The Role of Women in Decision-Making Positions – the Case of the Israeli Sport Organisations
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This item was submitted to Loughborough University as a PhD thesis by the author and is made available in the Institutional Repository (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/) under the following Creative Commons Licence conditions. For the full text of this licence, please go to: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ The role of women in decision-making positions – The case of the Israeli sport organisations THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN DECISION-MAKING POSITIONS – THE CASE OF ISRAELI SPORT ORGANISATIONS By MORAN BETZER-TAYAR A Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of the Award of Doctoral of Philosophy of the Loughborough University July 2012 © M. BETZER-TAYAR iii The role of women in decision-making positions – The case of the Israeli sport organisations ABSTRACT This thesis analyses discourses about the roles and barriers to access for women to decision-making positions in Israeli sport organisations. In particular it focuses on the exploration of discourses of masculinity and femininity that underpin the relatively recent construction of Israel society and the institutions of sport within it. It is observed that for the most part, Israeli sport organisations are governed by men and have served the interests of forms of hegemonic masculinity. In order to understand and explore the social construction of these gendered discourses in Israeli sport, two innovative and significant policy initiatives toward gender equity in sport were explored through the perceptions and discourses of key actors. These include the establishment of a Volleyball Academy for Young Talented Girls (VAYTG) and the creation of the National Project for Women and Sport (NPWS). The theoretical framework for this thesis is informed by poststructuralist feminism, which provided an alternative way to understand and analyse voices of the (predominantly female) 'other' and thus to explore the historical contextual construction of current discourses of masculinity within Israeli sport organisations and society as a whole. The process of narrative revisions and production of gendered knowledge revealed how discourses produce and reinforce gender inequities in Israeli society, such as the discourse of militarisation or the unique political affiliation system in the sporting arena which continue to implicitly exclude women (and some men) from gaining access to leadership positions in sport organisations. Within this theoretical frame, Critical Discourse Analysis was employed as a methodological approach to analyse how female and male interviewees, all considered to be 'insiders' within their organisations, explained the process of the construction of gendered roles and barriers. Included in the interview data was also the auto-ethnographical accounts of the author, who was a primary actor in the process of developing policy in the two case study initiatives addressed. Dominant discourses of femininity (such as the discourse of sisterhood and of the processes of mentoring), and of masculinity (and how these promote uniformity) were identified as mechanisms for reproducing the gendered reality of sport leadership in Israel. The implication of a critical theoretical approach is that it should be emancipatory in its ambitions and impact, and the study is intended to contribute to enhancing the understanding of how discourse not only reflects but also creates barriers and opportunities so that the construction of such barriers can be challenged in progressive policy discourses. Key words: Israel, policy, deconstruction, gender equity, critical discourse analysis, volleyball, feminist theory, poststructuralist, auto-ethnography, decision-making, gender, masculinity, sport, organisational. iv The role of women in decision-making positions – The case of the Israeli sport organisations ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There were days when I found it hard to imagine that the time of writing acknowledgments would ever arrive, or when I would have free weekends to be with my family and children. But most of all I could not think of times when I would no longer have Friday mornings to listen to my one and only supervisor's wisdom, advice, guidelines and academic support, which has inspired me throughout the journey to this moment. His openness, understanding, availability, flexibility and patience towards me were my constant motivation and for that I thank him. My warmest thanks to everyone at the Center for Olympic Studies and Research at Loughborough University, with whom I had the pleasure of working and with whom I hope to do so again in the future. I also remember with great love my fellow research students (who are all now PhDs), for their friendship, support and great times we had together many years ago as we set out. My deepest gratitude to Shlomit, Uri, Arie, Yair, Rutie, Nurit, Taliya, Xavier, Kiki, Yaya, David, and all my special Olympic friends from Paradise and from around the globe, for believing in me, encouraging me and being my inspiration, I wish everyone in the world had friends like you. To my unbelievable and unique family, who supported me in the worst times and the best with the same amount of love. My father, Nadav, who lived the dream with me, each and every moment, you were the engine of this entire project. I could not do it without you. My mother, Rutie, who I admire for her helpfulness, kindness and understanding, my sisters and their partners, Rotem, Asaf (Romi and Mika), Yaara, Eyal (Yarden), Manor and Idan, to Lina for their acceptance and support - you were all a source of power, and because of you, I feel blessed. Finally, to my dear partner, Itzik and my extraordinary three children, Itay (18), Shay (13) and Dana (6). Your acceptance, understanding and love was the reason I never stopped, and the whole project is therefore dedicated to you. Itzik, you are the sunshine of gender equity, you taught me how to "just do it", you are my home, you are my best friend, you are my mentor. To my children, I love each one of you and respect the human beings you became, loving, letting, not judging, accepting and inspiring personalities. v The role of women in decision-making positions – The case of the Israeli sport organisations TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE - THE CONTEXTUAL STRUCTURE OF GENDER AND SPORT IN ISRAEL 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Approaches to historical analysis 2 1.3 Equity and equality 4 1.4 The context of women and sport in Israel 7 1.5 Historical aspects in the Israeli world of sport 12 1.6 The lack of female representation on the boards of sport organisations 16 1.7 The struggle for equity in sport 17 1.8 The research questions 19 1.9 Some introductory theoretical considerations 20 1.10 The construction of the discourse on women in Israel 23 1.11 The struggle for equality of women’s basketball in Israel – the pioneers 31 1.12 The Israeli National Project for Women in Sport (NPWS) 35 1.13 Concluding remarks 36 CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW – WOMEN IN SPORT ORGANISATIONS 38 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2. Theoretical considerations 42 2.3. Historically socio-cultural contextualised construction of gender roles in sport organisations 49 2.4. Gender and sport organisations 51 2.5. Women holding leadership positions in sport organisations 55 2.6. The gender-roles in leadership positions in sport organisations 60 2.7. Gender-equity policies in sport organisations 62 2.8. Gender and international sport organisations 65 vi The role of women in decision-making positions – The case of the Israeli sport organisations 2.9 Gendered discourse and its influence on the roles of women in decision-making positions in sport organisations 66 2.10 Can a quota/minimum target provide the answer? 70 2.11 Are women-based sport organisations the answer? 76 2.12 Women working within a mixed organisation 77 2.13. Mentoring 82 2.14 Concluding remarks 85 CHAPTER THREE - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 87 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2. Adopting poststructuralist feminist theory as a perspective 89 3.3 Methodological considerations 92 3.4. The ontological frame of the study – constructivism 93 3.5. Research framework – data analysis 94 3.6. Context 102 3.7 Evaluating and reporting 103 3.8 Data collection 106 3.9 Research tools 108 3.10 Concluding remarks 124 CHAPTER FOUR - THE STORY(IES) OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VAYTG 126 4.1. Theoretical framework 126 4.2 The historical context of the Israeli Volleyball Association (IVA) 126 4.3 The structure of the Israeli Volleyball Association as described in the IVA Files 127 4.4 The Research Site – the (de)construction of the IVA executive board 129 4.5 The organisational structure of the National Academy for Sport Excellence 133 4.6 The research questions 134 4.7 The interviewees’ backgrounds 135 4.8 Wind of change – the entry of women into the IVA - M’s Story 138 vii The role of women in decision-making positions – The case of the Israeli sport organisations 4.9 Discussion of the discourse 140 4.10 Concluding insights 160 4.11 Conclusions 163 CHAPTER FIVE - THE CREATION OF THE NPWS 168 5.1. Introduction 168 5.2. Rationale for the selected case study 169 5.3 The interviewees 175 5.4. Introduction of the research site – the National Project for Women 182 and Sport (NPWS) 182 5.5. Approaching Sport 188 5.6. Leaving the sport arena 191 5.7 Breaking the “Glass Ceiling” – renewing involvement with sport 197 5.8. Establishing a national gender equity policy - The NPWS – National 208 Project for Women and Sport (the National Project for Women and Sport - Athena) 208 5.9 The Barriers 210 5.10 Managerial styles 219 5.11 Concluding thoughts: do women live up to their own expectations? 226 CHAPTER SIX - DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY: WOMEN, SPORT AND POLICY 228 6.1 Introduction 228 6.2 Originality and contribution to knowledge 228 6.3 Research implications 233 6.4 Implications for practice 234 6.5 Concluding remarks 236 REFERENCES 238 viii The role of women in decision-making positions – The case of the Israeli sport organisations LIST OF TABLES Table Title 1.