P exploitation and utilization, 2. Phosphorous management within a system of theory (TRIZ) - DP6 P supply. the division of systems Eliminating even one of them will result in a solution to the problem The industry has successfully used TRIZ theory. Large companies at the super-system level. If the natural P cycling and chemical trans­ used and adopted TRIZ to their internal processes for finding solutions formation of P (DP1) within the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and intellectual property (Jiang et al., 2011). The TRIZ is useful when and atmosphere on Earth is disrupted or broken, humanity’s strong there is a need to solve ‘wicked,’ complex problems that lead to a situ­ correlation with P will also be disrupted or broken. If humanity (hypo­ ation where the available knowledge does not provide an efficient and thetically) could stop eating food (DP2), the correlation disappears due transparent solution. to humanity’s extinction. If we continue to live in an over-polluted P recovery is a complex challenge to sustainability. There is not a environment (DP3), humanity will disappear. If humanity replaces the single solution due to substantial technical and institutional challenges. P element with another element (DP4), the correlation disappears – a Therefore, the main task is to identify an integrated, holistic, context- new correlation will arise. If humanity does not have the know-how specific approach that allows identifying areas of most significant (DP5) on P exploitation and utilization or forgets this know-how, the impact. Humans have the most critical impact on the availability and technical and functional limited possibilities of P utilization will remove utilization of P management. Humans are responsible for excavation- the strong correlation of humanity with P. If the supply of P is not suf­ extracting-exploitation of P and searching for methods that would be ficient, humanity will be extinct (DP6), and the correlation will be the most economically beneficialand minimizing the negative impact on severed. The five first scenarios (DP1 – DP5) are somewhat utopian or the environment. not realistic. However, the sixth (DP6) is possible. Below, each of the Considerations towards P recovery with the TRIZ approach can be scenarios is described briefly. limited to three dependent and related spheres: super-system, system, and sub-system. The supersystem is an environment where the system of 3.1. DP1 – natural biochemical P cycles P management functions. Supersystem represents all P management factors that cover global scale phenomena like resource availability, P is a significant nutrient of the earth’s biogeochemical cycles and climate change, demography, United Nations policies, and global crucial for organisms (Blake et al., 2005). P has no stable gaseous form. economy. Supersystem factors are the drivers influencing the perfor­ However, it is present in the atmosphere as particulate matter (dust) and mance of the P management system. The system is built from smaller then effectively removed by precipitation, dry deposition on land and components, including technologies, techniques, devices, and humans open water reservoirs (Blake et al., 2005; Joshi et al., 2015; Reinhard combined to fulfillthe P management system’s goals. These components et al., 2017). Its natural cycle has been disrupted mainly due to severe are sub-systems. Therefore, the system represents all elements, mecha­ exploitation (mining), converting it to fertilizer, shipping fertilizer, and nisms driven by supersystem factors and linked with subsystems to P-derived products worldwide, and transporting P in food from farms to achieve the P management system’s goals. cities. Food production needs the application of fertilizers containing P It should be noted that these spaces are dependent and related, often constituting basic fundamental rights to human existence. complementary to each other and interpenetrate. Therefore, solving P Human activity is responsible for ~30% of P transfer; therefore, its management problems must consider interconnections between input to the ecosystem has changed drastically (Bennett et al., 2006; spheres. Authors have identifiedthe following ‘super-system’, ‘system,’ Yuan et al., 2018). Atmospheric nutrient deposition increased and ‘sub-system’ tools for P management (Tables A2, A3, A4). plant-available N and P cycling. These changes are related to mining P The spheres and elements building the super-system of P manage­ for fertilizer, transporting it in fertilizers, animal feeds, crops, waste ment are shown in Fig. 1: generated, land transformation, and soil disturbance. Precipitation, Each super-system sphere contains specific elements consisting of P weather, atmospheric CO2, and anthropogenic changes in the P cycle are management’s system and sub-systems in each sphere. Identified local. There is not much information on the anthropogenic influenceon spheres are overlapping with each other. A strong correlation may be P cycling at the local level. More attention in global change studies found as human activity covers all the P management super-system’s considers N and C cycles (except for the eutrophication) (Beni­ identified spheres. This correlation creates numerous problems, which tez-Nelson, 2000; Bennett et al., 2006; Blake et al., 2005; Joshi et al., the transdisciplinary approach may solve due to the complexity and 2015; Yuan et al., 2018). overlapping of the P management super-system’s spheres. Biogeochemical P cycling can be considered in various types of The first step was identifying the P management problems in the ecosystems, of which the aquatic environments and agronomic fieldsare form of a Map of Hypotheses (Fig. 2). The ‘big picture’ approach, in the best known (Conley et al., 2008; Defforey and Paytan, 2018; Jaisi et al., initial phase, was to identify the scope of potential solutions. The pur­ 2011; Joshi et al., 2016). Both involve P transformations among plant pose was to develop a process for identifying and refining potential so­ species, biotic/abiotic processes of which the plant and microbial P lutions and feasible permanent removals of problem cause for P uptakes are best known (Benitez-Nelson, 2000; Bennett et al., 2006; management. All identified super-system, systems, and sub-system ele­ Blake et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2018). The P cycle in an aquatic ments are discussed below. ecosystem is based on the availability of inorganic phosphate (Pi) and organic P (Porg), with the latter dominating as a P source. Pi (usually 3. The P recovery within super-system found in free phosphate) is regarded as a necessity for microbial nutri­ tion, but its concentrations can be limited in selected aquatic environ­ Parametric definitionof the problem, i.e., a strong relation of human ments, especially in oligotrophic marine habitats (Duhamel et al., 2010). development with P availability and applicability in P management’s The P cycle relies on Pi’s recycling from organic biomass and Pi’s release current system, is a prerequisite for a solution. First, the contradictions from Porg, affecting its availability. Pi’s rapid depletion leads locally to a within the system were determined. The firstcontradiction was the two- decrease in low phosphate concentrations in freshwater and marine way relationship between P and humanity (Fig. 2). A strong link to environments (Lin and Guo 2016). This trend affects many lakes, parts of human development is evident at the super-system level: the oligotrophic oceans (both Atlantic and Pacific), and the Eastern

3 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235

Mediterranean Sea (Benitez-Nelson, 2000; Ruttenberg, 2013; Yuan 3.3. DP3 - life in a polluted environment et al., 2018). P occurs in both organic and inorganic soil types and various soluble/ Rapidly increasing quantities of waste generated is the main problem insoluble forms. Many P fractions are transported into surface water by of the worldwide environment. The waste management sector is under irrigation or precipitation. The losses of soluble P are related to phos­ local government oversight. An inappropriate collection of waste leads phate leaching out into groundwater. It concerns plants which growth is to environmental damage, including deterioration of environmental phosphate-saturated. Leached out P can cause eutrophication in lakes aesthetics, local flooding,and land, air, and water pollution resulting in (Daneshgar et al., 2018), i.e., the oversupply of phosphate in both fresh human health hazards. Despite increasing amounts of waste production, and inshore marine waters leading to massive algae blooms. This is the current methods and disposal are not adequate to ensure acceptable caused mainly by human operations such as the excess P in fertilizers conditions and standards to ensure sustainable methods of its from farms, food for aquaculture, untreated, treated sewage, and in­ management. dustrial wastewater inputs. P enhancing the water environment The critical issue of sustainable development is its universal accep­ (eutrophication) should be monitored (Bennett et al., 2006; Li et al., tance by society. Acceptance is essential for the recovery of materials 2017). from “wastes.” All aspects (environmental, socioeconomic) must be analyzed. The level of ecological awareness of the natural environment has increased globally since the 1950s. However, the public attitude 3.2. DP2 – need for food consumption towards P recovery is not well examined scientifically (de Boer et al., 2009, 2018). Table A6 below summarizes several recent initiatives Securing global safety and continuous food supply is among the 17 connected to sustainable P. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). P management is also linked Societies today face new issues connected to the environment char­ with the assumption that SDGs will be gradually implemented. The SDGs acterized by variable traits (Kinzig et al., 2013). Ecological education is are aiming to achieve universal access to essential services by 2030. P needed, especially among young people (Kinzig et al., 2013). Addi­ recovery is possible sustainable in concordance with the Circular tionally, regulations, penalties, and incentives should be used as policy Economy. Circular Economy (CE) proposes a promising strategy that instruments to change behaviors and draw attention to the existing combines environmental and economic aspects that reduce, recover, problem (Brulle and Dunlap, 2015; Carlson, 2001). Social aspects of P reuse, and recycle materials (4R’s) (European Commission. Report on recovery are varied between countries. The term ‘recycling’ and ‘circular critical raw materials for the EU 2020; Cordell et al., 2011; Cordell and economy’ (CE) carry a somewhat positive connotation. However, SS’s White, 2011). European Union promotes reusing waste such as SS and fertilizer industry and fertilizers have a slightly negative connotation (de ‘closing the loop’ of SS management in rural-urban-rural settings. This Boer et al., 2018). strategy represents the base of a sustainable policy and promotes the Global waste production totals four billion metric tons per year, and recirculation of nutrients, and enables returning them to agriculture ~20% can be recovered (Egle et al., 2016; Karunanithi et al., 2015; Peng (European Environment Agency, 2014; Alvarenga et al., 2017). et al., 2018). Waste management has a global scale and should be based The SDGs are the rules to obtain a better and more sustainable future on 4Rs rules (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover). Approximately 1.3 for all and concern all environmental and human life elements, billion tons of municipal solid waste is produced annually. According to including crops, soil, biodiversity, poverty, waste management, and the future forecast, the amount of waste generation will be ~2.2 billion water protection (Berners-Lee et al., 2018). The first goal of SDGs is to tons by the end of 2025 (Rhyner et al., 2018). address poverty. The UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2000 Europe produces over 250 million tons of municipal waste annually aim at eradicating poverty and hunger by developing productive ca­ and more than 850 million tons of industrial waste (Eurostat, 2017). EU pacities and creating productive jobs. The two first goals aim at food set goals for CE policy, including hazardous household waste that must production that is related to P use. The first goal (set in place in 2015) be selected separately by 2022, waste classified as bio-waste by 2023, aims to ‘limit the population living in hunger to 500 million in 15 years’ and textiles by 2025 (Waste Policy, 2020). The key to CE is a way of (Govindan, 2018). The second goal aims to secure food production turning waste into a valuable resource. The European Directive (Council systems and agricultural practices for increased productivity. Directive, 2008/98/EC) has implemented significant changes, allowing Around 800 million people are still suffering from malnutrition to extend the life cycle of waste that can be further used as organic-rich (Berners-Lee et al., 2018; FAO, 1993). Many countries are not food waste or the source of P (Alvarenga et al., 2017). This document secure due to water deficitand inefficientwater resource management, launches a new era of ‘End of waste’ connected with other sustainable and inappropriate land use (Kikuchi et al., 2018). The increased popu­ concepts such as ‘Zero waste’ or ‘Zero Landfilling.’ The zero-waste lation caused increased consumption (Berners-Lee et al., 2018; Govin­ concept is related to urban mining, which is transforming the major­ dan, 2018) as the world’s population changed from ~2.5 (1950) to ~7.3 ity of waste into natural resources. billion (2015) (Berners-Lee et al., 2018). The UN forecasts the global Developed countries show interest in this approach, where resources population increase to ~10 billion by 2050 (Berners-Lee et al., 2018). like waste will be used by urban mining (Andrienko et al., 2017; The population increase causes an increase in food production, demand Johansson et al., 2016). In turn, waste production will be minimized. In for fertilizers (including P), and at the same time, impacting the envi­ California, Del Norte County was the first US county that implemented ronment (Berners-Lee et al., 2018). Sustainable food production, stor­ the Zero Waste plan in 2001 (Cossu and Williams, 2015). Selected age, transport, marketing, access, and consumption are sustainable countries (Italy, the UK, Japan, USA) are also introducing zero waste development goals where the P cycle could be closed. concepts for municipal waste management. These environment-friendly Agriculture in Europe is based on the Common Agricultural Policy methods include incineration, plasma gasification, pyrolysis, aerobic (CAP- Strategic Plans) that set specific standards/norms for acceptable and anaerobic digestion, vitrification, and deep slurry injections agricultural and environmental practices, including reducing P losses in (Beyene et al., 2009; Edwards et al., 2014). ‘Zero landfilling’ aims at agriculture (Stubenrauch et al., 2018). Common Agricultural Policy is reducing the amount of landfilledmunicipal waste to <10% of the total presented in Table A5. waste produced by 2035 (Kumar, 2017). EU agricultural and environmental legislation affects a member’s ‘Green economy’ is related to urban mining. Cities are promoted as agricultural practices, including P use and environmental protection (EU the place enabling innovation, creating employment, generating wealth, Agricultural outlook 2018–2030). The environment and natural re­ and enhancing life quality (Brown and McGranahan, 2016). The smart sources are essential components for the sustainability of both devel­ cities can be described using the words start with V letter: ‘variety,’ oped and underdeveloped countries. ‘volume’ and ‘velocity’ (Hollands, 2008). The Internet of Things (IoT)

4 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235 can be used to monitor city infrastructure (traffic flow, parking, water, Science Interagency Working Grou is in place. and air quality) while enabling cities to be more sustainable (Caird, Changes in an environment connected to global energy usage growth 2018; Joss, 2016). will also affect biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. Table A9 Changes caused by rapid urbanization, industrialization, intensive presents the existing policy/acts related to biodiversity. The intensive agricultural production impact the water environment and availability. exploitation of ecosystems has led, on the one hand, to significant in­ According to the 6th SDG, it is an obligation to provide equal drinking creases in the growth of services that are used by humans (food, fuel, and water availability for everyone, its sustainable use, and sanitation needs fiber), but on the other hand, a loss of biodiversity (Cardinale et al., for all (Nhamo et al., 2018). Many agricultural activities need water for 2012; Díaz et al., 2006; Duffy, 2003; Norris, 2012). Biodiversity is crop cultivation, transportation, processing, and trade (Cosgrove and related to sustainable development, therefore developing strategies for Loucks, 2015). sustainable agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fisheries are The world reserves of water are estimated at ~1.4 billion km3 needed, including monitoring and traceability (EU Biodiversity Strategy (Chartzoulakis and Bertaki, 2015; Poff et al., 2016; Rodell et al., 2018; for 2030). Sophocleous, 2005). Agriculture needs the most significant amount of The growth of the world population is connected to higher waste and water (accounting for ~69% of all withdrawals), followed by the in­ sludge production. In 2010, global domestic water withdrawals per year dustrial and domestic (21%) demand, especially in developing econo­ ranged from 390 km3 to 477 km3. The countries with the highest amount mies. Around 40% of the world’s food is derived from ~18% of the of municipal wastewater production are United States, China, India, cropland that needs irrigation. Irrigated areas constitute ~1% per year Brazil, and Indonesia (Mateo-Sagasta et al, 2015, 2017). The production of water consumption and demand, and the observed tendency will be of SS gains approximately 10 million tons (dry matter basis) in Europe, increased from 70 to 90% by 2025 (Sophocleous, 2004, 2005). The 20 million tons in China, and 49 trillion liters in the US (Oladejo et al., global population will reach 8 billion in 2025 and 9.3 billion in 2050 2019). SS contains heavy metals and other persistent toxic substances, (Sophocleous, 2004). Today, about one-third of people live in countries depending on the source of its origin and technologies used for waste­ with limited availability (Rodell et al., 2018; Sophocleous, 2004). Equal water treatment. Sludge has valuable nutrients (N, P), organic C, and water resource availability requires technologies that save water, energy and fitsin the circular economy as a material with valuable traits. improve management and access, and enable sustainable use of irriga­ Table A10 presents the directives connected to waste management. tion water (Chartzoulakis and Bertaki, 2015; Rodell et al., 2018). Water is subjected to stress and pollution. Water pollution results 3.4. DP4 - the importance of phosphorus for life from industrial and commercial waste, agricultural practices, human activities, and transportation. Heavy metals, pesticides, and radioiso­ 3.4.1. The role of phosphorus in living organisms topes pollute waters (Owa, 2014). Education can help with minimizing P is one of the essential nutrients needed by all organisms. P is waste (Owa, 2014) and water pollution. The policies protecting water essential for the growth and development of body cells, cell membranes, are presented in Table A7. and tissues. One of the most challenging water pollution issues is N and P’s un­ The human organism contains 1% of P, compared with elements like controlled discharge, causing water eutrophication. N and P levels in O (65%), C (18%), H (10%), N (3%), and Ca (1.5%) (Chang and waters increased due to producing large amounts of domestic wastes, Anderson, 2017; Moe, 2008). An average adult’s body contains intensifying agricultural practices, and urban development (Moss, 2014; 500–800 g of P. The majority of P is accumulated in the skeleton as a Rabalais et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2008). Education, comprehensive mineral in the form of bones (Jankowska et al., 2012). P is also released guidelines, and monitoring can address eutrophication (Schindler et al., in human urine, which creates a feasible pathway for recovery. 2008; Yang et al., 2008). Energy is one of the most fundamental life needs. Population growth, 3.4.2. The role of P in agriculture enhancement of building services, developed technologies in transport P occurs naturally in foods and food additives (emulsifiers, stabi­ and industry, and increased comfort and living standards have led to lizers, and ripeners). About 90% of P enters the food chain as a fertilizer, increased building energy consumption. This trend will be continuing in ~7% as a food additive, and 3% as other forms (McClure et al., 2017). the future, and energy consumption will be higher. The three largest P plays an essential role in food production. Plant cultivation is energy use countries (China, the US, and India) use nearly 70% of global inseparably connected to fertilization. P constitutes one of the six energy. It is estimated that energy use will increase by ~3.2% per year macronutrients required by plants and is second next to N, responsible (P´erez-Lombard et al., 2008; Wood and Newborough, 2003; Zhao and for limiting crop growth (Balemi and Negisho, 2012). Supplying nutri­ Magoules,` 2012). ents in fertilizer ensures the proper growth and development of plants. SS and waste can be used as a renewable source to obtain biogas Its role in plant growth comprises energy transfer, photosynthesis, and using available processes like anaerobic digestion and thermochemical the transformation of sugars and starches. However, P is the least conversions (combustion, pyrolysis, gasification) (Chow et al., 2003; accessible macronutrient because of low availability and weak recovery McKinsey Global Energy and Materials, 2009). Biogas obtained in this from applied fertilizers (Balemi and Negisho, 2012). P is also crucial for way could be used in bio-methane production. Its conversion into heat plant growth and development. Its availability depends on the soil’s and electricity through cogeneration can replace natural gas (Manara chemical properties and Ca, Fe, and Al content. and Zabaniotou, 2012; Tyagi and Lo, 2013). An example is producing The P deficiencycan cause physiological and morphological changes energy in waste and wastewater treatment plants from waste in the US such as non-effective flowering, reduced fruition, and yield decrease (P´erez-Lombard et al., 2008). (Balemi and Negisho, 2012). The soil’s total P content is relatively low Soil erosion is considered one of the most severe environmental compared to N and K content and ranges from 50 to 3000 mg kg 1. The P problems. It affects soil fertility and availability for crops and food content depends strongly on the type of crop, climatic conditions, crop production. The total land area subjected to soil erosion is estimated at 2 removal, and fertilization rates. The lack of P results in decreased yield billion ha (Lal, 2001, 2015). It is also estimated that ~10 million ha of and quality (Bezak-Mazur and Stoinska,´ 2013; Jama-Rodzenska´ et al., land destined for cultivation is lost each year. According to the WHO, 2016; Rodriguez-Morgado et al., 2015). approximately 3.7 billion people are malnourished due to soil degra­ dation (Bindraban et al., 2012; Pimentel, 2006). The directive/acts 3.4.3. The role of P in industry and domestic use connected to soil protection are presented in Table A8. P is widely used in producing chemicals, food production, and In N. America, the Canadian act called Agriculture Soil conservation preparation of foodstuffs, steel, pharmaceuticals, detergents, flame re­ (1) in Canada and the U.S. soil policy (Soil 2019) comprising the Soil tardants, etching agents, and lithium-ion-phosphate electric-vehicle

5 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235 batteries. The cathode and anode masses for the electrodes were pre­ use efficiencyin food production constituted an average of around 37% pared using the following mass ratios: 85% of doped iron-lithium during the period 2000–2010, while in 1956, this rate constituted 89% phosphate (or doped lithium titanate), 10% of carbon black, 5% of (Bai et al., 2016). P use efficiency in the food chain was also charac­ PVDF (Chekannikov et al., 2017). Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the terized by a decreasing trend from 35% in 1950 to 7% in 2010. Esti­ dominant technology in electric vehicles today. Battery recycling could mated total P losses will increase to 5.1 Tg in 2030, a 66% increase reduce 20–23% of Li’s cumulative materials requirements by 2050. The compared to 2010 (Bai et al., 2016). share of secondary materials in the battery stock could theoretically be Similarly, the meat industry’s P demand also depends on the type of as high as recycling efficiency, i.e., above 90% (Xu et al., 2020). Total the livestock, type of the final products, meat treatment technologies, production worldwide of LiBs in 2017 gained 11,400 metric tonnes and and (if we include the animals feeding) the feed and farming type. Total is expected to increase (Tolomeo et al., 2020). As the molecular weight global P demand will increase per capita from 1.32 kg/person in 2007 to of LiFePO4 is 157.7 g/mol and P is 31 g/mol, the fraction of P in 1.55–1.72 in 2030–2050, respectively. This trend will continue due to Li-phosphate batteries is ~16.7%. Therefore, the mass of P used for LFB changes in eating habits and meat-rich diets, which are especially may be estimated at the level of 1900 tonnes. common in developing countries (Kamal et al., 2019). P recovery products, e.g., hydroxyapatite and struvite, can be used in agriculture and for bioceramics, fire-resistant panels, and cement (Kal­ 3.6. DP6 phosphorus supply mykova and Karlfeldt Fedje, 2013; Mayer et al., 2016). The elemental form of P occurs in two forms that differ physically 3.5. DP5 - phosphorus exploitation and utilization know-how (color) white (or yellow) and red P, both with different chemical char­ acteristics. White P is characterized by high reactivity, while red P is Almost 90% of P is derived from phosphate rock (Li et al., 2019). P more stable. It is not possible to find P in its elemental form in nature production is costly because deposits are being depleted, while mining because of its high reactivity. P occurs in minerals (mainly as phosphate) faces increased energy prices and environmental disadvantages. P is worldwide. These reserves contain about 15–20% phosphate (Danesh­ excavated with existing technologies based on conventional methods gar et al., 2018). P exists in the world, mainly in minerals, but (Hakkou et al., 2016; Larsdotter et al., 2007; Li et al., 2015; Lun et al., high-quality deposits are not homogeneously available. Apatite is the 2018). In 2017, an estimated 263,000 tons of phosphate rock were most common group of minerals containing P (Daneshgar et al., 2018). mined worldwide, more than in any prior year (Stubenrauch et al., Phosphate rock is difficultto obtain today, and its exploration for new P 2018). However, its current use has negative environmental impacts and deposits is costly (Bezak-Mazur and Stoinska,´ 2013; Childers et al., is not sustainable (Reijnders, 2014). Conventional P production is based 2011; Priha et al., 2014; Sengupta et al., 2015). on ore transportation to a processing facility, where floatationseparates Most of the world’s phosphate reserves are located in Morocco, ac­ fluorapatite from clay, limestone, and silicates. Apatite (the main counting for approximately 70% of the total reserves. Morocco is also phosphate mineral used for fertilizer production) demands conversion the largest exporter of phosphate rocks. China is the second in the into a water-soluble form. Rock phosphate is an insoluble form. The ranking (6% of the world’s phosphate reserves). Europe has relatively addition of sulfuric acid to phosphate concentrates and then filtration small phosphate rock deposits, and P demand depends strongly on its facilitates the usable P form production (Egle et al., 2015; Hakkou et al., import from Morocco. In the USA, the domestic P reserves will be 2016). decreasing within 25 years, and ~10% of its P demand is imported It is estimated that the global usage of P fertilizers and in the in­ (Childers et al., 2011; Roy, 2017). U.S. dominates the global demand for dustrial sector will gradually increase from 43.7 million tons (2015) to mineral P (24%), followed by China and other Asian territories (18%) 48.2 million tons (2019) (Hermann et al., 2018). In the EU alone, the and Africa (17%). New deposits of P can be found in Peru, Australia, and crop production sector requires ~3,330,000 t P∙y 1. Agronomic P in­ Namibia. There are no significant phosphate deposits in the EU, and puts as artificial fertilizer are ~14.2 Tg P⋅y 1 and an additional 9.6 Tg those existing are not mined for economic and technical reasons P⋅y 1 from manure. However, these inputs exceed P removal by culti­ (Childers et al., 2011; Morse et al., 1998; Roy, 2017). vated plants (~12.3 Tg P⋅y 1), creating environmental problems. P Potential sources of recoverable P are present in many commonly deficitsthat exist on a global scale are estimated at ~30% (Heino et al., available materials: wastewater, SS, ash, urine, activated SS. Waste­ 2018; MacDonald et al., 2011). water P comes from three primary sources: human metabolism P losses depend on the local soil and climate conditions, crop type, (30–50%), detergents (50–70%), industry (2–20%). SS and the incin­ agricultural practices, technology development, and other factors. Also, erated material (ash) is an excellent source of P for potential recovery P recycling’s efficiency depends on the type of the recycled material, and reuse, which has developed technologies for its recovery. SS could item, used technology, the system of waste collection, logistics of deliver 5.5–11.0% of the total P used in the EU as a fertilizer. The P transportation, and other factors. recovery from incinerated ash (originating from SS) for the EU is esti­ ´ The largest P losses include losses from consumption (54%) and mated at 10% (Alvarez et al., 2018; Atienza-Martínez et al., 2014; losses through wastewater (55%). The loss of P to wastewater consti­ Cie´slik and Konieczka, 2017; Kalmykova and Karlfeldt Fedje, 2013). tutes 15% of the total imported P (Jupp et al., 2021). The amount of P that can be found in municipal wastewater could The total P losses are presented as follows over 70 years: replace 40–50% of the annual artificialP fertilizer use in the agriculture sector (Egle et al., 2016). Both P and N represent the main two elements a) P net accumulation was 79 Tg P between 1950 and 2010; in the SS, and therefore, it is rational to target them for recovery b) P losses to surface water bodies from 0.2 Tg in 1950 to 2.4 Tg in 2010 (Gawdzik et al., 2015). Incineration and nutrients recovery from sludge (45% %) of the P losses occurred during the last 10 years; will be playing an important role in the near future (Gawdzik et al., c) loss of P from crop production - from 0.04 Tg in 1950 to 0.4 Tg in 2015; Heimersson et al., 2017; Kirchmann et al., 2017; Kominko et al., 2010; 2017; Papa et al., 2017; Werle and Dudziak, 2014). SS should be treated d) P loss from animal production from relatively small in 1950 to as as the largest potential source of unrecovered P, and currently, P re­ much as 2.0 Tg in 2010 (Bai et al., 2016). covery from SS in Europe is marginal and decreasing. This is because of concerns about environmental and health risks associated with the po­ P use efficiency in the food chain has decreased dramatically from tential content of heavy metals, organic pollutants, and biological 35% in 1950 to 6% in 2010, and it is reported that 80–90% of P extracted contamination, including pathogens (Kirchmann et al., 2017). Typical is used as mineral P in the agriculture sector, and of that only 20% is uses of SS are co-incineration in industry and cement sector heating taken up by crops and ends up in the food consumed by humans. Mean P plants or waste incinerators. While useful and fitting well into the

6 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235

Fig. 3. The parametrical contradiction of phenomenon IdP1: P natural resources deposition and regeneration rate following P resources erosion and exploitation. circular economy, all these current uses of SS generate other types of Natural P resources deposition and erosion, pollutants and environmental concerns (Kirchmann et al., 2017). Thus, P resource exploitation, adopting technology and increasing the P recovery from SS demands a P as a component of living organisms, holistic approach (Djafari et al., 2017). Primary and secondary production, Potential sources of recoverable P are present in many commonly P as an irreplaceable element, available materials. Waste activated sludge represents a valuable P P emissions accumulation, source (up to 1.4% of dry mass). The inorganic fraction consists of both P emission dispersion, apatite/non-apatite P or Ca/Mg/Fe-bound P. The organic fraction con­ Eutrophication, stitutes a complex fraction stored in the middle of cells as poly­ Industrial production, phosphates. The mechanisms to release P from both fractions are Technologies of waste and wastewater treatment, different, which makes their comprehensive recovery challenging. Technologies of P recovery. Therefore, the technological challenge is one reason for the lack of clear guidance for P recovery for wastewater treatment plants (Pokhrel et al., These elements are in strong relation to the problem and influence 2018; Xiao et al., 2017). the Map of Hypotheses (Fig. 2). The following causes of the problem Ash from the incineration of SS is a potentially rich source of P. were identified at the system level: However, it is not readably available because P is bound as calcium phosphate, stanfieldite,whitlockite, and berlinite (Gorazda et al., 2016). P resources’ natural deposition and regeneration rate are slower than However, ash can have 8 to 9 times higher heavy metals content than SS. natural resources erosion and anthropogenic exploitation rate New technologies of P recovery allow removing heavy metals (Biswas (IdP1). et al., 2009; Gorazda et al., 2016; Thomsen et al., 2017a; Werle and P is an irreplaceable element (IdP2) and limits the economy and Dudziak, 2014). demography growth. Human urine is an abundant P-rich source that is mostly sterile. Uncontrolled P emissions (from P exploitation, utilization, applica­ According to the WHO, recycled urine could provide 50% of the P tion in the agriculture and industry, the eutrophication, and P necessary to grow cereal crops. It is estimated that ~3 million tons of P dispersion in the environment (IdP3) increase environmental pollu­ are excreted in urine and feces annually. Globally ~1.7 Tg of P was in tion and depletion of available P for humanity. human urine, and a comparable amount of P was contained in feces in Due to demography, economy, and consumption growth, the market 2009. Human population growth will increase urine production. Urine for P (irreplaceable element) increases (IdP4). possesses about 50–70% of all P excreted, 70–90% of N, and 50–80% of Environmental pollution affects ineffective and/or improper appli­ K. Human feces contain P in various forms: phosphate, organically- cation and use of waste and wastewater treatment technologies bound phosphate, and orthophosphoric acid. (IdP5). Depletion of available P resources due to economic and demography 4. System-level - phosphorus management growth results from ineffective and/improper application and use of reduction, recovering, recycling, and reusing P technologies from If it is not possible to eliminate the super-system (DP1-DP6) factors to waste and wastewater (IdP6). solve the P problem, an analysis of the relationship between the system elements (IdP1 – IdP6) should be performed. All of the above phenom­ Identifying parametric contradictions can be extremely challenging, ena result in objective laws of nature and/or the existence of specific and it is the crucial stage for solving problems. This stage needs to be operating conditions of the super-system, system, and sub-system levels carried out thoroughly, and a problem model needs to be developed. (Fig. 2).Vital elements of the P management at the system level were Below, an analysis of parametric contradictions adopted from the TRIZ identified to identify causative phenomena: methodology was presented and discussed. The contradictions are a fairly common experience in problem-solving, i.e., improving one

7 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235

Fig. 4. The parametrical contradiction of phenomenon IdP2 and IdP4: P - biogenic and irreplaceable element depletion and economy and demography growth in accordance with the problem of P supply/demand. parameter results in something less desirable for another parameter. (Papa et al., 2017). In Germany, P recovery from SS is regulated, and Inventive problem-solving aims to creatively resolve the apparent soon it will be obligatory for plants with >50,000 person-equivalents contradiction. capacity (Rastetter et al., 2017). Japan is a country with no access to P deposits but with enough quantity of secondary P resources. About 2000 wastewater treatment plants and 1000 black water treatment 4.1. The phenomenon of IdP1 plants are working using the P sustainability initiative. In Japan, plans are made for obligatory recovery of phosphoric acid and high purity of Natural P resources originated from natural P deposition, and elemental P in the next decade. This will require developing a P refining regeneration has quantitative and qualitative limitations. P resources technology for large-scale production from various materials with sec­ ´ erosion and anthropogenic exploitation are critical parameters of the P ondary meaning (Tables A11, A12) (Alvarez et al., 2018). The obligation management system. Both should be controlled to regulate the P re­ of P recovery in European counties is not at an equal level. Differences in sources regeneration. If no control exists, the depletion of P natural re­ P recovery in Europe are presented in Table A13. sources will occur (Fig. 3). Ostara Nutrient Recovery Technologies Inc. (Ostara Nutrient Tech­ Based on the structure of the parametric contradiction of the P re­ nologis, 2020) is a leader in producing fertilizers obtained from waste. sources erosion and anthropogenic exploitation, one of the scenarios for They also sell the fertilizer under the ‘Cristal Green’ name as an solving the problem is the separation of the above dependence (Fig. 3), environmentally-friendly fertilizer. Compared to traditional fertilizers, which has been discussed below. struvite is less soluble in water; therefore, it is considered a ‘slow-­ EU has an opportunity to maintain the P on a constant level through release’ fertilizer (de Boer et al., 2018). recovery. P in the main element that takes part in feeding all the world: There is also an EU-level proposal for organic farming to introduce a fertilizer production, animal nutrition, industry production (detergents, regulation that would connect to the validation of recycled P products ’ food, others). In the face of the world s growing population, its appli­ (struvite, calcined phosphates). Organic farms have a rather positive cation has increased rapidly. Additionally, because of uneven P distri­ attitude to accept recycled P (ESSP, 2018). For this moment, present ’ bution, this reserve s prices are unstable, leading to geopolitical risk. regulatory in this direction is complex, sometimes contradictory, and Sustainability awareness and an ecological approach to P recovery incoherent. can be closed in the 4 Rs rule implemented and effective. The idea of 4 In 2017, the German sludge ordinance imposed an obligation on ’ R s is an ecologically and environmentally friendly approach to mini­ wastewater treatment plants (>50,000 population-equivalent) to mizing and managing SS and waste streams. It is a concept to treat waste recover >50% of P that enters the plant. It is estimated that by 2032 the by taking steps sequentially comprising reduction, reuse, and recycling P content in SS will be < 20 g kg 1 of dry matter in plants >100,000 PE of a waste stream into incremental fractions (Rohr and Martin, 2012; (Ostara Nutrient Technologies). A European Sustainable Phosphorus Sengupta et al., 2015). Platform (ESSP; Phosphorus platform) joins companies and stakeholders However, P recycling is not feasible in every country because of the concentrated on all aspects and all issues connected to P, starting from prevailing two major concerns: recovery of nutrients from SS and using P in a sustainable way and recycling (ESSP). reducing the risk connected with the direct application of potentially toxic residues (e.g., heavy metals) into food production potential involved with industrial-scale technologies. The approach to P recovery 4.2. The phenomenon of IdP2, IdP4 is different in each EU country (Mayer et al., 2016). In Spain, many P resources are used by industry, consumption, and waste management P is a biogenic and irreplaceable element for living organisms and ´ routes (Alvarez et al., 2018; Heimersson et al., 2017; Rastetter et al., growing primary, secondary, and industrial production. The P supply/ 2017; Thomsen et al., 2017b) with little recovery from sludge. In Italy, demand is a critical parameter of the P management system. The P only large WWTPs recover P while >60% of plants do not perform any supply/demand should be controlled to protect the P resources, but the recovery because of cost, lack of social acceptance, and regulations economy and demographic growth are limited. In case of a lack of P

8 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235

Fig. 5. The parametrical contradiction of phenomenon IdP3: P – environmental pollutants from agriculture and industry accumulation of emissions and dispersion in the environment in accordance with the problem of P isolation from the environment. supply/demand control, the depletion of P natural resources will cause Waste-outsourced fertilizers will probably change the European the collapse of the economy and demography due to the P economy and its dependence on P supply. Untreated raw P rock char­ irreplaceability. acterizes by low solubility, and its usage would be limited as a fertilizer Based on the structure of the parametric contradiction of the P because of poor solubility. However, this difficulty could be overcome supply/demand, one of the scenarios for solving the problem is the by using P solubilizing microbes (Jastrzebska et al., 2018) and struvite separation of the above dependence (Fig. 4), which has been discussed crystallization that constitutes a valuable slow-release mineral fertilizer below. in P recovery (Evans and Lane, 2006). Sustainable food production needs sustainable access and P extrac­ tion. However, this element is indispensable and irreplaceable in plant 4.2.2. Possibility of P recovery from various available waste resources cultivation. P is characterized by irreplaceability for living organisms Today the technology for P recovery from urine is underdeveloped and production (primary, secondary, and industrial). The lack of control and is being tested in pilot-scale experiments (Mbaya et al., 2016; Roy, of the P supply leads to faster P depletion, threatening economies and 2017). In Sweden and Germany, non-mix toilets are installed in new world trade. P will likely be depleted at its current rate of use in the year settlements separating urine and feces, a prerequisite for efficient P re­ 2030–2040, causing in the shorter term that WWTPs will have to obtain covery as an element of a closed-loop step towards safe ecological P from available materials at its level. This procedure will increase the sanitation (Roy, 2017). The retrofitting of sanitation devices is needed recovery rate of P (Linderholm et al., 2012). and changing people’s attitudes toward P and other nutrients recovery from urine. Researchers agree that regulations and incentives for 4.2.1. Primary sources of P demand installing specialized devices for urine separation can enable P recovery The main P sources in fertilizer are mineral fertilizers, livestock in the future. P may be recovered with higher effectiveness depending manure, sludge, and compost. P inputs to agriculture are connected to on appropriate infrastructure and technology. Direct use of urine and fertilizers, feed minerals, imported animal feedstuffs, atmospheric processes leading to struvite precipitation will be finisheddirectly to the deposition of P, and imports of food and commodities from other field(close the loop, where the farmers will be a contractor) (Jankowska countries. P outputs from the system are related to P exported within et al., 2012; Mbaya et al., 2016; Roy, 2017). agricultural products and P in waste and wastewater (Linderholm et al., A promising source of P is in SS. Today there are many methods of its 2012). recovery. Numerous technological approaches to P recovery were The fertilizer industry is the primary P user (74%), followed by feed developed and continue developing, and in some cases, are implemented phosphates (10%), detergents and technical phosphates (6%), food at a full scale in recent years. P recovery from wastewater treatment phosphates (5%), glyphosate (4%), and others (Childers et al., 2011). plants is not a new research topic. Implementing new technologies and Fertilizer production uses as much as 80–90% of rock phosphate for modernization of wastewater treatment plants should be connected to processing. Mean agricultural rates of P fertilization are ~10 kg ha 1 new priorities. P recovery should occur in a way that would be the most and fluctuatesfrom ~3 kg ha 1 in Africa to >25 kg ha 1 in some regions economical, concerning a low achievable concentration of heavy metals ´ of Europe (Alvarez et al., 2018). Depletion quantity and, at the same and minimal risk for the environment. P recovery should have a holistic time, its quality increasing P fertilizer prices. The increased cost of fer­ and broader approach. Sometimes one recovery product can be com­ tilizer production is also associated with gas and oil prices that lead to an bined with another; for instance, phosphoric acid is produced and may increase in the cost of transportation and added chemicals (for example, be used to absorb ammonia resulting in ammonium phosphate (Egle ammonia and sulfuric acid) (Tarayre et al., 2016). Even today, the et al., 2015; Hermann et al., 2018; Morse et al., 1998). money that must be spent on fertilizers by farmers is too high for them in many sub-Saharan Africa regions, leading to the deterioration of their 4.2.3. Losses of P yield and the quality of their crops (Bauer et al., 2007; Childers et al., Substantial P losses occur at all processes such as the excavation of 2011). rock, production of fertilizers, transport, storage, application and

9 A. Jama-Rodzenska´ et al. Journal of Environmental Management 287 (2021) 112235 harvest, food production, and consumption. Two types of losses can be where some countries legislated acceptable amounts of P application identified: permanent (starting from food production and ending in (Agricultural phosphorus legislation in Europe, 2014). In 2007 Europe consumption) and temporary losses (within food production and con­ has set the compilation of directives concerning P regulations as part of sumption), and 80% of P losses appear between crop production and the EUCOST action 869 “Mitigation options for nutrient reduction in consumption (Cordell et al, 2009, 2011). Phosphate surface mining is surface water”. These compilations comprise the following directives connected with emissions. Mining operations cause higher emissions (Table A15) and acceptable amounts of P used in agriculture compared to phosphate processing and transport (Tartakovsky et al., (Table A16). 2016). Phosphate also causes soil dispersion. Negative charge density The definitionof best available technology (BAT) is often used in the can lead to flocculationand dispersion (Pham et al., 2014). Soil particles context of environmental regulations taking into account environ­ cause P mopping with moving water to groundwater (Pham et al., 2014). mental, economic, and technical aspects. The BATs are for the plant and The most significant losses are related to erosion – leading to the sector level. BATs are taking into account sustainable development and cavity of the soil and the process of leaching. All these activities nega­ sustainable consumption (Guidelines on best available techniques and tively affect the environment. Therefore, reducing food waste can provisional guidance on best environmental practices 2020). constitute an effective way to protect high amounts of P, whereas losses Taking into account, BAT for waste comprises: of reduction from agricultural land are somewhat challenging to achieve (Daneshgar et al., 2018, 2019). - Waste management system - prevention and minimization of waste production, reuse, and recycling, including technology to recover the 4.3. The phenomenon of IdP3 energy from waste, supporting initiatives related to waste manage­ ment and allowing supporting in this matter in developing countries; P has a parameter of isolation in the environment. Isolation of P is a - Promotion of waste prevention and its minimization. critical parameter P management system. To avoid the uncontrolled - Waste incineration leading to a reduction of its volume (quantity), accumulation of P emissions and in the consequences of the increase of recovery of energy, minimization of the negative impact of hazard­ eutrophication and P dispersion in the environment causing the envi­ ous substances, disinfection, and the reuse of available residues. ronment pollution and depletion of P available for humanity, it is necessary to “cap” the P exploitation, utilization, application in the Several principal areas can be distinguished within waste treatment agriculture and industry. Otherwise, P will infiltrateto the environment approaches: causing its degradation. Based on the structure of the parametric contradiction of the P - Biological treatment (composting, fermentation) isolation, one of the scenarios for solving the problem is the separation - Mechanical separation of the above dependence (Fig. 5), which has been discussed below. - Thermal treatment An excessive amount of P in the environment can cause its loss via - Gasification scattering. Excessive exploitation and excavation lead to its depletion. - Pyrolysis Living organisms need P; however, a significantamount of P is subjected - High temperature - melting to scattering via eutrophication. Additionally, low P utilization in most - Combined pathways (Guidelines on best available techniques and countries results in accumulation in local streams, leading to not only provisional guidance on best environmental practices 2020). eutrophication but red tide (algae blooming) (Li et al., 2019). In case we do not “save” P, its sources will deplete earlier, and P will transfer to the Based on the ability to control the environmental effects of P, environment causing its degradation. recirculation systems can be divided as follows: with the full ability of Causing changes in the natural P cycle will destroy mainly water control (recovery of P from various sources and then reuse as an organic ecosystems: rivers and seas leading to eutrophication. That process oc­ amendment/fertilizer to the soil). curs because of the inefficient P use and runoff from agricultural land The P content is dependent on the source. The average content of P in (Lu et al., 2018). Eutrophication is one of the most severe water prob­ municipal waste is 5–10 mg/L. Swine manure can have as much as lems in Europe, the US, and China. In polluted water ecosystems, ~200 mg/L P. The primary recipient of recycled P is the agriculture biomass is settled down in deeper layers of water, leading to depletion of sector, food processing, and domestic wastewaters. In wastewater oxygen content. Directives related to water protection and P are pre­ treatment, P is removed using chemical or bio-based technologies. In sented in Table A14. Europe, North America, East Asia, there are more than 70 full-scale P We also identified many indicators used to evaluate the scale of recovery plants based on chemical Pi leaching from incinerated sludge eutrophication in aquatic systems, including phosphate, ammonia, and ash, salts precipitation, and struvite crystallization after anaerobic nitrate, found mainly in coastal waters and rivers measured directly sludge digestion. through water sampling. These parameters are monitored regularly in Improper waste disposal can significantly impact surface water’s situ and comprise the following processes: physical, chemical, and organoleptic quality and properties. It is necessary to carry out regular monitoring to protect water quality and - Biochemical oxygen demand minimize the risk of contamination. - Chlorophyll content Classification of the water quality with biomonitoring on P and N’s - Chemical oxygen demand total amount is presented elsewhere (Duka et al., 2017; Li et al., 2010). - Suspended solids (SS) and turbidity (Andersen et al, 2006, 2010, One of the most appropriate and suitable biological methods is bio­ 2017; Haas et al., 2015; Li et al., 2015; Skogen et al., 2014). monitoring using living organisms as sensors of physicochemical and biological traits of water to determine the state of pollution and its level. Existing policies related to water protection are presented in Organisms used in biomonitoring are called bioindicators, including Table 15. algae, macrophytes, and biosensors such as bacteria, viruses, antibodies, Many countries (USA, China, EU countries) have implemented enzymes, bioassays, or aquatic animals (Costa and Teixeira, 2014; wastewater P limits to stem eutrophication. The Ministry of Ecology and Gerhardt, 2002; Li et al., 2010). According to The International Orga­ Environment of China has established an acceptable total P limit of 0.1 nization for Standardization (ISO), water monitoring processes, sam­ mg/L for drinking water resources (lakes or reservoirs) (belongs to Class pling, measuring, and analyzing different water parameters. Organisms II and III) and 0.2 mg/L for other flowingwaters (belongs to class IV and used in biomonitoring are separated into two classes: the saprobic or­ V) (Li et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2018). The same trend is observed in Europe, ganisms – plankton and periphyton (Europe) and macroinvertebrates

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Fig. 6. The parametrical contradiction of phenomenon IdP5: P – accumulation of emissions and dispersion of P in the environment discharge from agriculture and industry in accordance with the problem of P containing waste and wastewater treatment.

(USA). Special biotests are conducted in laboratories using living or­ of the US. The reused wastewater is used in agriculture, aquifer ganisms that can react to the metals, organic, and biogenic compounds. recharge, aquaculture, firefighting, flushing of toilets, snow melting, On these bases, identification of toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic industrial cooling, watering of parks and golf courses, and other non- substances is analyzed (Li et al., 2010). potable uses (Almuktar et al., 2018; Jenssen et al., 2004; Vigneswaran Phytoremediation technologies use plants with high biomass po­ and Sundaravadivel, 2009). tential, fast-growing with the ability to take up heavy metals without the We distinguish many phosphate removal methods, e.g., chemical negative impact on the yield (Głąb and Sowinski,´ 2019; Jama-Rodzenska´ methods, physical-chemical to biological, and/or combinations of both. et al., 2016). However, the most promising are biological methods, including enhancing biological P removal (EBPR). This process can be introduced in the systems where sludge is used, relying on implementing anaerobic 4.4. The phenomenon of IdP5 conditions (Blocher¨ et al., 2015; Morse et al., 1998; Oehmen et al., 2007; Shen and Zhou, 2016). This process is possible because of P (poly­ Waste and wastewater produced due to economic and demographic phosphate)-accumulating organisms (PAOs) (with a high ability to growth containing P have a parameter of treatability. Waste and remove P). Candidatus Accumulibacter phosphatis (Accumulibacter), Aci­ wastewater containing P treatment and recovery are critical for the netobacter sp. are the most widely used PAOs. In the anaerobic condi­ overall P management system. The efficient P treatment aims to accu­ tions, PAOs store biodegradable organics that are in raw influent or mulate and recover P and avoid its discharge, eutrophication, and settled sewage. After hydrolyzing and utilizing PAOs, they provide the dispersion in the environment. required energy (as ATP) to transfer orthophosphate into the pulp Based on the structure of the parametric contradiction of the waste (Oehmen et al., 2007). and wastewater containing P treatment, one of the scenarios for solving Constructed wetlands with sorptive filter media allow P removal the problem is the separation of the above dependence (Fig. 6), which with comparable results to the EBPR system. This method, however, has been discussed below. The most important in this issue is to set up requires a continuous flowof water. Therefore its application is limited the directives that regulate this issue (Table A17). only to a very small scale (Bunce et al., 2018). Constructed wetlands are Recirculating systems should be performed to limit and control water worth considering because they represent a low-cost and environmen­ pollution. They should be created in an organized process that allows tally friendly option in wastewater reclamation. The method was water to leave a fishculture and be reconditioned and reused in the same described, and the firstfull-scale constructed wetlands were established fish culture. As a first indicator, dissolved oxygen allows knowing/ in 1967 (Kivaisi, 2001; Papa et al., 2017; Rosenquist et al., 2011; Sen­ informing about water quality (Ismail Badran, 2001; Kirchmann et al., gupta et al., 2015; Vymazal and Jan 2010). Wetlands are divided into 2017). Recirculating can be done as: some groups taking into account water level, used as free-floating(with the different flow). Constructed wetlands use a combination of the - partial-reuse systems (that use much smaller flows to achieve pro­ following elements, including shallow water, dense vegetation, and duction goals and can significantly increase waste captured by narrow channels – conditions that help people to create the appropriate concentrating wastes into much smaller discharges serial-reuse conditions to remove contaminants (Kivaisi, 2001; Sengupta et al., raceway systems) 2015; Vymazal and Jan 2010). Contaminants and nutrient reduction - fully recirculating systems (reuse the water to a high degree rely on different processes, whereas organics are removed through > ( 95–99% of the flowis reused). Fully recirculating systems require deposition and filtration. Additionally, P can be accumulated in peat. clarifiers or filters to reduce particulate solids and biological filters. The only factor that can delimit using this method is land availability, growing season, lack of sorption capacity and random variations in ef­ Reuse of wastewater constitutes additional, partially-treated water fluents conditions from rain (Rosenquist et al., 2011; Sengupta et al., that can be used or added to water sources, especially in arid regions. 2015). Species like water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Mart.), water Such reuse is done on a large scale in Israel, South Africa, and some parts

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Fig. 7. The parametrical contradiction of phenomenon IdP6: Decrease or elimination of primary P resource exploitation for growing agriculture and industry in accordance with the problem of P recovery and reuse from waste and wastewater. lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.), and several species of duckweed (Lemnaceae) methods obtaining in results amorphous calcium phosphates (Danesh­ are commonly used in this process. After harvesting, these plants are rich gar et al., 2018). Membrane technologies are still in the laboratory sources of nutrients for fishand animal food. P removal efficiencyfrom phase. The disadvantage is associated with high costs for all processes wastewater streams is as high as 70–85%, while nitrate has a negative (cost of cleaning, maintenance, and chemicals) that prevent it from charge (Oehmen et al., 2007). implementation at a large scale (Daneshgar et al., 2019). Adsorption of P by algae is another promising method of P recovery P recovery via filtersystems using active elements is becoming more from waste. Biological assimilation using plants and algae is a successful popular. This method relies on using reactive media made from products method of P recovery, however time-consuming. CO2 and nutrients made natural (like apatite), waste products from industry (fly-ash), or + 3 (including NH4 , NO3, and PO4 ) are needed for optimal growth and manufactured products (like FiltraliteTM). The most popular available development. Algae are used for aerobic water cleaning at wastewater commercially is Polonite (Bunce et al., 2018). treatment plants to remove pathogenic pollutants with low P removal. Electrochemical processes are being regarded as a next-generation The harvested algal biomass has a broad spectrum of uses in industry, technology for P recovery from nutrient-rich wastewater in the form including fertilizers characterize by slow-release activities, pharma­ of recoverable calcium phosphate. Electrochemical methods can be ceuticals, food processing biofuels production (Daneshgar et al., 2018). divided into anode oxidation and cathode reduction. The electro­ Scenedesmus sp. and Chlorella sp. are microalgae with the ability to chemical methods also lead to struvite formation, via chemical precip­ + accumulate P in a natural environment. Potential removal reaches itation, by dosing of Mg2 . The electrochemical method is currently >90% by microalgae immobilization on synthetic substrates. Microalgal recommended due to the availability, low cost, and low temperatures biofilm photobioreactors have a high potential for P removal (Bunce used, allowing for obtaining crystalline products (Lei et al., 2020). et al., 2018). Except for the photobioreactor membrane, an osmotic Ion-exchange technologies can also be used in P removal from waste membrane photobioreactor is considered to be used with a high per­ wastewater plants, especially in decentralized locations. However, they centage of P removal (Bunce et al., 2018). are not so popular and widely used compared to other physicochemical The chemical method widely used in P removal relates to adding methods and need further research (Bunce et al., 2018). chemicals. The most commonly used chemicals are dosing metal salts The overall aim is to prevent or reduce waste generation (zero waste, (trivalent metal salts, ferric chloride) to the influent, activated sludge zero landfilling),recycling, and incineration (limiting waste production reactor, or to waste coming from the secondary clarifier.Obtained solid while generating electricity and heat at the same time). Recycling is an residuals are removed after settling by gravity or by filtration. end-of-life recovery process and allows to reprocess of the material into Commonly used membrane filters are reverse osmosis, membrane re­ new products that can be reused (Ogunmakinde and Maund, 2019). action, and membrane filters.Gravity membrane filtrationis devoted to wastewater treatment because of the low cost of maintenance and en­ ergy. It must be implemented to enhance the membrane efficiency of 4.5. The phenomenon of IdP6 pre- or post-treatment. Often in combination with membrane processes, granular activated carbon is used to remove other additional contami­ Waste and wastewater containing P produced due to the economic nants such as pesticides, disinfection, by-products, aromatic proteins, and demographic growth are a secondary source of P. The high effi­ and humic substances (Ding et al., 2018). P recovery methods using ciency of reduction, recovering, recycling, and reusing of P from waste membrane are an example of new and promising but still at the initial and wastewater technologies is a critical parameter of the P manage­ stage. Membrane technology allows getting streams characterized by ment system (Fig. 7). The technologies of reduction, recovering, recy­ high P concentration and directing them to a precipitation process cling, and reusing of P from waste and wastewater containing should be aiming for P recovery (Daneshgar et al., 2019; Sengupta et al., 2015). practical to replace or substitute the primary resources of P. In case of Osmotic membrane bioreactor is a new P recovery method that com­ low efficiency of 4Rs of technologies from waste and wastewater con­ bines two methods: osmotic membranes and treatment with biological taining P, the depletion of available P primary resources will occur causing the collapse of the economy and demographic growth.

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Based on the structure of the parametric contradiction of the Carbonized Refuse Derived Fuel into the environment,” completed at the reduction, recovering, recycling, and reusing of P from waste and Iowa State University. Partial funding came from the Iowa Agriculture wastewater, one of the scenarios for solving the problem is the separa­ and Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Project no. tion of the above dependence. IOW05556 (Future Challenges in Animal Production Systems: Seeking Solutions through Focused Facilitation) sponsored by Hatch Act and 5. Conclusion State of Iowa funds.

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