Partnership – The Way of the Future for The International Space Station BY TARA S. MILLER, CPPM, SHUTTLE CHAPTER PHOTO CREDIT: NASA PHOTO CREDIT: Backdropped by the blackness of space and a blue and white Earth, the International Space Station (ISS) is now separated from the Space Shuttle Endeavour following the undocking of the two spacecraft over western Kazakhstan on June 15, 2002.

he International Space Station (ISS) is being built by The Reagan Administration, in 1984, first introduced sixteen nations, which includes the United States, the space station program. Since then, the station has been TCanada, Russia, Japan, Brazil, and 11 European redesigned several times to control cost overruns and over- nations (Halvorson). Through the use of Memorandum’s of come technical flaws. The original international partners Understanding (MOUs) / bartering agreements, these coun- involved in this program were the European Space Agency tries have agreed to cooperate and work together to build a (ESA), the National Space Development Agency of Japan permanent science institute in space. The agreements estab- (NASDA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) (Aug. lished the framework for cooperation among the Interna- 1998). tional Partners (IPs) on the design, development, operation, MOUs between the National Aeronautics and Space and utilization of the Space Station. The ISS is a very large, Administration (NASA) of the United States of America complex international cooperative science and engineering and the Russian Space Agency, the Canadian Space program. Each participating country is contributing its Agency, the European Space Agency, and the Japanese expertise to the space station. Astronauts from around the Government are the mechanism for establishing the Inter- world will work together to connect the different sections of national Space Station. The MOUs discuss objectives, give the International Space Station (ISS) in space (National a general description of the Space Station, and list the Aeronautics and Space Administration Observatorium). space station elements. Access to and use of the space sta-

8 NPMA Volume 16, Issue 5 – 2004 tion, major program milestones, and responsibilities are Access to and use of the space station is covered in Arti- outlined in the MOUs. Management aspects of the space cle 4. It establishes equitable use of the space station and station in design, development, operations and utilization its elements between NASA and each partner. Article 5 are also outlined. In general, the MOUs discuss safety and covers the major program milestones and lists goal dates in missions, the space station crew and advancement of the which each element of the station should be available program (U.S. Space Law 1998). and/or launched. These milestones are critical in the build- Article 1 of the MOUs discusses the purpose and objec- ing of the station because each of these are dependent tive of the space station program. In the MOU, the parties upon each other. The teamwork and cooperation needed agree to be consistent with the Intergovernmental Agree- in order for the station to be successful is evident in the ment and abide by international law. The nature of the listing of each milestone. If one milestone is delayed partnership, and the rights and obligations of the parties and/or completely fails, the entire space station is jeopard- involved are listed. Specific objectives noted in the MOUs ized (U.S. Space Law 1998). include the cooperation between NASA and the respective Article 6 explains the responsibilities of each partner. It party in the design, development, operation and utilization specifically discusses the coordination and direction of the space station. The roles and responsibilities of responsibilities of each partner, which is a vital factor, in NASA and the respective parties and the commitments of the success of the station. It includes the necessary progress each involved party are outlined. The necessary manage- and status reports which the partners are tasked with pro- ment and interfaces are also established. This ensures com- viding to NASA and each other. System requirements, munication, planning, and coordination is utilized documentation, testing, and design reviews are all respon- throughout the design, development, operation and uti- sibilities of the partners. Each partner must ensure their lization of the space station. Another major objective listed requirements are met and the information is provided to in this section provides for the safety of the space station the parties involved. The delivery of the flight elements, users and operators (U.S. Space Law 1998). ground support equipment, and initial spares are also listed Article 2 of the MOU gives a general description of the as a necessary responsibility of each partner. The partners space station and Article 3 defines the actual elements of are tasked with providing liaison personnel, management the station. Some space station elements, which are provid- mechanisms, and consulting programs to ensure commu- ed by the U.S., include the Extravehicular Activity (EVA) nication is conducted between NASA and each partner. system, a Habitation Module, a multipurpose Laboratory Software, spares, logistic support, and training are Module, a Centrifuge Accommodation Module, three described and each partner’s responsibilities are outlined Nodes, a Truss Assembly, a crew rescue vehicle, and logis- (U.S. Space Law 1998). tics carriers. The MOUs also list the elements, which will Article 7 covers the management aspects of the space be provided by each international space station partner station program primarily related to detailed design and (U.S. Space Law 1998). development. Basically, it states that each partner is PHOTO CREDIT: NASA PHOTO CREDIT: Astronaut Scott E. Parazynski, mission specialist, works with cables associated with the Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS) or Canadarm2 during one of two days of extravehicular activity April 19th, 2001. Volume 16, Issue 5 – 2004 NPMA 9 PHOTO CREDIT: NASA responsible for the manage- Safety requirements are ment, design, and develop- established in the design, ment activities of their obli- development, operations, gations to the space station. and utilization of the space Periodic coordination com- station. NASA is responsi- mittees are discussed and ble for the integration of the established. The require- safety measurements; NASA ments for the bilateral/mul- and the international part- tilateral program reviews are ners are also tasked with outlined and the Space Sta- contingency procedures for tion Control Board (SSCB) on-orbit emergencies (U.S. is established. The SSCB is Space Law 1998). responsible for configuration Establishment of the related activities. Different space station crew is estab- boards are established to dis- lished in Article 11. Each cuss issues and institute partner is allocated percent- mechanisms for appeal to ages of flight crew opportu- higher levels within the nities. The Multilateral space station partnerships Crew Operations Panel (U.S. Space Law 1998). (MCOP) is established in The management aspects this article. It is the primary of the space station as relat- forum for top-level coordi- ed to operations and utiliza- nation and resolution of The crewmembers for Expedition 10 take a break from training in the tion are discussed in Article United States, Russia and other venues to pose for their crew portrait. crew matters. The MCOP 8. NASA is given the Astronaut Leroy Chiao, left, is commander and NASA ISS science officer. handles such matters as responsibility for the overall Cosmonaut Salizhan S. Sharipov, representing Rosaviakosmos, processes, standards, and the Russian Aviation and Space Agency. management and coordina- criteria for selection, certifi- tion of the space station. cation, assignment and The Multilateral Coordination Board (MCB) is established training of the station crew. A Multilateral Medical Policy to meet periodically and when necessary to discuss the Board (MMPB) is also established to provide the coordina- activities related to the operation and utilization of the tion and oversight of the crew health issues. Each partner space station. Through the use of established panels, the is responsible for the compensation, medical expenses, sub- MCB is responsible for both short-term and long-term sistence costs on Earth, and training for the space station strategic planning and coordination of the operations and crew it provides. A code of conduct is also established for utilization of the space station. Accommodations aboard the crewmembers (U.S. Space Law 1998). the Space Station are outlined in detail going so far as to Article 12 discusses the transportation, communica- establish percentages of use of each station module, i.e. tions, and other non-space station facilities involving the NASA will retain use of 97.7% of the user accommoda- station. This article covers the launch and return trans- tions on its laboratory modules, RSA will retain the use of portation necessary to bring the crew to and from the sta- 100% of the user accommodations, and ESA will retain tion in normal and emergency situations. Each partner can the use of 51% of the user accommodations on its labora- provide or arrange with other partners the launch and tory module. Crew time, as well as resources, transporta- return transportation services for its flight elements and tion, and communication services are also outlined and crew. The partner providing the transportation can be established (U.S. Space Law 1998). reimbursed monetarily or in services. Space station com- Responsibilities for operations costs and activities are munications will be provided by each partner and may outlined in Article 9. In this article, the partners are tasked include various forms, such as space and ground commu- with minimizing the cost of the space station and mini- nications and satellite systems (U.S. Space Law 1998). mizing the exchange of funds. Suggestions for minimizing Article 13 discusses the advanced development program the exchange of funds include bartering for the perform- for specific station design and development activities. ance of specific operation activities, as discussed in Article Article 14 outlines the space station evolution. It discusses 16 (U.S. Space Law 1998). the stations evolutionary capability, maintains that it will Safety issues are discussed in Article 10 of the MOUs. remain a civil station, and that its operations will be for

10 NPMA Volume 16, Issue 5 – 2004 PHOTO CREDIT: NASA PHOTO CREDIT:

Cosmonaut Yuri Gidzenko, Soyuz Taxi Commander representing Rosaviakosmos, works in the Zvezda Service Module on the International Space Station (ISS). Gidzenko, who is making his third flight into space, is the first former resident of the ISS to return to the complex, having been a member of the Expedition One crew, the first crew to live aboard the station. (May 2002) peaceful purposes and will be utilized in accordance with Japan, the President of CSA, and the RSA General Direc- international law (U.S. Space Law 1998). tor will also be consulted. If the issue cannot be satisfacto- Article 15 of the MOUs discuss the cross-waiver of lia- rily solved, the Intergovernmental Agreement will prevail bility, exchange of data and goods, treatment of data and (U.S. Space Law 1998). goods in transit, customs and immigration, intellectual The ISS program is a huge investment by the U.S. gov- property and criminal jurisdiction. It basically refers to the ernment. An issue of concern, especially to the interna- provisions of the Intergovernmental Agreement (U.S. tional partners, is continued funding of the project by the Space Law 1998). U.S. Congress. International partners have expressed frus- Financial arrangements are discussed in Article 16. trations about the uncertainty of Congressional funding This article addresses funding problems and the need to approval from year to year. If Congress should cut off notify all partners in the event of financial issues. It also funding to NASA for this program, the credibility of the stresses minimizing the exchange of money and suggests United States as a reliable partner in international projects that bartering for goods and services is the preferred would be seriously compromised (Ang 1998). option. In instances where ownership of space station ele- The Clinton Administration, in 1993, invited the RSA ments is passing to NASA, no contracts have been written. to join the space station partnership. One reason Russia The design, building, and delivery of these elements are was asked to join the space station program dealt with being done strictly on a memorandum of understanding financial problems. However, since the inclusion of the and bartering agreements (U.S. Space Law 1998). RSA into the partnership, the ISS has become a foreign A public affairs plan is established under Article 17. policy tool. The ISS is used to help prevent the transfer of Article 18 discusses the consultation and settlement of dis- advanced engine technology from Russia to other coun- putes in detail. According to the MOU, questions regard- tries. It is hoped Russia’s space program can be used in a ing the interpretation or implementation of the terms of constructive manner, to ensure that inter-continental mis- the MOU should first be directed to the NASA Adminis- sile technologies do not fall into the hands of warring trator and the specific partners Director General. If need- states. The inclusion of the RSA in this manner has also ed, the Minister of State for Science and Technology of raised numerous policy questions and concerns. The pri-

Volume 16, Issue 5 – 2004 NPMA 11 mary concern within Congress is the unstable political and economic situa- tion in Russia, which could ultimately delay the schedule of the ISS program, thus putting continued funding for the program in jeopardy (Ang 1998). The Russian space program has been very helpful to the U.S. since the Columbia accident, which has worked to strengthen the relationship between the countries. The MOU with Russia covers the delivery of the FGB and the Service Module. Although late to the program, Russia brought vital expertise and became a key player in the develop- ment and design of the space station. It took 10 years of redesigns and nego- tiations to launch the first set of hard- At the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, the Soyuz TMA-4 capsule is prepared ware for the space station in Novem- for mating with its booster rocket on April 16, 2004, in preparation for launch of the ber of 1998 (Halvorson 1998). Russia Expedition 9 crew and a European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut to the International launched the first element of the space Space Station (ISS) on April 19. PHOTO CREDIT: NASA/BILL INGALLS station, called Zarya, into orbit. Zarya is the Functional Cargo Block; it was built by Russia and financed by the be done. This author feels the space station is an incredi- United States for $240 million (Halvorson 1998). ble assortment of partners working together to achieve a The European Space Agency is another big player in single mission, establishing a space station. This effort is the space station development. ESA consists of 11 coun- the epitome of teamwork. Countries, which in the past tries working towards developing components for the fought with each other, are now working together to build space station. They have provided three Multi-Payload and establish the greatest engineering feat of all mankind, Logistics Modules and will also contribute the Columbus the International Space Station. Partnerships are the way of laboratory, a research module where astronauts will carry the future. ◆ out experiments. ESA is also supplying the Automated Transfer Vehicle, which will carry cargo to the space sta- REFERENCES CITED Ang, T. W. 1998. Precis: The International space station: A question of tion. The European contribution reflects about 10% of the federal funding and policy implications. IEEE Transactions on Aero- development budget. It is believed Germany will pay 41% space and Electionic Systems, 34, 3. Halvorson, T. 1998. 1st station launch doesn’t erase uncertain future. of the development costs of Europe’s contribution to the Florida Today, Nov 21, 1A-2A. space station, France 27% and the Italians 19% (Jack Halvorson, T. 1998. Russians launch 1st station piece. Florida Today. Nov 21, 1A. 1995). Jack, A., & Skapinker, M. (1995). European space ministers yesterday The MPLMs were provided by the Italian Space approved a funding package to ensure the EU will have a signifi- Agency and delivered to NASA in August 1998. Owner- cant role in manned space research into the next century. Financial Times London Edition Financial Times, 1021, 2. ship of the Centrifuge Accommodation Module, Nodes Journal of Space Law. 1998. Agreement among the government of 2&3, the Unpressurized Logistics Carrier, and the Canada, governments of member states of the European space Agency, the government of Japan, the government of the Russian EXPRESS Pallets will pass to NASA upon arrival to KSC. federation, and the government of the U.S. of America concerning Japan will maintain ownership of the Japanese Experiment cooperation on the civil international space station, 26, 90-98. NASA’s observatorium. 1998. [http://observe.ivv.nasa.gov/nasa/space- Module, ESA will maintain ownership of the Columbus fly/iss/ISS_1.html Orbiting Facility, and Canada will maintain ownership of United States Space Law – National and International Regulation. 1998. Memorandum of understanding between the National Aero- the Space Station Remote Manipulator System. nautics and Space Administration of the United States of America Some engineers claim the space station is the greatest and the Russian Space Agency concerning cooperation on the civil engineering effort of all time. Some even say that it cannot international space station, Gorove:Oceana, II.22 (f), (g), 1-54.

12 NPMA Volume 16, Issue 5 – 2004