hesperia yy (2008) COLONIALISM WITHOUT Pages 1?42 COLONIES?

A Bronze Age Case Study from

Akrotiri, Thera

ABSTRACT

on Using ceramic evidence from Bronze Age Akrotiri Thera, the authors a explore the idea that regional cultural interactions of "colonialista character can take without the occurrence of colonization se. assess the place per They types and frequency of Cretan Middle Minoan IILA imports from selected deposits at the site, the nature of local imitations of Cretan pottery, and the a adoption of characteristically Cretan technology, the potter's wheel. By comparing processes of material, stylistic, and technological transfer, the to s authors seek characterize Crete influence off-island and the responses of neighboring island communities, concluding that Cretan material culture is more a cause than an effect of Minoanization.

INTRODUCTION

The debate over the character of Crete's influence across the southern

Aegean in the Neopalatial period received considerable impetus with a series of papers published in the early 1980s.1 Yet, while the evidence has on continued to accumulate since, particularly with work Kythera, Thera, Rhodes, and Kos, as well as on the coast of Asia Minor atMiletos and

1. Dimitris Sakatzis for E.g., Branigan 1981; Davis 1982, pottery drawings; gave freely of their time and knowledge 1984; Schofield 1982; H?gg andMari photography; and Lucy Valassi for help in providing stimulating discussion: natos 1984. with the translation of the 1984; Wiener catalogue Cyprian Broodbank, Fragoula Georma, are to were We grateful the director of and database entries. We fortunate Colin Macdonald, and Nicoletta Mo to have the Akrotiri Excavations, Christos Angeliki Moschou working migliano. We thank too, for their de for to with us as a research Doumas, permission study and assistant, helping tailed and insightful comments, Tracey the for to strew an anon publish material and his overall and record the very large Cullen, Todd Whitelaw, and Institute of from support. The for Aegean quantities pottery the Middle ymous reviewer. levels. Valuable Prehistory funded both this study and Cycladic stratigraphie The following standard abbrevi on information was retrieved from com ations are = work otherMiddle Cycladic phases used below: EC Early at to excavation = Akrotiri. Our thanks go also prehensive reports for pillar Cycladic, MC Middle Cycladic, = = Vassilis Dimitropoulos and Panagiotis pits 66P and 67N compiled by Ange LC Late Cycladic, MM Middle = = Vlachos, who conserved the pottery at liki Moschou and Maria Tsoulakou, Minoan, LM Late Minoan, MBA The Akrotiri; Andreas Kontonis for the respectively. following colleagues Middle Bronze Age.

? The American School of Classical Studies at Athens CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

-^"TT

Ayia Irini XI 57 V KEA0 -^ ^?r Q ^ Phylakopi

<^< MELOS Trianda ^ THERA V\

Kastri KYTHERA RHODES)r^2

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1. of the show Figure Map Aegean can lasos work has failed to The standstill sites mentioned in the text (Fig. 1), interpretive keep pace.2 ing major to perhaps be attributed the polarized debate between those who believe see inMinoan dominance achieved through colonization and those who processes of emulation engaged in strategically by local communities. an new Cyprian Broodbank urges exploration of approaches in both data and that recent advances made in analysis interrogative frameworks, arguing material culture studies concerning the active social role of artifacts enable us anew new to consider the rich Aegean evidence.3 These insights, which on an to postdate the early-1980s work Minoanization, provide opportunity construct more sophisticated models of emulation, acculturation, learning, and cultural transmission in relation to material culture.

Chris Gosden, in his particularly germane contribution, has sought new an to tie these approaches from material culture studies to analysis not 2. Broodbank 2004. of regional political dynamics; he only differentiates between distinct center 3. Broodbank 2004, p. 58. Recent forms of colonialism, but places artifacts stage in the political pro advances: Hoskins an Kopytoff 1986; cess.4 Gosden argues that colonialism involves material culture, always 1998; Gosden andMarshall 1999; idea echoed in Broodbank's comment that Minoanization is largely about Chapman 2000; Bonnot 2002; Fowler Material culture is sometimes to have a hold over things.5 powerful enough 2004; Knappe? 2005. we an people's minds and bodies.6 Later in this article will entertain idea 4. Gosden 2004b. was 5. Broodbank 59. given little credence to date: that Minoan Crete itself colonialized, in 2004, p. 6. the is not per some ways, through its off-island activities. Although analogy it is nonetheless worth Not all items of material culture are created but some fect, considering equal, objects was that Britain colonialized through have a to take hold of that could be greater capacity people?a capacity its contact with North America, as considered in some circumstances to be an aesthetic one. W. J.T Mitchell much as the American colonies were takes this idea further, with the suggestion that imperialism and colonialism British creations. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES?

TABLE 1. SIMPLIFIED CHRONOLOGICAL CHART FOR MBA CRETE AND THE CYCLADES

Phylakopi Ayia Irini Akrotiri Absolute Crete (Melas) (Kea) (Thera) Chronology EM III ca. 2200-2100 b.c. City I-ii/iii gap MM IA ca. 2100-1950 b.c. Phase A MM IB ca. 1950-1850 b.c. CityII-ii Period IV MM II Phase B ca. 1850-1800 b.c. MM IIB-IIIA Phases C ca. 1800-1750 b.c. Il-iii Period V MM III City andD ca. 1750-1700 b.c.

require objects and objecthood.7 Mitchell believes that empire follows art, not the other way around, and extends the question beyond art to object more to hood generally, discuss the various kinds of objects implicated in we not imperialism and colonialism: totems, fetishes, and idols.While do we are explore these categories here, do adopt Mitcheirs idea that they the we can on to products of colonial discourse.8 From there go ask whether new Cretan material culture introduced fields of imagery into the Cycladic were a repertoire that aesthetically enthralling, opening up "colonialist new space" for kinds of practices and values. on recent we can Drawing work, that of Gosden in particular, char acterize Minoanization as a form of colonialism within a shared cultural milieu?in other words, colonialism without colonies.9 This, we think, ac may provide alternatives to the dichotomy between colonization and some as culturation models. One problem in of the Minoan literature, as a a in archaeology whole, has been tendency to conflate the ideas of on colonization and colonialism.10 Gosden's emphasis artifacts?placing at things, practices, and people the forefront?is highly appropriate for the we kind of study think is needed to advance the debate. a we Our methodology in this article entails narrowing of focus. First, one on a consider pottery from site, Akrotiri Thera (Fig. 1), in case-study us nuances approach that allows to capture in the data that might be lost in a we on broader synthesis. Second, focus the early stages of "Minoanization" on through the Middle Bronze Age rather than the mature stages (i.e., are the early Late Bronze Age) with which most Aegean prehistorians more us far familiar. This allows to view Minoanization as an emerging a new process, rather than static phenomenon, and thus to offer insights into its dynamics. comes The pottery in question from two large deposits found in the 7.Mitchell 2005, 145-168. pp. recent excavation of the "pillar pits" ("cppeaxa") for the new roof to cover 8.Mitchell 2005, p. 146. the site (Fig. 2). Excavation of the deep soundings of pillar pits 66P and 9. Gosden 2004b, 41-81. pp. 67N revealed MC destruction that the 10. Van Dommelen 1997. deposits substantially predate LC I volcanic destruction levels and are to C of the MC 11. See also Knappett and Nikola assigned phase to kopoulou 2005; Nikolakopoulou, sequence, considered be contemporary with MM IIIA in the Cretan et forthcoming; Nikolakopoulou al., ceramic sequence (Table l).11While MM IIIA imports have previously forthcoming. at been identified the site,12 their rarity and lack of stratigraphie context 12. 1991. Papagiannopoulou on have severely limited their usefulness. The pillar pit deposits, however, 13.We should note, however, that which we focus here, have numbers of Cretan found the final publication of theMC mate produced large imports is in in secure and the to a new assessment of Crete's rial from the pillar pits currently contexts, they open way on preparation. influence neighboring island communities.13 4 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE NIKOLAKOPOULOU

? ?a Pillar pits mentioned in the text Pillar A

?);;iA

Sector Alpha

House of the Ladies

West House _l^

53A

50 m

Figure 2. Site plan of Akrotiri. Akrotiri Excavations Archive COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 5

THE CONTEXTS

not our to It is purpose describe here in detail the stratigraphie sequence two and the habitation phases attested in the pillar pits. We present only a brief outline of the sequence in order to contextualize the MM imports discussed in subsequent sections.

Pillar Pit 66P

The trench containing pillar pit 66P (Fig. 2), excavated in 2000-2001 x m under the supervision of Angeliki Moschou, measured 3.00 2.50 and a m reached depth of 12.50 from the modern circulation level down to the ignimbrite bedrock, which was found at +16.76/+16.42 m above sea level (masl). A rock-cut chamber found in the southeast side of the trench had been a a largely backfilled in antiquity with deposit containing large quantity of pottery of the early EC II phase. The remaining void up to the roof of the was a chamber subsequently backfilled with deposit containing pottery dat to ing the earliest MC period (phase A). A vertical shaft opened in the roof of the chamber and the surface of the bedrock above the chamber were filled

during leveling operations for the construction of the superimposed MC one building, of which room was excavated. The dimensions ofthat room are ca. x m m. 2.50/2.36 2.20 and the maximum height preserved is 1.90 A blocked entrance was found at the north side. The walls of theMC room were on on founded earlier walls and the ignimbrite bedrock. The deposit room removed from the interior of the consisted of two layers: m Levels 18-20: The lower layer, 1.00-1.26 thick, was excavated down to the floor of the room, and consisted of brown earth stones some with several of various sizes, organic remains, clay a vase loomweights, and large quantity of sherds and fragments, vases from which several of lateMC/MM IIIA (phase C in the were Akrotiri MBA sequence) restored. The general picture a suggests that this is destruction layer formed mainly by the original contents of the room. m Level 17: Th.^ upper layer, 0.43-0.92 thick, backfilled the rest of room to the up the maximum preserved height of the west and the north walls. It consisted mainly of small stones and many stone a some tools, large quantity of sherds, clay loomweights, a and small amount of loose earth. The pottery is very worn and coarse ware. consists mainly of While the pottery is comparable to that of levels 18-20 in typological terms, it clearly belongs to a fill to a or different deposit that testifies subsequent deposition operation.

A was two-storied LC I building, the roof of which partly preserved, was constructed above the MC building, itswalls founded on those of the was MC edifice. The building found full of thick layers of volcanic material room (pumice and ash). The lower must have functioned as a storage area. room was The floor of the upper preserved at the south and east side, while 6 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

rooms the rest had collapsed during the volcanic destruction. The excavated a to east. form part of large building extending farther the Sherds found in the building material date the construction of the building in early LC I, and the large number of LC I/LM IA vessels (ca. 66) indicates that the was building fully functional during LC I until the volcanic destruction.

Pillar Pit 67N

was Pillar pit 67N (Fig. 2) excavated in 2000-2001 under the supervision of x a MariaTsoulakou. The trench, measuring 2.60 4.00 m, reached depth of m 9.72 from the modern circulation level down to the ignimbrite bedrock, which was found at +16.20 masl. at east area A rock-cut chamber found the of the trench, extending to was most the northwest, opened and used probably during the EC not period, but the excavators did retrieve any information pertaining was to its purpose. The chamber backfilled during the early MC period; was pottery from phase A identified. Above the bedrock surface and the a was chamber fill, part of two-storied building excavated. Room 2, the was as lower room, constructed in, and used throughout, the MC period, indicated by the two floor levels and the door opening (H. 1.64,W. 0.64 m) west was room was in the wall, which apparently blocked while the still use. room x m. in The measures 2.10 2.24 Despite the unusual height of the walls (4.00 m down to the floor level), there is no differentiation in or building techniques any other architectural features (e.g., support holes an for timber) to suggest the existence of separate stories. There is opening (window? H. 0.70, W. 0.90 m) in the south wall, which was found full of a pumice, and niche (H. 0.80, L. 0.55, D. 0.45 m) in the west wall devoid were of movable finds. Successive layers removed from inside the lower room as follows:

Levels 6-11: Pumice layer and layers of pumice pellets mixed with earth, stones, schist slab fragments, and pottery, including LC vases I probably fallen from the superimposed LC I building. Level 11 contains material both from the LC I stratum and the

adjacent MC stratum, accidentally removed together during excavation. Level 12: Earth, stones, and broken vases found on the floor of the room. was at It seems that this deposit formed the very end of a to the MC period, following destruction that probably led the abandonment of the lower room and the construction of the room upper room. The lower seems to have simply gone out of no as use, with backfilling taking place, is indicated by fallen room area. objects from the upper and pumice found in its room Levels 13-14: Floor of the and floor construction layer; the pottery and vases found are lateMC in date, not very different from the majority of the vessels found in the destruction deposit on the floor of the room. an Level15: A flat surface of muddy soil, possibly indicating earlier floor level of the lower room. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 7

room to were The upper (room 1) is securely dated LC I. Its walls on room. measures founded directly the walls of the lower It approximately x m 2.50 2.20/1.64 (the north border was not fully uncovered). A door west to room opening(?) in the wall (W. 0.50, p.H. 1.50 m) leads another to the west (area 3). A niche was found in the west wall, which contained room was LC I vessels. The found full of pumice, the removal of which revealed the destruction layer. While the architectural history of the MC buildings uncovered in the two trenches is not discussed here in detail, it is important to note rooms were that the two ground-level in pillar pits 66P and 67N certainly inhabited contemporaneously during the late MC period. The pottery from the floor destruction levels belongs to phase C in the Akrotiri MC sequence.14 Different processes followed the destruction: backfilling in 66P and abandonment in 67N. It is possible that habitation in the 67N room lower continued slightly longer after the destruction that befell the room as a MC in 66P, suggested by comparative assessment of the pot tery found in the floor destruction levels (levels 18-20 from 66P vs. level 12 from 67N). Levels 13-14 from 67N, the floor construction levels, are included in the discussion, as the pottery found therein is similar to that from the floor destruction level.

THE LOCAL POTTERY

The phase C pottery from 66P and 67N consists largely of local products, are but among the imports, Cretan products predominate and certainly the most terms accurately identified in of provenance, both by macroscopic and analytical observations. In pillar pit 66P, levels 18-20, there are 57 local vases at one and 20 Cretan, while least is of other provenance. In pillar pit 67N, levels 12-14, there are 131 local vases, 23 Cretan vases, and four of on other provenance. The sample based the numbers of restored vases from two the phase C levels in the pillar pits is not considered representative, as the evidence from the thousands of sherds retrieved suggests that the Cretan imports tend to fall in an estimated range of 10%?15%. most a The local calcareous fabric is commonly of buff whitish/yel turns to as lowish color that light brown with firing, is especially evident or in vessels of bichrome slipped and burnished wares. The smoothed or on vases are burnished surfaces commonly found fine-ware occasionally attested on coarse ware. also large jars and other Jill Hilditch is conducting a p?trographie study of local and imported pottery, with a view to estab areas lishing provenance for unidentified imports and identifying ways to distinguish Theran from Melian fabrics.15 The local some pottery comprises vessels of all functional categories, of are in most common which illustrated Figure 3. The large storage vessels 14. et Nikolakopoulou al., forth are can or a pithoi, which be ovoid, cylindrical, ovoid with spigot above coming. the and or or base, undecorated with dark-on-light bichrome/polychrome 15. Previous work on Theran, decoration. There are with Melian, and other MC fabrics includes specimens pictorial compositions (griffins, in ware. vessels include Kilikoglou 1988; Vaughan 1989; Kili felines) bichrome/polychrome Transport oval et al. 1990. mouth koglou amphoras, usually with dark-on-light decoration of spirals, disks, CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

i

- v : o : v. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? Q.

3 of local a Figure (opposite). Examples and bands. There is large variety of jugs and juglets (beak-spouted, with MC at Akrotiri. Photos a pottery types side spout or with circular or funnel mouth), which usually appear with D. Sakatzis or dark-on-light bichrome decoration. Some of the most impressive picto are on as rial themes rendered jugs in bichrome ware, such pomegranates, a men birds, plant stems, and unique composition of two participating in an scene apparently ritual that involves serving and drinking.16 a con Among the drinking vessels, hemispherical cups with plain rim stitute the large majority, while other types include S-profile cups (rare), straight-sided cups, handleless piriform cups, and paneled cups (usually are decorated in dark-on-light with plant motifs). Cycladic cups found are mainly in slipped and burnished ware, while ledge-rim bowls found in or even ware. plain ware, in slipped and burnished Conical cups/tumblers ware are in plain present. Large "bathtubs" and smaller basins with dark on on-light decoration the interior surface most probably served for food or preparation/mixing other household activities. Tripod cooking pots, local are and imported, in use, alongside local globular one-handled cooking pots. or more a are Lamps of simple elaborate types, usually with stick handle, or wares. found in plain slipped and burnished The differences between local and Cretan pottery in terms of wares, are a decorative styles, and manufacture striking. Among the local wares, a accurate typological similarity is evident in limited number of imitations or as adaptations of Cretan types, such the oval-mouth amphora, the cir or cular- funnel-mouth jug, the bridge-spouted jar, the tripod cooking pot, the straight-sided cup, and the ledge-rim bowl. The manufacture of the last two types reflects the introduction of the potters wheel, while the rest of the pottery continues the traditional handmade techniques. Dark-on-light are matt-painted and bichrome the most popular local decorative wares, in to stark contrast the predominantly light-on-dark and polychrome Cretan wares. are While selected Cretan decorative styles and motifs adopted in as on a a the Theran pottery, such white dotting dark background and fuzzy ripple/crescent motif in dark-on-light, the local pottery otherwise exhibits an overwhelming preference for the depiction of naturalistic and pictorial on a motifs buff ground. We will explore the implications of these distinctive we decorative features after present the Cretan imports in detail.

THE IMPORTED POTTERY

The phase C finds from pillar pits 66P and 67N include imported pottery we on can from various locations, but focus exclusively the imports that as are a be identified Cretan. They presented below with full catalogue, drawings, and photographs.

Pillar Pit 66P

are The Cretan imports in pillar pit 66P mostly cups, with both hemi and Of nine spherical straight-sided types represented. the hemispherical are or cups catalogued, all dark slipped with white-on-dark polychrome 16. Petrakos 93. at 2001, pp. 91, decoration, and all except 4 have deep metallicizing grooves mid-body IO CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE NIKOLAKOPOULOU

(Figs. 4, 5). Five of these have bands with white dots at the upper body a (two of the five have simple red band); two have wavy lines at the upper one body; and has discontinuous S-spirals.The combination of grooves and white dots is very characteristic ofMM IIIA in north-central Crete,17 and use an the sparing of polychrome decoration shows element of continuity from MM IIB. Among the straight-sided cups (Figs. 6, 7), three of the four catalogued also combine white dots at the upper body with metalliciz ing grooves/ridges.18 None shows any sign of polychrome decoration. The a a fourth example has beveled base and signs of simple curvilinear motif, are showing links with MM IIB. All of the above evidently wheelmade, and are in a hard-fired, fine buff fabric that is reminiscent of Knossos and other sites in north-central Crete. one as a Among the pouring vessels, only is securely identified Cretan a ewer import: large (16) with dark-on-light tortoiseshell ripple decoration (Figs. 8,9). Interestingly, the ripple consists only of vertical stripes, without the "fuzzy" effect that is usually found in Cretan examples. For the shape, a however, there is good parallel from Anemospilia.19 Another Cretan im a or port is tall amphora (17), perhaps bridge-spouted jar,with polychrome at decoration (white dots upper body, with simple red bands) and multiple one grooves and ridges (Fig. 9). Although the decoration of other pour ing vessel?a very striking squat, bridge-spouted jug (15) with spirals and ripple decoration (Figs. 8, 9)?seems Minoan in inspiration, the fabric is nor a certainly neither Cretan local. The fabric, semifine, hard-fired red with a distinctive gray core, is reminiscent of fabrics seen in the southeast are Aegean that thought to be from Kos.20The results of Hilditch's detailed on now p?trographie analysis will shed light the origin of this piece, but for a rare an it appears to be very example of early "Minoanizing" product made on one island and exported to another. an One last import deserves mention: the sole example of imported coni seen cal cup, 14 (Figs. 6, 7). It is of the low, shallow kind in north-central no are rare Crete earlier than MM IIIA.21 Imported conical cups because are these simple, plain forms tend to be imitated locally?as, indeed, they are at Akrotiri, where wheelmade examples found beginning in phase C.

Catalogue of Imports and Imitations (Levels 18-20)

1 Hemispherical cup (11040) Figs. 4, 5 H. 0.065, Diam. of rim 0.09, Diam. of base 0.04 m. Restored from 12 frag 60% with everted two at mid ments, complete. Globular body rim, deep grooves 17. body, mimicking metal. Fine buff, hard-fired (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade, MacGillivray 1998, p. 143, traces striations Lustrous black interior and no. 419, 18. of concentric under base. slip exterior, pi. 18. Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis with polychrome decoration: white dots irregularly placed at upper body above dot and band in 1997, p. 417, fig. 383;MacGillivray grooves (with occasional below), red-orange upper groove only. no. 81. 1998, p. 143, 423, pi. 19. Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis 2 Hemispherical cup (11042) Figs. 4, 5 1997, p. 421, fig. 389. H. 0.066, Diam. of rim 0.105, Diam. of base 0.044 m. One large fragment, 20. Momigliano and Knappett, 50% with one small rim Globular with complete, nonjoining fragment. body forthcoming. everted two at metal. Fine hard-fired rim, deep grooves mid-body, mimicking buff, 21. Macdonald and Knappett, some or (central Cretan) fabric; deformation of lower body, perhaps from firing, forthcoming. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? II

of leather-hard wheelmade. Lustrous black interior and mishandling vessel; slip exterior, with polychrome decoration: white dots irregularly placed at upper body in above grooves, and red-orange band upper groove only.

3 Hemispherical cup (11043) Figs. 4,5

H. 0.087, Diam. of rim 0.140, Diam. of base 0.057 m. Restored from ca. 30 fragments, 80% complete. Globular body with everted rim, vertical strap handle a above and at metal. rising little rim, three deep grooves mid-body, mimicking Fine buff, hard-fired (central Cretan) fabric;wheelmade. Lustrous black slip,worn in with white-on-dark decoration: rows of white places, dots, relatively regular, in around upper body, exterior only, and white bands grooves.

4 Hemispherical cup (11046) H. 0.056, Diam. of rim 0.089, Diam. of base 0.039 m. Repaired and restored from 10 fragments, 50% complete. Globular body with everted rim, thin walls. Fine buff (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade, with concentric striations under base. Reddish brown slip interior and exterior,with white-on-dark decoration, but rather and hard to discern: a band at below and at fugitive base, rim, mid-body.

5 Hemispherical cup (11089) Figs. 4, 5 rim m. Rim Diam. of 0.118 fragment only. Globular body with everted rim, and two at metal. Fine deep grooves mid-body, mimicking orange-buff (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade. Reddish brown slip interior and exterior, with poly chrome decoration to exterior: white dots at with upper body, irregularly scattered, band in to orange-red upper groove; white band exterior rim.

6 Hemispherical cup (11090) Figs. 4, 5

H. 0.063, Diam. of rim ca. 0.110, Diam. of base 0.040 m. Profile, restored from six fragments, 30% complete. Globular body with everted rim, and two deep grooves at metal. Fine hard-fired mid-body, mimicking orange-buff, (central Cretan) fabric; with concentric striations under base. brown wheelmade, Reddish slip interior and on thick at exterior, with white-on-dark decoration exterior: band lower body, thin bands at rim and in and two lines at with grooves, wavy upper body evenly spaced horizontal dashes in between; thin white band at interior rim.

7 Hemispherical cup (11091) Figs. 4, 5

P.H. >0.070, Diam. of rim 0.130, Diam. of base 0.057 m. Rim, handle, and base preserved, but not profile (only rim fragment illustrated); nine fragments restored, 25% complete. Globular body with everted rim, vertical strap handle ris above two at ing slightly rim, lopsided; deep grooves mid-body, mimicking metal. Fine yellowish buff (central Cretan) fabric. Reddish brown slip, quite fugitive and with white-on-dark at flaking, decoration: fugitive bands rim, grooves, and base, with four lines on and of some wavy upper body, pairs vertical dashes between of the five horizontal across on waves; stripes handle; white band interior rim.

8 Hemispherical cup (11093) Figs. 4, 5 m. Diam. of rim 0.106 Small rim fragment only. Globular body with everted rim, one groove visible at mid-body (more may have once existed). Fine buff, hard-fired (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade. Lustrous brown-black slip with polychrome decoration: red bands just below rim and in groove, with white bands in between, framing a zone of neatly painted white dots; interior rim has white some on band, and white flecks interior body. 12 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

L 5cm 5cm

5cm

Ff?TSSwiTP v?V^v?v-j 0 ,

./ 9

4. 1-3 Figure Hemispherical cups and 5-9 from 66P. 9 Hemispherical cup (11097) Figs. 4, 5 pillar pit Drawings A. Kontonis Diam. of rim 0.125 m. Small rim fragment only. Globular body with everted three at rim, deep grooves mid-body. Fine buff, hard-fired (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade. Lustrous brown-black with decoration: red slip, polychrome alternating and white bands at grooves, thick red band at rim with white band below, and at a frieze of horizontal white S upper body motifs, interlocking but unconnected.

10 Straight-sided cup (11041) Figs. 6, 7

H. 0.069, Diam. of rim ca. 0.100, Diam. of base ca. 0.070 m. Restored from six fragments, 25% complete. Conical/slightly flaring profile, with one broad raised colonialism without colonies? 13

5. 1-3 Figure Hemispherical cups and 5-9 from 66P. Scales as at base. Fine wheelmade. pillar pit ridge mid-body, and beveled buff (central Cretan) fabric; in Figure 4 unless otherwise indicated. and with white-on-dark decoration: neat white Lustrous black slip interior exterior, Photos D. Sakatzis and broad white band at exterior dots at interior and exterior upper body, covering traces of white under base. ridge; paint

7 11 Straight-sided cup (11092) Figs. 6, m. H. 0.068, Diam. of rim 0.106, Diam. of base 0.078 Restored and repaired, and vertical above 60% complete. Straight profile rim, strap handle, barely rising not two indistinct at Fine buff fab rim, straight; ridges mid-body. (central Cretan) Black interior and lustrous in with ric; wheelmade. slip exterior, places, fugitive H CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

L 5cm

5cm

0 1 5cm 5cm

Figure 6. Straight-sided cups 10-13 white-on-dark decoration: white dots at both exterior and interior and conical 14, from 66P. regularly placed cup pillar pit A. Kontonis two white at bands in and around base. Some Drawings rim, horizontal stripes handle, ridges wear at outer from use. base edges, seemingly

12 Straight-sided cup (11094) Figs. 6, 7

H. 0.072, Diam. of rim ca. 0.110, Diam. of base 0.074 m. Restored and re paired, 60% complete. Straight profile and slightly flaring rim, vertical strap handle, two at Fine buff indistinct ridges mid-body. (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade, traces and with with of concentric striations under base. Black slip interior exterior, to on exterior white-on-dark decoration: dots (too fugitive illustrate) upper body dots on band at exterior lower and possibly interior; handle; fugitive ridge.

13 Straight-sided cup (11095) Figs. 6, 7 H. Diam. of rim Diam. of base 0.060 m. Restored and 0.069, 0.100, repaired, 40% beveled and root of handle complete. Straight/conical profile, base, preserved. Fine with traces of pink-brown buff, hard-fired (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade, concentric striations at brown base. Lustrous slip, with white-on-dark decoration: two thin bands below one thick band at and oval at just rim, base, large mid-body two white strokes near base. seemingly encircling the handle; COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 15

Figure 7. Straight-sided cups 10-13 and conical cup 14, from pillar pit 66P. as 14 Conical Scales in Figure 6. Photos D. Sakatzis cup (11096) Figs. 6, 7

H. 0.029, Diam. of rim 0.110, Diam. of base 0.053 m. Restored from four 35% Broad shallow with fragments, complete. type, distinct rilling in interior. Semi fine medium Cretan orange-buff fabric; firing. import; wheelmade, plain.

15 Bridge-spouted jug (9807) Figs. 8, 9

H. 0.175, Diam. of rim 0.160, Diam. of base 0.180, max. Diam. ca. 0.270 m. and 80% Repaired restored, complete. Squat globular profile, wide base, thickened platform rim, very long bridge spout, and vertical roll handle attached below rim. Semifine fabric with hard some pink-red gray core, very fired, small white grits, and faintly micaceous (biotite)?probably a Koan fabric (sampled).Wheelmade, with two sets of concentric striations under base; width of base necessitated two to remove. looped string pulls on Thick buff slip exterior (not under base), with dark-on-light decoration and added white: dark bands on rim, upper body, and base, with a thick band at zones of tortoiseshell at and zone mid-body; ripple upper body lower body; of connected and between at spirals festoons mid-body above dark band; dark band itself has added white spirals with added filled wavy motif, imitating a rocky rim has four of three landscape(?); top groups evenly spaced white dashes; spout on has vertical dark stripes either sidewith white piping; handle has four diagonal white dashes. i6 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I K O L A KO P O U L O U

^^

Figure 8. Bridge-spouted jug 15 and ewer from 66P. 16, pillar pit Drawings A. Kontonis

16 Ewer (9814) Figs. 8, 9

H. 0.435, Diam. rim of 0.180, Diam. of base 0.111, max. Diam. 0.320 m. and with Repaired restored, 80% complete. Ovoid-conical profile, flaring everted rim, square in section, broad flattened handle with central rib, from rim to shoulder; note of at lack ridge collar. Semicoarse buff with angular gray grits (north-central coil-built with neck and collar wheelmade. Dark Cretan) fabric; body, perhaps decoration of at and lower with two on-light bands collar, mid-body, body large zones of at and lower that the vertical are not "ripple" upper body?except stripes at all as if and thus not true fuzzy, unburnished, ripple.

17 Closed vase: amphora? (11240) Fig. 9 and of the base lower to Repaired restored. Large part and body, up mid-height seven a (max. p.H. 0.280, Diam. of base 0.122 m), nonjoining body fragments, and of the with on collar Piriform large part neck/shoulder ridge (max. p.H. 0.390 m). COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES:

Figure 9. Bridge-spouted jug 15, ewer 16, amphora(?) 17, and local hemispherical cup 18, from pillar 66P. Photos D. Sakatzis pit l8 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KO L A KO P O U LO U

profile, flat disk base, and three horizontal parallel raised ridges on the maximum body diameter. Orange-brown buff (central Cretan) fabric; coil-built. Black slip on exterior surface with worn collar polychrome decoration; ridge painted orange flanked by two white horizontal bands; white spots in the zone between the upper body ridge up to a pair of white and orange bands; white bands in between the body ridges; broad orange band and two thin white bands under lower body ridge; arc on white motifs the orange band; white band around the base.

18 Local imitation: hemispherical cup (10758) Fig. 9 H. 0.060, Diam. of rim 0.109, Diam. of base 0.042 m (restored). Repaired and restored (strap handle and flat base restored). Globular body with everted rim. Buff handmade. Burnished surface and fabric; dark-on-light decoration. Red brown slipped interior, band on rim/body joint, oblique strokes on rim exterior on and "sponge effect" body.

Pillar Pit 67N

we a In pillar pit 67N observe broadly similar pattern, despite the dif ferences in stratigraphie context. In this trench, it is important to distin guish carefully between levels 12 to 14. The lowest is the construction fill for the floor (level 14, with four imports, 19-22, and one imitation, 23: comes Figs. 10,11). Above this the laying of the floor itself (level 13, with on two imports, 24,25: Fig. 12), and finally, the extensive destruction deposit the floor (level 12, with 11 imports, 26-36, and four local imitations, 37-40: Figs. 13-19). The different events responsible for these distinct strata as must have occurred very close together in time, however, the imported pot can same tery all be assigned to the phase, MM IIIA. a In the construction fill beneath the floor is polychrome hemispheri a cal cup (19) with simple red band at mid-body and white dots above to (Figs. 10,11), very similar those encountered in pillar pit 66P (see above). at A straight-sided cup (20) with grooves/ridges and regular white dots the are upper body is also exactly like examples in pillar pit 66P, and all strongly comparable to specimens from north-central Crete. A weakly carinated a cup (21) covered with dark slip is unique in this material, but it has good at a parallel from MM IIIA deposits Knossos.22The base of pithos (22) in a coarse a at a orange-buff fabric, with deeply incised herringbone pattern on seems to as rest ridge the lower body, be north-central Cretan, do the of one note: these vessels. Finally, local imitation in this stratum isworthy of a small bridge-spouted jar (23) that mimics tortoiseshell ripple extremely a accurately, albeit in local bichrome technique (Figs. 10,11). two come Only imports from the laying of the floor proper, but both are a very useful for dating purposes. One is polychrome hemispherical cup (25) with white dots and red band (Fig. 12), very much like 19, mentioned a above. Another small drinking vessel, albeit handleless, is ledge-rim bowl (24) with tortoiseshell ripple (thick and widely spaced) in the interior, and on thick dark bands the exterior (Fig. 12). This is precisely paralleled in the we to Anemospilia assemblage,23 which would date MM IIIA. on we see In the destruction deposit the floor itself, again the combi 22. Macdonald and Knappett, nation of vessels, and encountered in cups, pouring larger storage shapes forthcoming. the construction fill beneath the floor. One hemispherical cup (26) found 23. Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis on a with thick dark bands its upper and lower body and thick reserved 1997, p. 417, figs. 383,386. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 19

zone at not common or buff between, mid-body, is especially diagnostic a a (Figs. 13,14); neither is straight-sided cup (27) with beveled base and on simple white bands and double-looped discontinuous S-spirals the upper body. A one-handled stemmed cup (28), however, stands out, especially with its vertical strips of rough appliqu? close to the rim (Figs. 13, 14). an This vessel is very similar to example from Anemospilia.24 some The pouring vessels in this destruction deposit exhibit very are two one interesting features. There imported bridge-spouted jars, one one a large and small. The large (29) has lustrous black slip and white on a dots the upper body above number of deep grooves at mid-body to seen (Figs. 13, 14). This decorative style is very similar that in both a hemispherical and straight-sided cups, and is suggestive of set for pour ing and drinking. A remarkable feature of this particular example is that on a it has two pairs of repair holes placed either side of long crack that stretches quite far around the body (Fig. 15); this feature indicates that some was was this jar had value and worth mending, perhaps because it a a Cretan import. The second bridge-spouted jar is small (30) and has a different decorative style, dark-on-light tortoiseshell ripple (Fig. 16). as Again, with the ledge-rim bowl from level 13, the ripple is quite thick seen and with wider spacing than tends to be in later phases. Aside from the bridge-spouted jars, the pouring vessels also include a a narrow a jugs. Vessel 31 is small jug with cylindrical neck and poorly a preserved rim; itmay well have had cutaway spout. Vessel 32 (Fig. 16) is a an a quite different kind of jug, much larger and with ovoid body and low, narrow seven are neck; its incised horizontal lines at the upper body faintly reminiscent of the "cruches trilob?es" from Malia inMM IIB,25 but the fabric not of the vessel is Maliote, and its form is otherwise quite different. Four more vases from this level (33-36) cannot be classified as pour an a an ing vessels: amphoriskos, lentoid flask, oval-mouth amphora, and a pithoid jar.The amphoriskos (33; Fig. 16) has white-on-dark decoration, but its most characteristic feature is its fabric: a semicoarse red very com mon atMalia in the MBA. The shape, too, resembles amphoriskoi from a MM IIB levels at Quartier Mu, Malia.26 The lentoid flask (34) is truly a a a remarkable piece, carrying relief scene of bull and lion (see detailed a catalogue description below, and Fig. 17). It is worth noting that bull on same appears in relief ajar of the date from Anemospilia.27 The oval a mouth amphora (35; Fig. 18) is of shape, construction technique, and surface treatment commonly encountered in the late Protopalatial period on Crete: ovoid-conical, coil-built, and dark slipped. Furthermore, the a on vessel has what could be seal impression one of its handles, a feature 24. Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis seen east that is occasionally in Crete inMM IIB.28 Finally, the pithoid 1991, p. 144, ?g. 121; 1997, p. 417, (36; Fig. 18) white-on-dark patterns across much of the mid fig. 383. jar displays 25. Poursat and that bear some to decorative motifs on from Knappe? 2005, body similarity storage jars p. 61, fig. 14. Anemospilia.29 26. Poursat and 2005. Knappett The local imitations found in the floor destruction deposit consist of 27. Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis pouring vessels: three ewers?two restorable with a circular mouth, 37 and 1991, 148-149, 126,127. pp. figs. and one that has not been restored but which is of the 28. at see 38, (39) probably E.g., Myrtos Pyrgos; same a 1978. 40 19). These vessels, while Cadogan type?and bridge-spouted jar, (Fig. are 29. Sakellarakis and Sakellarakis imitating the general shape of their Cretan prototypes, decorated in 120. on a or 1991, p. 144, fig. dark-on-light with added white polished semiburnished surface, 20 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE NIKOLAKOPOULOU

mm

L 5cm 5 cm

5 cm

10cm

Figure 10. Cups 19-21, pithos base 22, and bridge-spouted jar 23 from level 14. pillar pit 67N, Drawings A. Kontonis

a or with motifs described as "fuzzy ripple" "sponge effect" (except for 37). A similar effect appears on the S-profile cup 18 from pillar pit 66P (Fig. 9, above). an to It is not clear whether this is early, unsuccessful, attempt imitate rare case on vases at or ripple pattern, which is in any imported this phase, a men whether it is favored local adaptation. The bridge-spouted jar 23 tioned above, with its fine walls, well-defined ripple, and "metallicizing" on as grooves the rim (Figs. 10,11), probably qualifies the closest imitation, a but it remains singleton. S-profile cups, straight-sided cups, and ledge ware rim bowls are also imitated in the local production, either in plain or or most in red- black-slipped and burnished. The painted specimens probably indicate local preference, rather than imitation of dark-ground a prototypes?as illustrated by red burnished ledge-rim bowls, apparently unique Theran product. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES?

(

Figure 11. Cups 19-21, pithos base 22, and bridge-spouted jar 23 from level 14. Scales as in pillar pit 67N, Figure 10. Photos D. Sakatzis

0 1 5 cm L 5cm

Figure 12. Ledge-rim bowl 24 and cup 25 from pillar pit 67N, level 13. Drawings A. Kontonis 22 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

Catalogue of Imports and Imitations

Constructionfill beneathfloor (level 14) 19 Hemispherical cup (9379) Figs. 10,11 of m. and H. 0.058, Diam. of rim 0.101, Diam. base 0.042 Repaired restored, 90% complete. Globular body with everted rim, vertical strap handle from the rim to the body. Fine buff (central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade. Black to dark brown interior and worn in with decoration: slip exterior, places, polychrome painted up per body covered with parallel columns of seven white painted dots each, with a band below at and a band at the two horizontal red-orange mid-body white base; white dashes on the handle.

20 Straight-sided cup (9392) Figs. 10,11

H. with handle 0.075, H. without handle 0.065, Diam. of rim 0.106, Diam. of base 0.072 m. and 60% Low with a conical and Repaired restored, complete. body vertical handle that extends above the rim and reaches slightly flaring rim, strap the lower part of the body. Fine buff fabric; wheelmade, with rilling and traces of at lower and concentric striations under base. Three ridges mid-body, mimicking metal. interior and exterior. White-on-dark decoration Red-brown slip painted at and exterior in three also dots on of white dots interior rim, irregular rows, up on per half of handle; traces of white paint the base. Slip isworn at base edges, from use. perhaps

21 Weakly carinated cup (9382) Figs. 10,11 rim m. and H. 0.088, Diam. of 0.120, Diam. of base 0.051 Repaired restored, surfaces worn in Conical weak 80% complete; places. body, flaring straight rim, at root a handle is Fine carination upper body; the of vertical strap preserved. buff, well-fired fabric; wheelmade, with pronounced rilling visible inside and out. and exterior Interior brown-purple slip.

22 Pithos (10139) Figs. 10,11

Max. Diam. of base 0.200 m. base p.H. 0.097, Incomplete: only preserved; some wear at Coarse exterior base, which has rounded edges. orange-buff fabric, a with brown and dark well fired clean paste large angular gray inclusions, (central Cretan); coil-built. Broad raised ridge at lower body, with deeply incised herring are traces a bone pattern without the central bone; above this ridge of dark-on-light that base was cut and for a use. band. It is possible the kept secondary

23 Local imitation: bridge-spouted jar (9402) Figs. 10,11 max. Diam. of base 0.046 m. and H. 0.135, Diam. of body 0.143, Repaired restored, part of upper body and rim missing. Flat incurving rim, ovoid profile, or disk base. Light brown buff (local) fabric. Polished semiburnished surface and paint. Dark-on-light decoration with added white. Rim black inside, white bands on the lip and exterior surface. Under the rim, three horizontal parallel ridges zones sets of painted black. Two broad of red-brown ripple alternating with black, red, and white bands.

Laying offloor (level 13) 24 Ledge-rim bowl (11358) Fig. 12 Diam. of rim 0.120 m. Ten joining fragments of rim and body. Fine buff bands on exterior tortoiseshell on fabric; wheelmade. Dark-on-light body, ripple interior, with quite thick stripes; not burnished. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 23

25 Hemispherical cup (9395) Fig. 12 of rim Diam. of 0.035 m. and H. 0.062, Diam. 0.095, base Repaired restored, Globular everted rim. Fine well-fired 90% complete, handle missing. body and buff, fabric. Lustrous black-brown slip, only lightly fugitive in places, with polychrome at rim a red at mid decoration of white dots exterior and upper body, above band body, somewhat irregularly painted; some white dots overlie this red band; white band at interior/exterior rim.

Destruction deposit onfloor (level 12) 26 Hemispherical cup (9509) Figs. 13,14 H. 0.091, Diam. of rim 0.115-0.128 (elliptical from handle attachment), Diam. of base 0.050 m. Repaired and restored, 98% complete. Semiglobular body to and everted rim, vertical strap handle from the rim that extends above it the middle of the body. Fine buff, hard-fired fabric; wheelmade. Brown lustrous slip on worn in with reserved band at interior has exterior, places, clay mid-body; at rim of handle on the exterior dark band and dense splashes below; upper part is slipped, but lower part coinciding with reserved band is left plain. Some trickle and on exterior reserved band. splash

27 Straight-sided cup (9396) Figs. 13,14 H. with handle 0.080, H. without handle 0.074, Diam. of rim 0.105, Diam. of base 0.058 m. Repaired and restored, 90% complete. Slightly flaring profile, vertical strap handle reaching the lower part of the body. Fine buff (central Cre fabric. Interior and exterior red-brown worn and in with tan) slip, flaked places, white-on-dark decoration of a broad horizontal zone with white painted painted running double spirals below the rim; three thin horizontal bands at the middle of the body and one at the base; two horizontal dashes on the handle. Slip under worn from use. base is around edges, probably

28 One-handled stemmed cup (9375) Figs. 13,14 H. decoration Diam. of rim Diam. of base 0.052 m. with plastic 0.120, 0.115, Repaired and restored, 95% complete. Conical body, cylindrical stem with discoid handle from the rim to the of the Fine base, straight rim, strap upper part body. buff fabric; wheelmade, with concentric striations under base from removal from the potter's wheel. Painted and relief decoration: broad horizontal black band on the rim inside and out; upper part of handle painted black with trickled paint down to on two lower part of handle; three horizontal grooves the lower body; parallel of a surface on one from strips clay with rough placed vertically side of the body above the rim to the of the upper part body.

29 Bridge-spouted jar (9369) Figs. 13-15 to H. rim 0.203, H. with handles 0.242, L. of spout 0.075, Diam. of rim (int.) 0.138, Diam. of rim (ext.) 0.155, max. Diam. 0.250, Diam. of base 0.104 m. and 95% surface worn in under base Repaired restored, complete; places, especially (from use). Conical lower body and globular upper, to a strongly incurving rim, slightly thickened and flattened; two upturned horizontal rounded handles below rim, small conical lug opposite the spout,which is a bridge spout with vertical sides just below the rim and with an ovoid opening. Four deep grooves at the mid-body create a metal. Fine hard-fired a corrugated effect, mimicking buff, fabric, clearly north-central Cretan with clear marks at interior. import. Wheelmade, rilling Exterior: lustrous black worn in with white slip, places, painted decoration of on at consisting bands the rim, ridges mid-body and lower body, with white 24 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KO L A K O P O U L O U

5cm 5cm

Figure 13. Cups 26-28 and bridge over the above the handles and 29 from spots upper body uppermost groove (including spouted jar pillar pit 67N, Interior: lustrous black inside some trickled in level 12. A. Kontonis spout). slip rim, having places, Drawings the also traces of black in interior. Two particularly through spout; slip splashed of holes?one rim near ca. cm pairs repair pair below the the spout, the other 7 below on the on either of a runs directly body?are placed side large crack that around the spout and across to other side of vessel. Traces of two other failed are mending attempts visible.

30 Bridge-spouted jar (9391) Fig. 16

H. to rim 0.124, H. with handles 0.136, Diam. of rim 0.072, Diam. of base 0.051 m. and 90% surfaces worn in Repaired restored, complete; places, especially under base Piriform two (from use). body, incurving straight-sided rim, upturned horizontal handles with and a on the a rectangular profile groove spine; bridge Fine buff spout. pale (north-central Cretan) fabric; wheelmade. Dark-on-light decoration with added white: two zones of tortoiseshell one at ripple decoration, and one at dark bands at one upper body lower; rim, upper and lower body, and across thick band mid-body (the paint is flaky and has peeled off in places), which bears about five added white bands; base initially solidly painted dark brown, now handles and with decoration. Interior lower seems worn; spout ripple body quite from contents. worn, too, perhaps COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES?

Figure 14. Cups 26-28 and bridge spouted jar 29 from pillar pit 67N, as level 12. Scales in Figure 13. Photos D. Sakatzis

Figure 15. Details of bridge-spouted 29 Photos jar showing repair holes. D. Sakatzis

31 Juglet(9520) PH. max. Diam. ca. Diam. of base 0.032 m. 0.127, 0.080, Repaired but with an surface with a incomplete rim; eroded?perhaps originally cutaway spout? Small juglet with ovoid body and cylindrical neck. Fine buff fabric, pale gray at interior, rather soft and worn in wheelmade. The is worn. places; paint flaky and Lustrous on black slip exterior, largely peeled off, with signs of dark red and white paint; on the interior the to vase. paint has trickled down the bottom of the Unclear whether there was a handle.

32 Ovoid jug (10497) Fig. 16 H. max. of max. of max. 0.234, p.L. spout 0.048, p.W. spout 0.039, Diam. of Diam. of base 0.100 m. and 60% body 0.181, Repaired restored, complete; surfaces worn. with an "Eyed" jug ovoid, pear-shaped body, with low maximum low neck and narrow with a to diameter; spout, conical lug either side of spout 26 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

30

5SZS

33

Figure 16. Bridge-spouted jar 30, jug as vertical rounded handle from the rim to the of (described "eyes"); upper part 32, and amphoriskos 33 from pillar the Semicoarse buff fabric, fired orange in the interior; coil-built, 12.'Photos D. body. gritty pale pit 67N, level Sakatzis; with thin walls. Dark on exterior is and difficult to relatively slip very fugitive drawings A. Kontonis some in A set of about seven thin horizontal incised discern, with trickle places. to bands around upper mid-body.

33 Amphoriskos (9378) Fig. 16

H. 0.207, Diam. of rim 0.045 x 0.086, max. Diam. ca. 0.190, Diam. of base 0.108 m. Repaired and restored, 95% complete. Small amphora with globular body, COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 27

Figure 17. Lentoid flask 34, with flat oval two rounded handles below the rim to details of base, mouth, vertically placed just decoration, from pillar the of the shoulder. Semicoarse red fabric with and inclu D. upper part quartz phyllite pit 67N, level 12. Photos Sakatzis; sions, color from red to dark an from the area of Malia. drawing A. Kontonis irregular firing, gray; import Wheelmade. Smoothed with a two surfaces, possibly self-slip; shallow grooves around the traces collar probably from manufacture. White-on-dark decoration: thin white band at on the rim inside and and two of on collar, out, pairs bands the middle of the body; two opposed motifs on the shoulder zone painted white with four a net curved radiating sides with double lines, and crisscross pattern within this on one on shape; five diagonal white dashes handle and six the other.

34 Lentoid flask (9324) Fig. 17 Max. Diam. 0.310 x 0.460 m. ca. com Repaired and partially restored, 50% and of the base. Lentoid with a plete; body part body, ring base, separately applied. Semicoarse at orange fabric, gray interior, with gray-white schist inclusions; coil with no seams to was two built, signs of any mold suggest it made in halves. 28 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

------i

Figure 18. Amphora 35 and pithoid jar 36 from pillar pit 67N, level 12. Photos D. Sakatzis; drawing A. Kontonis

of a scene inverse as Each side the flask has relief (actually relief, the clay seems to have been cut with the two sides connected There into), continuously. are traces of white on the relief scene. On one side is a be fugitive paint fight tween an bull and a feline on an enraged (lion?) undulating surface, perhaps representing a rocky landscape; the bull iswholly preserved, its body facing left, its head turned to the right, looking back and down. The bull's body and head are shown in the of the horns an at profile, although placement suggests attempt a view.The bull is in a with feet on the three-quarters depicted "flying gallop," rocky landscape. Attacking the bull from behind is a feline with only the front legs and part of its body preserved. It has caught hold of its victim's horns with COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 29

its front claws. The rocky landscape is depicted by a wavy relief band, which traces continues on the entire lower below bears of red-brown paint that body this band.

On the other side of the flask (not illustrated), we can make out a section an of a pictorial scene in relief with part of animal body. The undulating surface the relief band continues around the one scene represented by vessel, connecting to the other.

35 Oval-mouth amphora (9435) Fig. 18

H. 0.420, Diam. of rim 0.075 x 0.090, max. Diam. 0.236, Diam. of base 0.142 m. and 90% surfaces worn in Ovoid Repaired restored, complete; places. conical two vertical ovoid handles from rim to shoulder. Semicoarse profile, see orange-buff fabric, with some quartz grits (though difficult to with fabric now Brown-red on exterior surface with white-on-dark restored); coil-built. slip decoration of thick bands at lower and and painted base, mid-body, neck; pos sible motif at shoulder but hard to discern; interior slipped at rim and neck, with on the of the trickle inside body. Shallow circular depression upper part handle, a seal Two vertical near the base?either probably impression.30 parallel grooves from manufacture or mark. Some sherds found in level 11 possible potter's above, that this vase have fallen from a level within the destruc suggesting may higher tion deposit.

36 Pithoid jar (9683) Fig. 18 H. 0.416, Diam. of rim 0.142, Diam. of base 0.120 m. Repaired but incomplete 50% surface worn in Small four-handled ovoid body and rim, complete; places. conical form with a low neck and everted rim, horizontally placed raised circular on the shoulder and root of a and two handle the vertically placed handle, pierced holes (originally four, presumably) in the rim, one above each handle, presumably for securing lid. Semicoarse pinkish buff fabric, well fired, with small brown and inclusions with marks in interior. gray (central Cretan); coil-built, lumpy finger black with white-on-dark decoration of three bands at Exterior: slip, painted lower body, one at neck (fugitive), large spirals at upper body, and infilled curving at Interior: to rim and rather triangular motif mid-body (unclear). dark slip neck, and traces of white-on-dark festoons at interior rim. of messy, pendent Underside base was but now shows of from use. slipped, signs wear, presumably

37 Local imitation: ewer (9373) Fig. 19 H. 0.463, Diam. of rim (int.) 0.061, Diam. of base 0.124 m. Repaired and restored. Piriform with everted rim in thick profile, flaring rim, square section, handle of oval section, from rim to shoulder; ridge at collar.Whitish/grayish buff fabric. Unsmoothed exterior surface with thin whitish Traces slip. of dark-on-light inside decoration rim, light red-orange slip with brown trickle. Under the handle an over incised potter's mark; brown trickle the mark.

38 Local imitation: ewer (9389) Fig. 19 H. Diam. of rim max. Diam. of Diam. base 0.275, 0.073, body 0.169, of m. 0.086 Repaired and restored (handle missing). Funnel mouth, plain outturned rim. Piriform profile, disk base, vertical strap handle from rim to shoulder. Light or brown fabric. Polished semiburnished surface and paint, and dark-on-light . decoration in red-brown with added white: brown bands on collar ridge and around the lower handle attachment, red band on interior rim surface, three zones with brown motif with sets of white and brown bands with 30. Cf. Myrtos Pyrgos period III; fuzzy "sponge" alternating see bands. Cadogan 1978. added white 30 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

/ N

19. Ewers 37-39 and 39 Local imitation: ewer (9425) Fig. 19 Figure bridge spouted jar 40 from pillar pit 67N, max. Diam. of Diam. of base 0.072 m. Max. pH. 0.210, body 0.175, Repaired level 12. Photos D. Sakatzis; drawings rim of vertical band handle Piriform raised and restored, and part missing. profile, A. Kontonis or and dark-on flat base. Buff fabric. Polished semiburnished surface and paint, decoration in red-brown with added white: broad brown band on collar and light zones around the lower attachment of the handle, three with red-brown "fuzzy or motif with sets of red-brown and black bands with ripple" "sponge" alternating added white bands. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 31

40 Local imitation: bridge-spouted jar (9424) Fig. 19 H. Diam. of rim max. Diam. of Diam. of base 0.112 m. 0.305, 0.115, body 0.263, and Repaired restored, small parts missing. Disk base, conical lower body, and globular upper, to incurving rim, slightly thickened and flattened; two upturned horizontal rounded handles below rim; upturned bridge spout. Buff fabric with core. Polished or semiburnished surface and worn at Decora grayish paint, places. tion in red-brown (probably from firing, not bichrome technique) and added white paint. Rim painted red. Six horizontal parallel red-brown broad bands from rim to base with added white bands define decorative zones. In the upper, from rim to thickest part of body, vertical parallel strokes. In the lower two, "fuzzy ripple" or motif in the "sponge" red-brown paint. Red bands around handle and the spout attachments. Brown with added white band on the lip of the spout and vertical strokes on the sides of the parallel vertical spout.

DISCUSSION

While the phase C pottery from the two pillar pits (66P and 67N) appears to be a closer of the two contexts is warranted. contemporary, comparison ware was No polychrome Cretan found in level 12, the floor destruction in pillar pit 67N, where some of the Cretan vases appear to have ancient traces use wear vases a of repair and (e.g., 29, Fig. 15). Local with ripple or occur are rare fuzzy ripple motif in this level, while they in 66P. On the a other hand, large quantity of polychrome Cretan pottery was retrieved no from the floor destruction of pillar pit 66P, where fragments of Cretan vases are ripple dark-on-light decorated attested (but note the Cretan ripple bowl 24 from 67N, level 13, the upper floor layer). The local pottery types also exhibit differences?for example, the limited number of ledge-rim bowls and the presence of a tall-rimmed tumbler in 67N. These differences in imports and in local products may not be very as significant in chronological terms, the floor construction and destruction are levels in pillar pit 67N not widely spaced in time. As we mentioned above, it is possible, keeping inmind the different abandonment processes, in room that habitation theMC of pillar pit 67N lasted slightly longer than more in that of 66P. A solid chronology should emerge after the comparative examination of similar material from other MC pillar pit deposits. Below, we as a discuss the Cretan imports from both pillar pit deposits group, despite the presumed slight chronological differences in the two deposits, as our on approach focuses their significance in the broader spatiotemporal context within the lateMC settlement at Akrotiri.

Primary floor deposits of lateMC date with large numbers of vases in situ have been encountered only occasionally at the site, and as a result, very few MM Cretan vases have been restored from the sherd material from other Material to pillar pits. comparable the phase C pottery from pillar 66P and 67N comes from a pits pillar pit 35N, inwhich large cylindrical was pithos decorated with griffins found on the floor of aMC room.31 Cretan material in the context a Imported lateMC includes straight-sided cup, 41, and fragments of polychrome hemispherical cups with grooves, a closed a 31. Petrakos 2002, pp. 77, 79; Kari vessel with embossed circles, small open cup with vertical "bas otis 426-428. ket" handles at the rim 2003, pp. and white-on-dark spots, and bridge-spouted jars 32 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

iff 1

?*

Figure 20. Cup 41 and sherds from Other restored MM vases from an ostrich (Fig. 20). include, pillar pit 32N, 35N. Photos D. pillar pit Sakatzis; with decoration and from egg rhyton (42) polychrome (Fig. 21), pillar pit drawing A. Kontonis a on 53A, tall amphora, 43 (Fig. 22), combining polychrome decoration on the upper body with dark-on-light "featherwave" decoration the lower come body. Both from secondary fill deposits.

Pillar Pit 35N

41 Straight-sided cup (10817) Fig. 20

H. 0.081, Diam. of rim 0.116, Diam. of base 0.077, Th. of rim 0.002, W. of handle 0.023, Th. of handle 0.005 m. Repaired and restored, 80% complete; surfaces worn in places. Quite large example with faintly flaring body and tooled to bevel at base, vertical strap handle from the rim that extends above it and down wheelmade. Black-brown all mid-body. Fine orange-buff fabric; slip over, fugitive in with white-on-dark decoration: bands at and one many places, painted mid-body at and motif of double semicircles with numerous rim, upturned radiating "petals" (cf.MacGillivray's "Sunrise Style"). Probably MM IIB, but possibly MM IIIA.

Pillar Pit 32N

42 Rhyton, ostrich-egg type (10697) Fig. 21 Max. max. Diam. Diam. of hole at base 0.012 m. p.H. 0.172, 0.129, Repaired, but 30% Ovoid with a rounded which forms a shallow only complete. body base, depression toward the middle and has a hole at the center with slightly flaring cylindrical edges (illustrated upside down). Upper body not preserved, and it is not how it would have looked?an everted Fine buff clear rim, perhaps. pale (central with Cretan) fabric; wheelmade, pronounced rilling inside. Lustrous black on on one half of vessel in with 21. 42 from slip exterior, fugitive particular, Figure Rhyton pillar pit white retorted at with 32N. Photo D. Sakatzis polychrome decoration: large spirals mid-body, orange-red COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 33

o 1A

5cm J

*m?*

vv'^%;

Figure 22. Amphora 43 from pillar Photos D. pit 53A. Sakatzis; drawing A. Kontonis

band above and with an additional to below, red-orange band close pierced base. is a are two zones Base painted with white disk, and there of white decoration at lower and each of a frieze of upper body, consisting diagonal curving dashes in between white bands. Most likely of MM IIIA date, judging by polychrome decoration and retorted see Phaistos III for large spiral; phase parallels.32

Pillar Pit 53A

43 Amphora (8514) Fig. 22 PH. max. Diam. ca. Diam. of base 0.085 m. a 0.232, 0.160, Repaired, but section of the and one handle is large body, shoulder, mouth, incomplete (ca. 60%); worn. Closed two-handled vase with ovoid a quite body, simple flat base, vertical ovoid handle on the shoulder a missing its upper end, and small part of the lower 32. Levi and Carinci 1988. end of the second handle on the preserved opposite side. Fine orange-buff (central 34 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE NIKOLAKOPOULOU

Cretan), well-fired fabric;wheelmade, with pronounced rilling inside, and diagonal torsion marks on the interior from Black-brown upper body collaring process. slip covers exterior surface with decoration: band at the polychrome orange painted junction of the neck and body, and three white parallel bands below the handle, which is solidly painted in black; an orange painted band on the upper part of the body and another almost at the middle, which define a zone containing a triple white band. Traces of brushstrokes evident on the lower of the wavy painted part body?what is called "featherwave" decoration on Crete (MM IIB-IIIA). Interior has black slip down to lower part of neck.

not Although the contexts of pillar pits 66P and 67N may be exactly are to contemporaneous, there good grounds for assigning the imports MM at IIIA in central Cretan terms, thereby correlating phase C Akrotiri with come this Cretan phase. The best parallels for the pillar pit material from Knossos and Anemospilia.33 Yannis and Efi Sakellarakis have described as their "Anemospilia phase" atArchanes MM IIB-IIIA, but in the light of recent work atMalia, with the publication of the Quartier Mu material,34 we can more as describe the phase specifically MM IIIA. There is general consensus that the abundant destruction levels from Quartier Mu are as are characteristic ofMM IIB, those from Myrtos Pyrgos period III and from Phaistos.35 The Quartier Mu pottery includes innumerable carinated a cups, and not single example of tortoiseshell ripple. These features alone strongly suggest that the Akrotiri material postdates MM IIB. Some as use features of the pillar pit pottery, however, such the continued of us polychrome decoration, prevent from dating the material much later than MM IIB; by MM IIIB, polychromy is almost completely absent. The iconographical differences between the Cretan imports and lo cal wares lead us to consider the broader sociocultural implications of the stone imports. With their frequent skeuomorphic referencing of metal and vases prototypes, the Cretan contrast strongly with the local pottery, with on scenes. vases its emphasis figurative The local of phase C depict human as as figures, griffins, birds, and pomegranates, well floral motifs. This sug gests that the Cretan imports, with their links to valuable prestige items a one in metal and stone, drew upon very different field of imagery. The a a exception, the large flask 34 showing lion and bull in relief (Fig. 17), vases a scene. is a rarity among Cretan in its depiction of figurative These we particular animals may have had strong Cretan associations, although a should note that felines are depicted already in theMC period, and bull on an in at is painted heirloom bichrome pithos found theWest House scenes Akrotiri.36 Much has been made of the possible association of bull with Knossian hegemony, albeit in connection with LM LA.37 are While we not ready to claim that the bull iconography of 34 indi cates some kind of Knossian itself as asMM ideology asserting early IIIA, 33.MacGillivray 1998;Macdonald the arises of which Cretan sites are involved in off-island rela and Sakella question Knappett, forthcoming; not rakis and Sakellarakis tions. It is intriguing that many of these MM IIIA imports, though 1991,1997. 34. Poursat and 2005. all (i.e., the few from Malia), do seem to show strong connections with Knappett 35. 1978; Levi and Carinci north-central and Knossos. On theMM IIIA Cadogan Crete, by implication Crete, 1988. does see some at the level, with period significant changes interregional 36. Doumas 1999; Papagianno the of as tortoiseshell emergence pan-Cretan pottery styles (such ripple) poulou, forthcoming. are also 37. and 1995. replacing the pronounced regionalism ofMM II.There intriguing Hallager Hallager COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 35

patterns in architecture; for example, the only Minoan hall at Palaikastro, a distinctively central Cretan type, appears to be built inMM IIIA.38 Cer tain patterns do seem to have broken down at the end of MM IIB, for at example, with the destructions Phaistos, Malia, and Myrtos Pyrgos. It is not impossible that the Knossian hegemony, the very existence of which to is hotly debated,39 began take shape inMM IIIA.40

CONTEXT IN THE AKROTIRI COMMUNITY

now We need to place the rich finds from pillar pits 66P and 67N in their context at spatiotemporal within the late MC settlement Akrotiri. The vases number and range of the restored from pillar pits 66P and 67N is to a or so impressive that it is tempting attribute special status function to these lateMC buildings. The state of preservation in this case, however, seems on was largely dependent the vicissitudes of taphonomy.The material area retrieved from floor-destruction deposits excavated in the eastern of are the site (see Fig. 2), where theMC levels best preserved; in other areas, not the higher level of the bedrock does permit the accumulation of debris vases from earlier phases.41 The lack of primary deposits with in situ may also be the result of cleaning operations during the continuous habitation of the site. In any case, it is not possible to make quantitative comparisons across we can of the distribution of Cretan MM imports the settlement; say, a however, that the finds suggest familiarity with imported commodities, as suggested by the sherd material inMC levels in other pillar pits (see catalogue entries above for pillar pits 35N, 32N, and 53A). Despite these qualifications, the material from pillar pits 66P and 67N a to provides unique opportunity explore how the inhabitants of Akrotiri to responded novel forms of material culture and fashioned for themselves a seen distinct identity in the years leading up to the syncretism in LC I. We have noted elsewhere that the beginning of the Neopalatial period on a inMM IIIA Crete marks watershed, both in the quantity of Cretan imports to Akrotiri and in the adoption of certain Minoan practices, such as use the of the potter's wheel.42 The argument that has been tentatively advanced to explain these changes?namely, that they resulted from the strengthening of interregional networks and their transformation from into affiliation some force from the detailed 38. Driessen 1999; Knappe? and exchange networks?gains 2003. evidence above. Cunningham presented 39. Adams 2006. can as In terms of functional types, most of the imports be classified 40. There is evidence intriguing fine-ware and cups for and Some of these may have from in north-central jugs pouring drinking. Galatas, Crete, as been imported matching sets (i.e., those with similar decorative for an emergence of Knossian influence styles), while others were almost as those in theMM IIIA period: see Rethemio certainly imported singletons, especially or as or takis 2002, pp. 56-57. of peculiar shape decoration, such the rhyton 42 the relief lentoid 41. et forth Nikolakopoulou al., flask 34. In any case, the imports do not seem to fill any gaps in functional coming. or needs accommodate special practices introduced into the community. A 42. and Knappett Nikolakopoulou wide of local have served for as 2005. range jug types may pouring rituals, sug not the vases retrieved, but also the ritual scene 43. Petrakos 2001, pp. 91, 93; Bou gested only by by apparently on the bichrome from 67N.43 were not used lotis 2005; Papagiannopoulou, forth depicted jug Rhyta commonly use not to coming. until the LC I period, when their may have been limited rituals; CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU 36

a the LC I building most commonly considered to have ritual function, were Xeste 3, only contained six rhyta, but 33 nippled jugs found, out of a total of 229 vessels.44 a a In late MC floor deposit from pillar pit 35N, large cylindrical was a pithos decorated with griffins found together with large number of are a tall ribbed vases, which commonly thought to have specialized/ritual at we are to function, least in LC I.45While alert the dangers of projecting vases the religious connotations of the griffin and the ribbed back from the well-established LC I contexts to the less well known MC ritual activities, to even it is plausible suggest that Cretan imports, those of high quality, or even did not replace necessarily accompany local paraphernalia in ritual no activities in lateMC Akrotiri. There is evidence for a specialized use of conical cups, limited numbers of which are found at this stage. Even the scene lentoid jug 34 with the lion-and-bull relief may have been imported as for its peculiar shape and relief decoration, rather than for the value signed to its iconography. It is only in LC I that the meaning of the bull as becomes fully established at Akrotiri, attested by iconography and the manufacture of bull rhyta. Nonetheless, Sinclair Hood has noted that relief on some bulls appear of the earliest figurative frescoes at Knossos, probably as as occurring early MM IIIA.46 These arguments support the view that the value attached to imported Cretan vessels stemmed from their outstanding manufacturing techniques use (skillful of the wheel and relief decoration, both foreign to local prac tices) and possibly also for their exotic aesthetic effect. The imports may have enhanced the social status of their owners, but they did not necessarily a on exert significant influence local practices and tastes. This is particularly evident in the stark contrast between the brightly colored local pottery, with on its pictorial decoration buff background, and the sharp, metallicizing ef fect of dark-ground Cretan pottery with linear decoration. The predilection a to we see on for light background, though comparable what Melos, may on a have been deeply embedded in Theran artistic expression collective cognitive level as a manifestation of distinct local identity; itmaterialized as as was at least early the early MC period in the pottery and transferred vase to via large-scale MC decoration LC Iwall paintings.47 It is difficult assess vases on we to the impact of metallicizing local taste, since lack evi or use dence for the production the of metal vessels inMC Akrotiri. The relative lack of metallicizing elements in the local pottery in this late stage were 44. 1995. of theMC period may suggest that such imports prized because they Papagiannopoulou a we 45. For the context, see Kariotis filled gap in the consumption of actual metal vases; but, again, lack 13-17. sufficient evidence to reconstruct the situation.48 2003, pp. 428-432, figs. original 46. Hood 2000. were Thus, both the mechanism by which Cretan imports acquired 47. Georma, forthcoming. and the of their inMC Akrotiri to be less patterns consumption appear 48. A similar situation, albeit from than are at the of the LBA in the LM I can be seen at the site straightforward they beginning (which may, period, of Kastri on where numerous turn, be less straightforward than has usually been assumed). The imports Kythera, ceramic of and terms skeuomorphs metal definitely stand out among the local vessels, both in of typology stone are found in tombs. and decoration. The fact that to have been in originals they appear imported large These ceramic versions are never found from north-central Crete indicate a interaction scheme on stone part may two-way Crete, where presumably the within a context that transcends mere In this we were more exchange. connection, and metal originals readily See Bevan et al. should mention the surprising abundance of Cycladic and other off-island available. 2002. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 37

imports specifically inMM III levels within the palace at Knossos.49 The rest more relationship between Crete and the of the southern Aegean is complex and subtle than the "colonizer-colonized" scenarios previously to considered, and it is crucial recognize that the material culture itself a plays central role in the colonializing grip that is exerted. We might speculate that Crete itself is colonialized by its off-island contacts, in a kind of "reflux."50

We propose the following scenario for the relationship between Cretan and other island communities. When the more introverted Old Palace pe riod ended, Knossos, and possibly other Cretan polities, opened up to off island communities, and Akrotiri seized the opportunity to enhance local more strategies and become actively involved in south Aegean networks. were ware or The select items that imported, possibly fine curios for the inhabitants of MC Akrotiri, traveled within an affiliation network, which not to probably served only tighten links between the community and the rising power of the Cretan polities, but also to establish some kind of con spicuous consumption of exotica among the elite. The successful results, at as as least far the first aim is concerned, are evident in the dramatic expan sion in the adoption and adaptation of Cretan models in LC I.

CONCLUSIONS

us a rare The phase C pottery from Akrotiri allows opportunity to examine the gradual emergence of Cretan influence before its fullest florescence in I. LC In phase C, the imports, while significant, tend to constitute a maximum of 10% of any given deposit. In LC I that figure rises to 15%, more than are and half of these vessels Cretan, according toMarisa Mar thari.51 The major difference in the LC pottery (and other finds) lies not in the number of which remains imports, fairly constant, but in the degree of on local impact production: shapes, wares, and technology all attest to a Cretan we not strong influence.52 While have fully charted the develop ment of Cretan influence through the intervening phases between phase C and LC the to a (MM IIIA) I, present picture points gradual increase in influence, rather than a fundamental shift in processes of colonializa tion. The evidence presented here does not seem to be consistent with the a establishment of Minoan colony, whether of community, settlement, or governed type.53 During phase C, the local production and imitation of Cretan forms and are limited are styles very and selective, and they fully integrated within local traditions. The use a more of wheel technology points to in timate as the are connection, requisite skills difficult to acquire and often 49. involve an The is MacGillivray 1984; Knappett apprenticeship. wheel used extremely sparingly, for only 2006. two types (plain ledge-rim bowls and plain straight-sided cups), which 50. For this see Broodbank term, seems to indicate a tentative of the new a limited 2004. adoption technique by number of potters, in all likelihood with some direct from Cretan 51. Marthari 1993, p. 43. input artisans. It is that the of wheelmade on 52. See, e.g., Doumas 1983; on the unlikely range pottery produced see the island would have been so restricted if there was pottery, Marthari 1985,1987,1993. any significant colo 53. Branigan 1981. nizing presence there. 38 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE N I KOLAKOPOULOU

We do not mean to suggest that Cretan imports did not offer the is landers new in terms of and perspectives imagery, associations, meanings. some Indeed, the novel skeuomorphic connections made by of these vessels a may well have had striking impact upon local inhabitants, particularly if was the conspicuous consumption of valuable metal vessels gaining broad as ameans regional currency of displaying status (as in the Shaft Graves, for one example). Drawing upon the perspective developed by Gosden,54 might argue that Akrotiri is gradually culturally "colonialized," without postulating se. a "colonists" per Gosden's assertion that "colonialism is particular grip on that material culture gets the bodies and minds of people, moving them across new space and attaching them to values"55 is clearly relevant to the situation we have outlined in this article. It is the novel forms of Cretan material culture that act as colonists. Local Theran elites may have viewed as new imported Cretan artifacts forms of social and cultural capital to be used for their own ends.56 at a Our approach thus places the objects the heart of cultural process, an as mere object-led acculturation, rather than seeing them ciphers for more significant social dynamics that stand behind them. This is not to say, however, that artifacts stand alone; drawing upon ideas of individual we can see on personhood, that things and people take meaning together we through distributed networks of personhood.57 Continuing in this vein, might speculate about the various dimensions of meaning that the novel Cretan artifacts may have held for the inhabitants of Akrotiri. What might use or the of Cretan imports of this kind, and their imitation integration users into local styles, have meant for different groups of and producers? Is some form of identity expressed through such artifacts and their associated new practices? For instance, the creation of public spaces in the settlement new at the end of the MC period might have resulted from the need for areas to accommodate feasting activities and their concomitant conspicuous are consumption, which closely comparable to similar practices in Crete. use one Paraphernalia adopted for in these activities might account for at aspect of group identity, least in the LC I period. If the Cretan imports contributed to the development and expression a con of identity, we must ask next whether gender played role. Might the spicuous consumption of imported metallicizing vessels, for example, have a new arena pointed to of competition, expressed through long-distance contacts and access to exotic items?a domain that was luxury perhaps associated with predominantly male activities? Did these artifacts consti a was tute particular field of imagery that highly gendered?58 We should consider the of two males on the bichrome pot from C,59 depiction phase 54. Gosden 2004b. and, in the slightly later volcanic destruction level of LM IA, the Xeste 3 55. Gosden 2004b, p. 3. scene that shows males of different in what be an wall-painting ages may 56. Gosden 2004b, p. 26. or seem to an initiation scene,60 inwhich metallic metallicizing artifacts play 57. Strathern 1988;Wagner 1991; was an LiPuma Fowler 2004. integral role. If indeed there association between (Cretan) metallic 1998; on a 58. Cf. 1990 gender in artifacts and males, then there may have been only limited subsection Bryson still-life Treherne 1995 on was to imagery; of the community that in thrall this set of Cretan practices. Also male warrior imagery;Mitchell 2005 worth is the introduction in C of the new investigating phase technology on and empire objecthood. was to of the potter's wheel, which initially specifically used imitate certain 59. Boulotis 2005. a Cretan forms. Across range of ethnographic contexts, the potter's wheel 60. Doumas 2000. COLONIALISM WITHOUT COLONIES? 39

a has strong association with male potters.61 While itwould be simplistic on to link local handmade pottery Thera exclusively with female produc ers, it is nonetheless worth speculating whether the partial adoption of the was wheel gendered. we For purposes of comparison may turn to other Cycladic islands and as sites, such Kea (Ayia Irini) and Melos (Phylakopi).62 At Ayia Irini, Kea some period V appears to correspond with MM IIIA,63 and does contain as Minoan imports, such ridged straight-sided cups.The evidence is rather even more patchier, though, than that from Akrotiri phase C. It is difficult to at establish such synchronisms Phylakopi. The early excavators refer to the appearance of Cretan polychrome ware, which probably began to be as an imported in the early period of the Second Settlement, "important landmark in the history of the Second City."64 The ceramic material is as or described "Kamares ware" "polychrome ware,"65 and hence ought to be earlier than the imports inAkrotiri phase C. The final levels of City II might provide parallels with Akrotiri phase C,66 but the early publications on no Phylakopi make clear mention of Cretan imports in these levels. Hoods recent publication of the MM pottery from the 1974-1977 Phy lakopi excavations, however, does provide parallels of imported MM IIB at areas andMM IIIA Cretan pottery the site, coming principally from the of the and the megaron sanctuary.67 a can Elsewhere in the Aegean, rather different set of processes be ob as at one served, Miletos, part of what might call the "Eastern String."68 Here the patterns observed in the phase contemporary with MM I?II, i.e., Miletos III, do appear to be different from those at Akrotiri, with a from a wheel?as well as a and scuttles? 61. See, e.g., Balfet 1965. fragment potters cooking pot 62. These islands have some previously indicating the early adoption of Cretan technology.69 The patterns been with Thera in at grouped together both Miletos and Akrotiri contrast strongly with those observed at Ky the so-called Western String (see, e.g., to thera, which would appear be fully "Minoan" from the late Prepalatial Davis 1979; Schofield 1982), but this onward.70 come some period idea has recently under all of these areas we well ask whether there is criticism (Berg 2006). Taking together, might at 63. Davis 1986. something about the network of connections the supra-regional level 64. Atkinson et al. 259. 1904, p. that makes the processes at Akrotiri, Miletos, and Kythera so different, or 65. Atkinson et al. 1904, pp. 148 whether local factors in each area make the difference. Network XXIV:10. modeling 151,259-261, pi. to a con of these dynamics, be presented in separate paper,71 suggests that 66. On the City II destruction date, nections to the east and west of to the Dodecanese and seeWhitelaw 2005, pp. 46-49. Crete, Kythera are more 67. Hood 2007, pp. 255,260, respectively, somehow robust and resilient than connections to figs. 6.21, 6.23, pis. 30-33. the north, given certain appropriate parameters. This might help explain 68. Niemeier 2005, p. 10. more nature we the "hybrid" of Akrotiri. Whatever the specifics, should 69. Niemeier 2005, p. 3. consider that such networks may have a decentered character, with effects 70. Coldstream and 1972; Huxley with no obvious core. Such a scenario Broodbank 1999; 2004. occurring simultaneously throughout 71. has been both for the Greek colonizations of the 1st mil Evans, Knappett, and Rivers, recently argued lennium and for the in An forthcoming. B.c.,72 Lapita phenomenon Oceania.73 emphasis 72.Malkin 2004. on as interactions, demonstrated inMediterranean settings by the work 73. Gosden 2004a, 38. p. of Braudel, Sherratt and Sherratt, Horden and Purcell, and Broodbank,74 74. Braudel 1972; Sherratt and is fundamental, and holds much Sherratt 1998; Horden and Purcell absolutely potential, particularly given recent advances in the of network interactions.75 In this article 2000; Broodbank 2004. modeling 75. we to have shown the for material culture center Evans, Knappett, and Rivers, hope potential placing forthcoming. stage in approaches to interregional interactions. 40 CARL KNAPPETT AND IRENE NIKOLAKOPOULOU

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Carl Knappett

University of Exeter

department of archaeology

laver building

NORTH PARK ROAD

EXETER EX4 4QE UNITED KINGDOM

[email protected]

Irene Nikolakopoulou

Archaeological Institute of Aegean Studies

plateia megalou alexandrou

rhodes 851oo GREECE

[email protected]