Bisphenol a Alternatives in Thermal Paper
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Bisphenol A Alternatives in Thermal Paper Chapter 5 General Exposure and Lifecycle Information FINAL REPORT August 2015 [Supercedes version dated January 2014] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Table of Contents 5. General Exposure and Life-cycle Information ................................................................ 5-1 5.1 Potential Exposure Pathways and Routes (General) .................................................... 5-2 5.1.1 Inhalation Exposures .................................................................................... 5-2 5.1.2 Dermal Exposures ........................................................................................ 5-3 5.1.3 Ingestion Exposures ..................................................................................... 5-3 5.1.4 Environmental and General Population Exposures ..................................... 5-3 5.1.5 Exposures to Susceptible Populations ......................................................... 5-4 5.1.6 Physical/Chemical Properties for that May Impact Exposure to BPA and Alternatives .................................................................................. 5-5 5.2 Potential Sources of Exposure in the Life-cycle of Thermal Paper ............................. 5-7 5.2.1 Manufacture of Developers .......................................................................... 5-7 5.2.2 Manufacture of Thermal Paper .................................................................... 5-8 5.2.3 Conversion of Thermal Paper .................................................................... 5-10 5.2.4 Use of Thermal Paper ................................................................................ 5-10 5.2.5 End-of-Life ................................................................................................ 5-11 5.2.6 Manufacture of Recycled Paper Products .................................................. 5-11 5.3 Available Data on Occupational, Consumer, and Environmental Exposures to BPA, Thermal Paper Life-cycle............................................................................. 5-12 5.3.1 BPA in Receipts ......................................................................................... 5-12 5.3.2 Bisphenol S (BPS) in Receipts .................................................................. 5-13 5.3.3 BPA Transfer to Skin and Potential for Dermal Absorption ..................... 5-13 5.3.4 Occupational Exposure .............................................................................. 5-13 5.3.5 Consumer and General Population Exposure ............................................ 5-14 5.3.6 Environmental Exposure ............................................................................ 5-15 i List of Acronyms and Abbreviations AIM Analog Identification Methodology ACR Acute to Chronic Ratio ADME Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion AIST Advanced Industrial Science and Technology ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials BAF Bioaccumulation Factor BCF Bioconcentration Factor BMD Benchmark Dose BMDL Benchmark Dose Lower-confidence Limit BPA Bisphenol A BPS Bisphenol S BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CASRN Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CHO Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells ChV Chronic Value CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission CVL Crystal Violet Lactone DfE Design for the Environment DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon dpi Dots per inch EC50 Half Maximal Effective Concentration ECHA European Chemicals Agency ECOSAR Ecological Structure Activity Relationships EDSP Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program EEC European Economic Community Eh Redox potential EKG Electrocardiogram EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act EPI Estimations Program Interface ERMA Environmental Risk Management Authority EU European Union EWG Environmental Working Group FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration GHS Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals GLP Good Laboratory Practice HGPRT Hypoxanthine-Guanine Phosphoribosyl-Transferase HIPAA Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography HPV High Production Volume HSDB Hazardous Substances Data Bank IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer IR Infrared ii IRIS Integrated Risk Information System IUCLID International Uniform Chemical Information Database Koc Soil adsorption coefficient Kow Octanol/water partition coefficient LC50 Median Lethal Concentration LCA Life-cycle Assessment LD50 Median Lethal Dose LD Lactation Day LFL Lower Limit of Flammability LOAEL Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level LOEC Lowest Observed Effective Concentration MDI Mean Daily Intake MF Molecular Formula MITI Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry MW Molecular Weight MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet NAICS North American Industry Classification System NES No Effects at Saturation NGO Non-Governmental Organization NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey NICNAS National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIR Near Infrared NOAEL No Observed Adverse Effect Level NOEC No Observed Effect Concentration NOEL No Observed Effect Level NTP National Toxicology Program OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OPPT Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics P2 Pollution Prevention PBB Poly-Brominated Biphenyls PBDE Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether PBT Profiler Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic (PBT) Chemical Profiler PMN Premanufacture Notice PNEC Predicted No Effect Concentration POS Point-of-sale ppb parts per billion ppm parts per million PVC Polyvinyl Chloride REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemical substances RoHS Restriction of Hazardous Substances SAR Structure Activity Relationship SCAS Semi-Continuous Activated Sludge SF Sustainable Futures SMILES Simplified Molecular-Input Line-Entry System SPARC Sparc Performs Automated Reasoning in Chemistry iii TDI Total Daily Intake TOC Total Organic Carbon TRI Toxics Release Inventory TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act QSAR Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships UFL Upper Limit of Flammability USGS U.S. Geological Survey WHO World Health Organization WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant iv 5. General Exposure and Life-cycle Information The purpose of this chapter is to provide general information on exposure and life-cycle considerations of thermal paper developers. This discussion is framed in the context of six life- cycle stages: manufacture of developers (Section 5.2.1), manufacture of thermal paper (Section 5.2.2), conversion of thermal paper (Section 5.2.3), use of thermal paper (Section 5.2.4), end-of- life (Section 5.2.5), and manufacture of recycled paper products (Section 5.2.6), as shown in Figure 5-1. A quantitative exposure assessment is outside the scope of this project and not necessary for comparative hazard assessment. Rather, this chapter represents a qualitative review of potential environmental releases and exposures based on limited information from the published literature and publicly available sources (Section 5.3). Understanding the factors that affect exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) and alternative developers across the life-cycle provides additional context to the alternative selection process. This chapter includes information on the presence of BPA in people and the environment, with the understanding that thermal paper is only one of the sources of BPA. This type of information is generally not available for other chemicals in the assessment, however, the information on BPA in thermal paper can be considered as a surrogate for the other developers that have similar physical/chemical properties and behaviors and use patterns. Figure 5-1: Summary of Life-cycle of Developers in Thermal Paper 1 2 3 4 Manufacture of Manufacture of Conversion of Use of Developers Thermal Paper Thermal Paper Thermal Paper (coat) (add adhesives, (receipts, labels, resize, and package) tickets, etc.) Section 5.2.1 Section 5.2.2 Section 5.2.3 Section 5.2.4 5 End of Use Section 5.2.5 Recycling Landfill Incineration 6 Manufacture of Recycled Paper Products Section 5.2.6 5-1 5.1 Potential Exposure Pathways and Routes (General) Exposure to developers can occur at many points in the life-cycle of thermal paper. There is a potential for occupational exposures during chemical and product manufacturing and product end-of-life (i.e., recycling, landfilling, or incineration). Additionally, there may be exposures to workers and consumers while thermal paper is being used and to the general population and the environment from releases during product manufacturing, use, and end-of-life. The risk associated with a given chemical or substance is influenced by how exposure occurs. For example, the level of exposure associated with inhaling the chemical can be different from exposure via ingestion, in turn influencing the toxic outcome. As a result, exposure is typically characterized by different pathways and routes. An exposure pathway is the physical course a chemical takes from the source of release to the organism that is exposed, whereas the exposure route is how the chemical gets inside the organism. The three primary routes of exposure are inhalation, dermal absorption, and ingestion. The physical/chemical properties of the chemical influence the pathways and routes of exposure. The physical state of the chemical