Does Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias Taurus) Diving Tourism Promote Biocentric Values Within Participants? Kirby Smith, Mark Scarr and Dr Carol Scarpaci

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Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 142, p. 31–44, 2009 ISSN 0035-9173/09/020031–14 $4.00/1

Does Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias taurus) Diving Tourism Promote Biocentric Values Within Participants? kirby smith, mark scarr and dr carol scarpaci

Abstract: In Australia, humans can dive with critically endangered grey nurse sharks (Carcharias taurus) at Fish Rock, New South Wales. This industry has the potential to improve the environmental knowledge of participants and encourage pro-environmental attitudes within tourists. This study surveyed tourists pre and post participation in grey nurse shark dives to ascertain if the experience positively influenced the grey nurse shark knowledge and biocentric attitudes of tourists (short-term). Educational talks were provided to tourists of alternating boat trips to assess if education had a significant impact upon the knowledge and biocentrism of these tourists compared with those that were not provided with a talk. Survey data were collected across eight grey nurse shark dive boat trips from December 2008 to January 2009. Results indicated that those individuals likely to participate in a grey nurse shark dive were generally already knowledgeable and biocentric, hence the scope for further improvement was quite narrow. Significant improvements to the grey nurse shark knowledge and biocentric attitudes of tourists post dive were detected, however the majority of these improvements occurred within tourists already considered to be highly biocentric and knowledgeable pre dive experience. The provision of educational talks significantly improved the knowledge of participants but not their biocentrism. These findings are of importance as they highlight that the contribution the industry may provide to conservation by improving the biocentric attitudes and environmental knowledge of tourists may be minimal. Furthermore, it is important that accurate educational resources are developed and provided to tourists pre and post dive to avoid the development of misconceptions by tourists during grey nurse shark dives.

Keywords: Grey nurse shark, Carcharias taurus, biocentric, biocentrism, pro-environmental, shark dive, nature-based tourism.

INTRODUCTION pro-environmental attitudes of tourists and to improve their knowledge of the species and the marine environment (Zeppel & Muloin 2008). In Australia, humans can scuba dive with criti- This in turn may encourage tourists to adopt cally endangered grey nurse sharks (Carcharias more pro-environmental behaviours (Mayes et taurus Rafinesque, 1810) at Fish Rock, New al. 2004), such as abiding by regulatory man- South Wales (Environment Australia 2002). agement practices. Historically, the grey nurse shark in Australia was inaccurately portrayed as a ‘man-eater’, Scientific research is necessary to assess largely due to its formidable appearance (En- the validity of the claim that nature-based vironment Australia 2002, Boissonneault et al. tourism has the potential to positively im- 2005, Kessler 2005). Subsequently, grey nurse pact upon tourists’ pro-environmental attitudes sharks were targeted by spear and line fishers and environmental knowledge (Higham et al. in attempts to remove the species from the 2009). Research methodologies of earlier studies east coast of Australia, hence its current con- incorporated the use of surveys to ascertain servation status (Environment Australia 2002, the environmental attitudes and knowledge of Stow et al. 2006). The grey nurse shark tourism participants (Wilson & Tisdell 2003, dive industry has the potential to quash such Finkler & Higham 2004, Mayes et al. 2004, perceptions, to exert positive influences on the Hughes & Saunders 2005, Christensen et al. 32 SMITH et al.

2007, Powell & Ham 2008, Mayes & Richins travelled to and from Fish Rock onboard a 7.5 2009). Some of these studies (Wilson & Tisdell metre catamaran belonging to a local tourism 2003, Finkler & Higham 2004, Mayes et al. 2004, operation. Christensen et al. 2007, Mayes & Richins 2009) To assess if this form of nature-based surveyed participants immediately post tourism tourism improved the environmental knowledge experience. The current study surveyed grey of participants and encouraged them to adopt nurse shark dive tourists pre and post dive to more biocentric values and attitudes in the ascertain the influence of this industry on im- short-term, participants were asked to complete proving pro-environmental views and values, i.e. a written survey (of approximately five minutes) biocentrism (Des Jardins 2001), and knowledge prior to a grey nurse shark dive and then again within participants. The potential of education post dive: a method found to be effective in to further increase biocentrism and knowledge earlier nature-based tourism research (Hughes within tourists was also investigated. It appears & Saunders 2005, Powell & Ham 2008). Pre and that this is the first study to document and com- post dive surveys were completed by tourists pare biocentric attitudes and shark knowledge onboard the dive vessel. Survey participa- within shark dive tourists pre and post dive. tion was voluntary and a total of 47 paired surveys (consisting of both pre and post dive METHODS surveys) were completed by grey nurse shark dive tourists across eight of fourteen boat trips. A total of 27 scuba diver-grey nurse shark The first two dives (spanning one boat trip) interactions across 15 boat trips were observed were carried out as practice dives and hence no and documented at Fish Rock in New South data were recorded. Due to the participation in Wales, Australia, from December 2008 to Jan- multiple dives by some divers and the potential uary 2009. Grey nurse shark dive tour boats for data collection to disrupt the schedules of depart from South West Rocks and travel to tourism operations, survey data were collected Fish Rock as shown in Map 1. The researcher during eight of the fourteen boat trips.

Fishermans Reach Trip Path

South West Rocks Arakoon Jetty

Green Island Paciﬁ c Highway

Macleay River x Fish Rock

South West Rocks Road

0 5 km

Map 1: Return trip from South West Rocks jetty to Fish Rock. DOES GREY NURSE SHARK TOURISM PROMOTE BIOCENTRIC VALUES? 33

The survey design was adapted from Chris- scores of 1–2.9 were considered non-biocentric, tensen et al.’s (2007) study on the effective- 3–3.9 represented neutral values and attitudes, ness of a whale watching education program and mean scores of 4–5 were deemed biocentric. in Oregon, Canada, as it documented short- Specific questions relating to grey nurse term biocentric values and knowledge of tourists sharks were also included and participants were and was considered an appropriate model. Par- asked to answer either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Participants ticipants’ answers to pre dive surveys were were presented with the following seven knowl- compared with post dive surveys to determine if edge questions and statements: grey nurse shark dives had a significant impact - Grey nurse sharks are a protected species. upon participants’ knowledge and perceptions - Grey nurse sharks are an endangered species. of the marine environment and sharks (both - Is the population size of grey nurse sharks at an generally and in relation to grey nurse sharks acceptable level in eastern Australia for their in particular). In addition to this, educational long-term survival? - Are grey nurse sharks a threat to humans? talks (of approximately five to ten minutes - Can a tourist pursue grey nurse sharks? in length) were provided by the researcher to - Can a tourist diver touch a grey nurse shark? tourists of alternating trips. Educational talks - Are sharks an important part of the marine were conducted on alternate boat trips in order environment? to assess the effect these talks had on improving biocentrism and knowledge within partici- Correct answers were assigned a score of 1 pants. Educational talks provided information and incorrect answers a score of 0, therefore, an regarding grey nurse shark biology, distribution, overall result of 7 equated to a maximum score population status, conservation status and man- of 100% for the knowledge section of the survey. agement strategies, and were delivered utilising Tourists whose mean responses ranged from 0– visual aids (laminated A4 sheets). Comparisons 0.4 were deemed to possess poor knowledge were then made between the post dive survey of grey nurse sharks and responses of 0.5–1.0 responses of those whom were provided with an represented good grey nurse shark knowledge. educational talk and those whom were not. To assess the biocentrism of tourists the Statistical Analysis following statements were included in the survey For both aspects of this study the mean biocen- as adapted from Christensen et al. (2007): tric and knowledge responses of each diver were - The marine environment requires our protection. used as indicators of biocentrism and knowledge - It is important to protect the marine levels of tourists. environment. - It is important to protect sharks. Both biocentric and knowledge pre and post - It is important to spend money to protect sharks. grey nurse shark dive survey responses were - Sharks are important for Australia. compared using Wilcoxon paired-sample tests - Sharks need a healthy marine environment to (Zar 1974). survive. The post grey nurse shark dive biocentric - My daily actions affect sharks. and knowledge survey responses of tourists pro- - My daily actions affect the marine environment. vided with an educational talk and those whom Participants were required to assign a score were not were compared using Mann-Whitney for each of the eight statements based on tests (Zar 1974). a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = agree, RESULTS 5 = strongly agree (Musa 2002, Lück 2003, Fin- kler & Higham 2004, Christensen et al. 2007, A total of 27 dives (N = 118 divers) spanned Morris et al. 2007, Powell & Ham 2008). There- across 15 boat trips and total time spent in the fore, the maximum overall score a tourist could field was 66.8 hours. The mean number of divers achieve for the biocentric section of the survey that participated in a grey nurse shark dive was 40. For analyses purposes, mean response expedition (including the researcher and dive 34 SMITH et al. operation employees) was 8.4 (standard devia- Results showed that 29.8% of tourists be- tion = 2.8 divers, range 3–12 divers, n = 14 boat came more biocentric in their responses after trips). Of those divers presented with the option the dive, 19.2% of tourists decreased their level to participate in the survey study (N = 55) a of biocentrism, and 51.1% of tourists’ answers total of 47 took part. (76.4%). Of these 47 sur- did not change post dive. Expanding upon veys, the pre and post dive knowledge responses this, results in Figure 2 indicated that 83.3% of of three survey pairs could not be compared the tourists whose responses did not alter were as some questions were not completed. When already considered either completely biocentric comparing the responses of tourists whom were (29.2%) or highly biocentric (54.2%); therefore provided with an educational talk with those the margin for improvement was either non- whom were not the post dive knowledge sur- existent or very low. vey responses of two participants could not be utilised for the same reason. The proportion of 100 surveyed tourists exposed to an educational talk (tourists of four boat trips) was 57.4% (N = 27 divers). The proportion of those not provided 80 with an educational talk (tourists of four boat trips) equaled 42.6% (N = 20 divers). 60

Comparison of Survey Responses 40 Before & After Grey Nurse Shark Dive 20 Biocentric Statements

Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 A Wilcoxon paired-sample test revealed that Neutral Biocentric Perfect Score there was a signiﬁcant diﬀerence (α=0.05, N = 4 N = 13 N = 7 0.01

100

60 Biocentric pre & post dive (N = 20) 40 Neutral pre & post dive (N = 4) Biocentric pre & post dive (N = 7) Biocentric pre dive, neutral post dive (N = 2) Neutral pre & post dive (N = 4) Neutral pre dive, biocentric post dive (N = 2) Biocentric pre & post dive (N = 8) 20 Neutral pre & post dive (N = 0)

Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 No Change Decrease Increase Biocentrism

Figure 3. Proportion of surveyed tourists (%) per category (i.e. neutral pre dive or biocentric pre dive) who either experienced no change, a decrease or an increase in biocentrism post participation in a grey nurse shark dive (n = 47).

The remaining 14.3% increase in biocen- indicative of neutral (i.e. mean scores between trism was attributed to a shift from neutral 3.0–3.9) values and attitudes within tourists in to biocentric values within tourists (accounting relation to the impact of their daily actions for 4% of surveyed tourists). The proportion upon sharks and the marine environment. The of tourists (4%) who experienced a shift from degree of biocentricity in the pre and post dive neutral to biocentric values (i.e. an increase responses of tourists to 37.5% of statements in biocentrism) is mirrored by the proportion increased (i.e. ‘the marine environment requires of tourists (4%) who exhibited a shift from our protection’, ‘it is important to protect biocentric to neutral values (i.e. a decrease in sharks’, ‘my daily actions affect the marine biocentrism); hence these incidences of change environment’); the mean response of tourists to nullify each other in regard to the overall pro- 25% of statements decreased post dive (i.e. ‘it is portions of neutral and biocentric tourists. important to protect the marine environment’, Thus, results stated that the proportions of ‘sharks are important for Australia’); and, the non-biocentric, neutral and biocentric tourists mean response of tourists to the remaining pre and post dives did not change, as shown in 37.5% of biocentric statements did not alter Figure 4. Prior to the dives 78.7% of tourists (i.e. ‘it is important to spend money to protect were considered biocentric and this proportion sharks’, ‘sharks need a healthy marine envi- did not alter post dives, there were no (0%) ronment to survive’, ‘my daily actions affect non-biocentric tourists both pre and post dives sharks’). Although an increase in biocentrism and 21.3% of tourists remained neutral in their was documented in the mean responses of responses to the biocentric survey statements. tourists to 37.5% of the statements, a shift from As depicted in Figure 5, the mean responses neutral values and attitudes to biocentric views of tourists to 75% of the biocentric statements did not occur. Similarly, whilst a decrease in were considered biocentric (i.e. equal to or the level of biocentric responses to 25% of the greater than a score of 4). The remaining 25% of statements occurred this was not reflected in a biocentric statements received mean responses shift from biocentric to neutral views. 36 SMITH et al.

100

40 N = 10 N = 10 N = 37 N = 37 20 N = 0 N = 0

Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 Non-biocentric Neutral Biocentric Biocentrism Figure 4. Proportion of non-biocentric, neutral and biocentric tourists (%) for pre and post grey nurse shark dives (n = 47). Pre dives Post dives

5.0 ⇑ Biocentric response 4.0 ⇓

3.0

2.0 Mean Response

1.0

0 ME sharks sharks My daily My daily to protect important protection Important Sharks are protect ME healthy ME Sharks need ME requires for Australia Important to Important to actions aﬀect actions aﬀect protect sharks spend money to Biocentric Statements

Figure 5. Biocentrism of tourists’ responses pre and post dive to each biocentric statement. Biocentrism: 0–2.9 = non-biocentric, 3.0–3.9 = neutral, 4.0–5.0 = biocentric, ME = marine environment, n = 47. The point at which responses are deemed biocentric is indicated by the thickened black line. Pre dives Post dives DOES GREY NURSE SHARK TOURISM PROMOTE BIOCENTRIC VALUES? 37

Grey Nurse Shark Knowledge Questions and nurse sharks pre dive to poor knowledge post Statements dive was not documented. Therefore, although a decrease in knowledge did occur, it did not A Wilcoxon paired-sample test indicated that influence the overall proportions of tourists who there was a significant difference (α=0.05; possessed poor knowledge or good knowledge 0.01

100 100

80 80

Good Perfect 60 60 knowledge score N = 11 N = 20 40 40 Decrease Increase N = 9 N = 4 20 20

Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 Grey Nurse Shark Knowledge Grey Nurse Shark Knowledge Figure 6. Change in grey nurse shark knowl- Figure 7. Proportion of tourists (%) whose edge of tourists (%) post grey nurse shark dive post dive responses to the knowledge questions (n = 44). and statements did not alter from their pre dive responses to the knowledge questions and statements (n = 44). 38 SMITH et al.

100

20 Poor knowledge pre & post dive (N=0) Good knowledge pre & post dive (N=31) Poor knowledge pre & post dive (N=2) Good knowledge pre & post dive (N=7) Good knowledge pre dive, poor knowledge post dive (N=0) Poor knowledge pre & post dive (N=0) Poor knowledge pre dive, good knowledge post dive (N=1) Good knowledge pre & post dive (N=3)

Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 No change Decrease Increase Grey Nurse Shark Knowledge Figure 8. Proportion of surveyed tourists (%) per category (i.e. poor knowledge pre dive or good knowledge pre dive) who either experienced no change, a decrease or an increase in knowledge post participation in a grey nurse shark dive (n = 44).

100

20 Pre dive (N=3) Post dive (N=2) Pre dive (N=41) Post dive (N=42)

Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 Poor knowledge Good knowledge Grey Nurse Shark Knowledge Figure 9. Proportion of tourists (%) possessing poor knowledge and good knowledge pre and post grey nurse shark dive (n = 44). DOES GREY NURSE SHARK TOURISM PROMOTE BIOCENTRIC VALUES? 39

The proportions of tourists who answered edge questions and statements (i.e. 85.7% of the knowledge questions and statements cor- questions and statements). The proportion of rectly pre dive and post dive is presented in tourists who answered the remaining question Figure 10 (the phrase ‘grey nurse shark’ is (i.e. ‘is the population size of grey nurse sharks abbreviated to ‘GNS’ in Figure 10). For 28.6% at an acceptable level in eastern Australia for of the knowledge questions and statements the their long term survival?’) correctly pre dive provision of the correct response increased post was 66% and this amount decreased to 59% post dive (i.e. ‘grey nurse sharks are an endangered dive. species’, ‘can a tourist diver touch a grey nurse shark?’); for a further 28.6% of knowledge Comparison of Post Grey Nurse questions a decrease in the provision of correct Shark Dive Survey Responses of answers was documented (i.e. ‘is the population size of grey nurse sharks at an acceptable level in those given an Educational Talk & eastern Australia for their long term survival?’, those whom were not ‘are grey nurse sharks a threat to humans?’); Biocentric Statements therefore, for the remaining 42.9% of the knowledge questions and statements the proportion A Mann-Whitney test found that there of tourists who responded correctly did not was not a signiﬁcant diﬀerence (α=0.05; alter post grey nurse shark dive (i.e. ‘grey nurse 0.01

Proportion of Surveyed Tourists who Provided Correct Answer0 %

Acceptable Protected Endangered Threat to Important population Pursue GNS Touch GNS Species Species humans part of ME size Knowledge Questions and Statements Figure 10. Proportions of tourists (%) who answered knowledge questions and statements correctly pre dive and post dive. GNS = grey nurse sharks, ME = marine environment, n = 44. The point at which responses are deemed biocentric is indicated by the thickened black line. Pre dives Post dives 40 SMITH et al.

100 1.0

80 0.8

60 0.6

40 0.4

20 0.2 Poor GNS knowledge (N=0) Poor GNS knowledge (N=2) Good GNS knowledge (N=17) Good GNS knowledge (N=26) Mean Post Dive Response No educational talk (N = 26) Educational talk (N = 19) Proportion of Surveyed Tourists % 0 0 Educational talk No educational talk Provision of Pre Dive Educational Talk Post Dive Grey Nurse Shark Knowledge Figure 12. Mean post dive survey response to knowledge questions and statements of Figure 11. Knowledge of surveyed tourists pro- tourists provided with an educational talk vided with an educational talk and of those and of those whom were not provided with not provided with an educational talk (n = 45, an educational talk (0–0.4 = poor knowl- GNS = grey nurse shark). edge, 0.5–1 = good knowledge, n = 45).

Knowledge Questions & Statements statements of tourists whom were provided with an educational talk was 0.9, which indicates Mann-Whitney test results indicated that a greater level of grey nurse shark knowledge there was a signiﬁcant diﬀerence (α=0.05; compared with tourists whom were not provided 0.01

Future Management are extended to Jon Cragg, Simon Latta & Larry Anderson at Fish Rock Dive Centre for In light of the potential for incorrect percep- their support in the field. Map 1 was kindly tions to cause a decline in the knowledge of prepared by Bruce Welch, Royal Society of tourists, it is clear that the content and qual- NSW. ity of educational and interpretation resources are important factors when assessing the sustainability of nature-based tourism endeavours. REFERENCES Specifically in relation to the grey nurse shark dive industry at Fish Rock, it is important that tour operations clarify with tourists that Ballantyne, R., Packer, J. & Hughes, K. 2008, whilst they may encounter a large number of ‘Tourists’ support for conservation messages sharks during their dive experience, Fish Rock is and sustainable management practices in an identified critical habitat site (Environment wildlife tourism experiences’, Tourism Man- Australia 2002) and thereby does not repre- agement, in press, corrected proof. sent an accurate portrayal of grey nurse shark Boissonneault, M., Gladstone, W., Scott, P. populations elsewhere along the east coast of & Cushing, N., 2005, ‘Grey Nurse Shark Australia. In addition, such resources need Human Interactions and Portrayals: A Study to be developed in situations where they are of Newspaper Portrayals of the Grey Nurse currently absent. Shark from 1969–2003’, Electronic Green Further research of the extent to which Journal, No. 22, p. 3. nature-based tourism activities positively influ- Christensen, A., Rowe, S. & Needham, M.D. ence the pro-environmental attitudes of tourists 2007, ‘Value Orientations, Awareness of Con- (and hence, benefit conservation) is required sequences, and Participation in a Whale before industry allowances are made based upon Watching Education Program in Oregon’, this assumption. This is particularly pertinent Human Dimensions of Wildlife, Vol. 12, No. when allowances are made for tourism settings 4, pp. 289–293. of which the focal species is critically endan- Des Jardins, J.R. 2001, Environmental Ethics: gered. In addition, research investigating the An Introduction to Environmental Philoso- causal links between improved knowledge and phy, 3rd edn, Wadsworth/Thomson Learn- biocentrism within tourists is recommended. ing, Belmont, California. Environment Australia 2002, Recovery Plan for CONCLUSION the Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias taurus) in Australia, Commonwealth of Australia. ISBN This research demonstrated that nature-based 0 642 54788 2. tourism has the capacity to both promote and Finkler, W. & Higham, J. 2004, ‘The Human hinder pro-environmental attitudes and improve Dimensions of Whale Watching: An Analysis knowledge within tourists. It is probable Based on Viewing Platforms’, Human Dimen- that greater increases in both biocentrism and sions of Wildlife, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 103–117. knowledge were not documented due to the Higham, J.E.S., Bejder, L. & Lusseau, D. 2009, high proportion of tourists whom were already ‘An integrated and adaptive management considered biocentric and knowledgeable prior model to address the long-term sustainability to their dive experience; hence, the scope for of tourist interactions with cetaceans’, Envi- improvement was narrow. ronmental Conservation, Vol. 4, No. 35, pp. 294–302. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hughes, M. & Saunders, A.M. 2005, ‘Inter- pretation, Activity Participation, and Envi- The authors gratefully acknowledge the support ronmental Attitudes of Visitors to Penguin of Victoria University and of Earthwatch for Island, Western Australia’, Society & Natural partially funding this research. Special thanks Resources, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 611–624. 44 SMITH et al.

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Kirby Smith School of Engineering & Science Victoria University PO Box 14428 MCMC 8001 Victoria, Australia Primary email: [email protected] Secondary email: [email protected] (Manuscript received Oct. 2009, accepted Nov. 2009)