Arba Minc College of N School of G Departem

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTEMENT OF BIOLOGY

Bacterial wilt(Ralstonia solanacearum ) disease incidence of Ginger(Zingiber officinalae Roscoe) and its socio-economic impact in small holder farms, in KambataTembaro Zone, Kacha bira woreda

Msc thesis

Mezgebework Lukas Shanka

August, 2016 Arba Minch, Ethiopia

Bacterial wilt(Ralstonia solanacearum ) disease incidence of Ginger(Zingiber officinalae Roscoe) and its socio-economic impact in small holder farms, in KambataTembaro Zone, Kacha bira woreda

Mezgebework Lukas Shanka (Smsc/045/05)

Advisor

Abebe Girma (Ph.D)

A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of the Arba Minch University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Biology, Department of Biology, College of Natural Science, Arba Minch University.

August, 2016

Arba Minch

Advisor approval

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Bacterial wilt(Ralstonia solanacearum ) disease incidence of Ginger(Zingiber officinalae Roscoe) and its socio-economic impact in small holder farms”. The Case of Kacha bra, South Region” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master’s with specialization in Biology, the Graduate Program of the School of Graduate Studies, and has been carried out by Mezgebework Lukas Shanka. Id.No SMSc/045/05, under my supervision.Therefore I recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence hereby can submit the thesis to the department for defense.

Abebe Girma (Ph.D) ______

Name of Principal advisor Signature Date

Declaration

I hereby, declare that this MSc thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged.

Name: Mezgebework Lukas Shanka

Signature: ______

Date: ______

Approval

This thesis entitled “Bacterial wilt(Ralstonia solanacearum )disease incidence of Ginger(Zingiber officinalae Roscoe) and its socio-economic impact in small holder farms”.The Case of Kachabira woreda, South Region”have been approved by the following, Examiners, Chairperson and Advisor for degree of Masters in Biology at Arba Minch University.

Members of examination board

Name of External examiner Signature Date

______

Name of Internal examiner Signature Date

______

Name of the Chairperson Signature Date

______

Name of Advisor Signature Date

Abebe Girma (Ph.D) ______

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Above all I thank the almighty of heavenly GOD for his everlasting bless, protection guidance, kindness and grace upon me during all my works and in all my life.

I also would like to express my sincere thanks and deepest gratitude to my thesis advisor Dr. Abebe Girma for his guidance, constructive comments and encouragement throughout the course of my work. His valuable advice, tireless assistance and availability whenever I needed him had helped me realize the thesis.

My sincere thanks also go to Arba Minch University, School of graduate study, for giving me the chance to learn and financially support to complete my research. I am also very grateful to my teachers and all the staff members of the biology department for their necessary support. I acknowledge the Minster of Education for permission of the study and sponsoring my living expense.

I would like to express my sincere thanks and deepest appreciation to my Husband Mr. Addisse Anulo for his love, financial support, invaluable assistance, encouragement and patience that helped me to complete my academic epoch, and I am grateful to my little kid, Ketsebao’ot Addisse Anulo for your love and smiles; you are my source of inspiration.

A special acknowledgement goes to my father Mr. Lukas Shanka and my Mother w/ro Terefech Tamirat, the two most important people in my life, for their love, encouragement and emotional support. Finally, the deepest gratefulness goes to all other family members who are supporting me in one or otherwise for their moral support, and encouragement in all my study times.

Special thanks are to Mr. Selamu Anose from woreda Agricultural office for his material support, spent much time for collecting household data with me and encouragement throughout my research work. I would also like to forward my warm appreciation to Kachabira Woreda Agriculture office authorities, development agents, Crop expertise, farmers and kebele Administrators of study area for their cooperation. It would have been impossible to complete this study without their willingness to participate their experience. Special thanks go to Talaku Tadesse Abera Garkebo , Zerihun esfaye,WondimuYohannes and Mulugeta Bekele much time for collecting household data with me.

ACRONYMS

BoARD Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development

DA’s Development Agents

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FTC Farmers Training Center

GCMP Ginger Cultivation Management Practice

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GTP Growth and Transformation Plan

HHH Household Head

NGOs Non -Governmental Organization’s

PAs Peasant Associations

SNNPRS Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional States.

SMS Subject Mater Specialists

TARC Tepi Agricultural Research Center

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENT………………………………………………………………..iv ACRONYMS…………………………………………………………………………....v TABLEOF CONTENTS……………………………………………...... vi LIST OF TABLE………………………………………………………………………..ix LIST OF FIGURE………………………………………………………………………..x ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………..xi 1.INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..1 1.1Backgroundofthe study…………………………………………………………….....1

1.2 Statement of the problem…………………………………………………………….3

1.3 Research Questions………………………………………………………………...... 3

1.4 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………….....3

1.5 Scope of the study…………………………………………………………………...4

1.6 Limitations of the study……………………………………………………………...4

1.7 Objectives of the study………………………………………………………………4

1.7.1General Objective…………………………………………………………………..4

1.7.2 Specific Objectives………………………………………………………………...5

2.LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………6 2.1Trends of ginger Production……………………………………………………….....6

2.1.1 Ginger production In Ethiopia……………………………………………………..6

2.2 AGRONOMY OF GINGER………………………………………………………...9 2.2.1 Pre-harvest Management of Ginger……………………...... 9 2.2.2 Post -harvest Management of Ginger……………………………………………11

2.3 Factors affecting Ginger production……………………………………………….13

2.4 Ginger Bacterial wilt……………………………………………………………….13

2.5Management practices for ginger bacterial wilt…………………………………….13

2.5.1 Traditional Management practices for ginger bacterial wilt……………………..13

2.5.2 Modern cultivation management practices……………………………………....14 vi

2.6 Economic impact………………………………………………………………..….14

3MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY……………………………………………....15 3.1Description of the Study Area……………………………………………………...... 15

3.2Socio-economic study…………………………………………………………..……16

3.2.1. Sampling design and Data collection…………………………………………...... 16

3.3Field Experiment…………………………………………………………………...... 16

3.3.1. Land preparation and planting…………………………………………..………..16

3.3.2. Assessment of bacterial wilt and harvesting……………………………….……..17

3.4Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………17

4. RESULT and DISCUSSION……………………………………………………….....19

4.1 Ginger cultivation and management practice……………………………………….19

4.2 Impact of ginger bacterial wilt on production……………………….………………19

4.3 Field experiment…………………………………………………………………….20 4.4 Farmers’ perception on bacterial wilt control…………………………………..…..25

4.5 Technological support from woreda agricultural office……………….………..25

4.5.1 Crop rotation……………………………………………………………………...25

4.6. Socio-Economic impact of Ginger bacterial wilt on farmer’s livelihood……….....26

5. DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………….…………...29 6. Conclusion and Recommendation………………………………………………….…35 6.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...... 35

6.2 Recommendation……………………………………………………………………36

7 REFERENCE...... 38 Appendix I: Formal Household survey questionnaire…………………………….……...i Appendix II: Questionnaire prepared for Model farmers, DAs, andadministrators……ii Appendix III: Background information of respondents in the study Area……………...iii

Appendix IV: Farmer’s response on the impact of ginger bacterial wilt that affect household income………………………………………………………………………...iv

Appendix V: Farmer’s response for open ended questionnaires……………………….…v

vii

LIST OF TABLE

Table Page

Table 1. Production and regional average yield of ginger in major

Woredas of SNNPRS (2006/07)……………… ………………….8 Table 2. Physical environment data for the major ginger

Growing areas of SNNPRS………………………………………..10 Table 3. Distinctions between with-in season and extended harvesting…….11 Table 4. Ginger Land coverage per hectare, productivity, and production

per quintal (2002-2007)………………………………………...... 19 Table 5. Ginger Bacterial wilt incidence Recorded per month …………...... 21

Table 6. Percentage of Ginger bacterial wilt incident………………………22 Table 7. Harvested rhizome in home garden…………………………...... 23

Table 8. Chi-squere test…………………………………………………….23

Table 9. Farmers response to apply crop rotation…………………………...25

Table 10. Farmers response to apply crop rotation and protect the plowing material from contamination………………26 Table1 11. Age of household heads and implementation of

ginger cultivation management practices…………………………..27

Table 12. Educational statuses of household head and

implementation of Ginger cultivation management practices…....28

viii

LIST OF FIGURE

Contents Page

Figure 1. Map of the study area………………………………………………15

Figure 2. Ginger farm affected by Ginger bacterial wilt in walana kebele…..20

Figure 3. Observation and recording of the symptom of ginger

bacterial wilt on home garden………………...... 22

Figure 4. Harvesting rhizome in home garden………………………………. 24

ABSTRACT

Ginger bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is a notable impediment of production of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in ginger growing area. It a common disease that affects the ginger crop through all phases of its production cycle. Hence, the study was aimed to assess the Socio-economic impact of ginger bacterial wilt on farmers’ livelihood in KambataTembaro Zone, Kachbira woreda. Among 21 kebeles in the woreda, three kebeles were purposively selected based on ginger production capacity. A total of 102 households from the aforementioned kebeles were randomly selected to assess the socio-economic impact of the disease on the livelihood of the farmers. Two common varieties of ginger namely Volvo (introduced) and Hargama (local) were selected for further field experiment. The socio-economic data showed that 87.3 % of the farmers found to face food insecurity and 100% of the farmers feared that their household income is affected. Only 1% of the farmers found to use modern management practices to control the impact of the disease and the rest use either traditional or integrated approaches. The field experiment result also revealed that the prevalence of bacterial wilt in both Hargama and Volvo control group were 25 and 19.44% respectively. And from externally infected experimental group of Hargema and Volvo 69.4 and 63.9% of ginger plant affected by the disease respectively. This further confirmed that ginger bacterial wilt affects both varieties and has significant effect on yield. The yield of ginger at the end of the experiment measured and found to be 0.91 (X2=0.38) and 0.75 (X2 =3.42) for Volvo and Hargama respectively.In conclusion the disease affect the plant, ginger

growing farmers, and agricultural sector significantly in the study area.

Key words: Bacterial wilt, Ginger, Prevalence, Ralstonia solancarium

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Agricultural productivity considered to be the backbone of economic growth in developing countries. Agriculture sector contribute 42% share in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as cited by Hegde and Hegde (2012).Ginger is one of commonly used ingredient in Ethiopian recipe. The major Ginger growing area in Ethiopia includes wetter regions at altitude below 2000 m in Amhara, Kafa, Illubabur, Gamo Gofa, Sidama, Wellega, Wolaita, and Kembata-Tambaro. Currently, it has become an important cash crop for farmers in southern and south-western parts of the country. It is used in traditional medicines to treat several ailments including nausea, diarrhea, motion sickness, migraine, dyspepsia, heart problems, arthritis, and to reduce flatulence and colic. Moreover, ginger is believed to relief the common cold, flu-like symptoms, headaches, and even painful menstrual periods(Wresdiyati et al., 2007).

The production of this spice has been expanding in most parts of the country, as it can be grown under varied agro-ecological zones and climatic conditions of the country. Well- drained, fertile and friable soil with enough humus and neutral pH is the ideal soil type for the production of ginger (Hailemicheal et al. 2008; Asfaw and Demissew 2009).The unique flavor properties of ginger arise from the combination of pungency and aromatic essential oil (Asfaw and Abegaz,1995).

The main pungent compounds in fresh ginger are a series of homologous phenolic ketones known as Gingerols. The Gingerols are thermally unstable and are converted under high temperature to shogaol (Mishra,2009). According to (Jolad et al. 2004),Shogaols are the major pungent compounds in dried Ginger. Various researches has surveyed the production, processing and marketing of ginger in SNNPRS(Geta and Kifle, 2011). So far, farmers produce different varieties and apply traditional management practices in the area. Ginger product markets have been reported to be very volatile and price fluctuations create a disincentive for farmers in the production of the crop. Currently, farmers use two ginger varieties in SNNPRS, namely Hargema (local) and 38/79 Volvo(introduced), which has distinct morphological characteristics. In Kambata, most farmers are prefer to use 38/79 Volvo instead of the local cultivars. Due to its product quality and yield.

It has been reported that ginger production is affected by bacterial wilt; various fungal and bacterial genera caused post-harvest losses of Ginger. Some these include the genera Penicillium (soft rot and blue mould), Fusarium(dry rot), Rhizopus(watery rot), Armillaria(Armillaria rot), Sclerotium(rhizome rot), Pythium (cottony-watery rot), Stachybotrys (soft rot), Erwinia (soft rot)and Pseudomonas (rhizome wilt) (Pandey, et al., 1997; Cherian,2002;Stirling, 2002; Dohroo, 2005).According to Stirling (2002), in the years 1997 and 1998,some ginger growers in Queensland (Australia) experience severe losses of newly planted ‘seed pieces’. According to Hayward (1991), the ginger production is highly threatened by bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum.

Various scientific literatures indicated that bacterial wilt disease affects over 450 plant species across the globe (Daughtrey et al., 1995; Mondal, 2014). Kumar et al., (2004) also reported that bacterial wilt of ginger, is widely distributed in tropics, subtropics and temperate regions worldwide. The control measure of the disease has been reported to be difficult due to its broad agro-ecological niche, systemic nature, wide host range and strain (Haywads, 1991). These all contributes for the devastating nature of the disease thereby affect the livelihood of the farmers.

For instance, bacterial wilt has been responsible for a 45% loss in ginger production in USA (Hepperly, et al., 2004). In Ethiopia, the symptoms of bacterial wilt of ginger for the first time were reported in 2012 (Sinedu, 2013).It is one of the major destructive diseases of ginger worldwide.

However, there is incomplete study conducted on the prevalence as well as impact of the bacterial wilt on the ginger production in Kambata Tembaro. Thus the present study focuses on assessing Socio-economic impact of ginger bacterial wilt on farmers’ livelihood In KambataTembaro Zone, Kacha bira woreda.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Bacterial wilt has become a global issue that affects the productivity of many crops. Similarly, ginger production has been affected by the said organism for decade and the first symptoms of wilt are a slight yellowing and wilting of the lower leaves. The wilt progresses upward, affecting the younger leaves, followed by a complete yellowing and browning of the entire shoot (Trujillo, 1964). In addition, ginger cultivation practice and technique is highly depending on traditional systems. Even if, several technologies have been adopted, the conventional agricultural research and innovation pursued in the past have not been very successful to deliver appropriate technologies to the farmers. According to Endrias and Asfaw, (2011), in SNNPRS, the productivity of the ginger is commonly affected by bacterial wilt. So far, there is incomplete research on the impact of ginger bacterial wilt particularly in KambataTembaro Zone. In addition, the socio- economic impact of the wilt has not been reported. Thus, the present study aimed at assessing socio-economic impact of ginger (bacterial wilt on farmers’ livelihood in KambataTembaro Zone, Kacha bira woreda.

1.3 Research Questions

The present study will attempt to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the main ginger cultivation practices in the study area? 2. What is/are the indigenous knowledge that the local farmers use for ginger production in the study area? 3. What is the trend of farmers of using new varieties of ginger for cultivation in Kacha bira woreda. 4. What are the factors that influence the production of ginger? 5. What is the socio-economic impact of the bacterial wilt disease on the farmers livelihood? 6. What management practices do farmers follow to control and prevent bacterial wilt and applying new technologies for increasing ginger productivity?

1.4. Significance of the Study

The study findings will support baseline document for Woreda agricultural officials, to design strategies, implement programs, scaling-up of technologies and applying new resistant varieties. Also control the disease and reduce its prevalence, restore the former

3 productivity of ginger. Therefore, the expected outcomes of the study are to be used in formulating future environment agricultural interventions, policies and strategies at the local and national level. Above all this study is the first of its kind in the area; it may be use as a baseline study and stimulus for further research to refine the conceptual and methodology of the present study.

1.5 Scope of the study

The scope of this study was to assess the impact of ginger bacterial wilt on farmers’ livelihood in Kacha bira woreda. The study also assessed the significance of the disease impact on the production and the use of various modern and indigenous ginger cultivation practices. Moreover, the study dealt with assessing the socio-economic impact of the disease that affect the farmer’s livelihood and counter check the impact of the disease on the production by field experiment. Finally, the study forwarded possible suggestions and policy options for controlling ginger bacterial wilt prevalence and improving ginger production in the area.

1.6 Limitations of the study

It is due to limited resource and time that the study is restricted to one woreda in the zone. This may hinder farmers’ decision behavior for identification of the nature of the disease in their cultivation practices in the whole population of the zone. During the research work financial and time constraints were among other important impediments faced. Moreover we used only observation of the symptom on leaf and stem for field experiment rather than using pathogenic test or laboratory test to investigate the nature of the disease. This study has also some limitations and faced some constraints for field experiment. The schedule that was adjusted for planting ginger to assess the impact of the disease in field experiment was “Bega”, and the growing season of plant was delayed so it was so difficult to observe the symptoms on the right time.

1.7 Objectives of the study

1.7.1 General Objective

The general objective of the study is to assess socio-economic impact and incidence of ginger(Zingiber officinalae Roscoe) bacterial wilt(Ralstonia solanacearum) in Kambata Tembaro, Kacha bira woreda.

1.7.2. Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are to:

 assess the impact of ginger bacterial wilt on ginger plant in kacha bira woreda.  assess the indigenous knowledge of local farmers to produce ginger  assess the farming practices by the local farmers to manage the disease.  investigate the socioeconomic importance and major factor that hinder ginger production.  counter check the impact of the bacterial wilt on ginger plant in field experiment.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Trends of ginger Production

2.1.1. Ginger production In Ethiopia

Literatures reported that, in the neighboring areas of Kambata-Tambaro, ginger has been cultivated long ago applying some modern agronomic management practices

(Janson,1981). Commonly ginger is cultivated under sub-optimal rain- fed conditions with the rain fall often less than 1500 mm per annum and at lower temperatures in

Ethiopia (Jansen, 1981). However, as high as 30 tons/ha of fresh rhizome yield has been recorded in some parts of the country, mainly in SNNPRS under farmers‟ indigenous management condition (Geta and Kifle, 2011). However, the average yield reported for ginger in the region was only 16 tons/ha (BoARD2008). During the last couple of decades, ginger production in Ethiopia was restricted to a home garden using local cultivars at the level of small-holder farmers to be used for household consumption and/or for small local trading (H/michael G, Tesfaye K (2008). Nowadays, farmers in some parts of SNNPRS have been engaged in large scale commercial production covering more than ten hectares of land using newly introduced high yielding cultivars, especially at Boloso

Bombe, at Wolaita Zone, SNNPRS(Farm Africa,2013).Moreover, the level of ginger production in Ethiopia has also been advanced to the level of large scale commercial farms at the level of big investors. For instance, Horizon Plantations P.L.C., at Bebeka, south western part of SNNPRS has started ginger cultivation in its estate spreading to an area of about1000 ha, which may be the largest single location to cultivate ginger in the country. This company is said to be able to identify suitable cost effective technology for sustainable crop production, harvest and postharvest management with a vision to increase the productivity and quality of product (Farm Africa ,2013).

For the past five consecutive years (2006-2011), Ethiopia stood --10th and 14th position in terms of area cultivated and production of ginger, respectively as compared to the 36 countries engaged in ginger production globally (FAO, 2013). In this regard, the global position of the country will further be augmented by simply improving the production and postharvest quality of the crop since the current position has only been obtained from the traditionally managed production of the crop. To this effect, improved varieties that would satisfy international quality standards in terms of oleoresin and essential oil as well as other quality parameters need to be cultivated extensively making the use of well- established extension systems. Using improved agronomic practices will also play a significant role in the improvement of yield in ginger production.

Some farmers traditionally grow ginger at commercial level even at the time of great fall of the market price in previous year, speculating the re-rise of the price. In some parts of

Omo Sheleqo, SNNPRS including Umbukuna and the neighboring Peasant Associations

(PAs), other crops are rarely grown as the result of damage caused by wild lives except ginger. In such PAs, ginger has been grown year after year irrespective of any condition including at the time of low market price, which ensures sustainability of ginger production in the country(Farm Africa, 2013).

In 2006/07, about 2,896372 quintals of fresh ginger was produced from an area of 18,240 hectares of land indicating the regional average rhizome yield of 160 qt/ha (BoARD, 2008), (Table.1). However, in 2012, a total ginger rhizome fresh yield of 6500497 quintals was reported (BoARD, 2012) at a regional level from the area of 48518 hectares, which indicates an increase of production by over 44% within five years -. The statistical information from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development indicated that 99% of crop production was from the SNNPRS.

Table 1. Regional Production and average yield of Ginger in SNNPRS (B0ARD,2006/07).

Administrative Woreda Area (ha) Production Yield zone/special (qt) (qt/ha) wereda

Hadiya West 423 67680 160

Badawacho

Wolaita Boloso Bombe 7000 1120000 160

Kambata- KachaBira 8223 1308652 159

Tambaro

Dawro GenaBosa 1500 225000 150

Kafa Gimbo 55 8800 160

Bench Maji Sheko 187 29920 160

Total 17388 2760052

Extensive production of ginger occurs following the rise of market price before six and seven years ago in SNNPRS and believed to be it replaces enset and permanent cash crops including coffee and banana. Farmers were accustomed to sell-their dairy cattle and oxen out to use them as cash source for purchasing ginger seed. However, in the subsequent years (from 2004 up to now), it has been a common phenomenon to see a sudden fall of the price shortly followed by a high supply, which in turn, results in a low market demand of the production. Consequently, a total production and the size of land allotted by farmers to ginger drops down at a very fast rate, especially in areas having little traditions of ginger production (Geta and Kifle, 2011). Currently, a sudden outbreak of bacterial wilt disease has occurred on ginger plantation throughout the -region showing a tendency of crop loss. The diseases have devastated all cultivars of ginger cultivated currently in the region including the local cultivars and the improved varieties released so far in the country. This in turn, calls for the urgency of searching for an effective remedy

8 so as to bring about resistant varieties and improved disease management practices (Farm Africa, 2013).

2.2 AGRONOMY OF GINGER 2.2.1 Pre-harvest Management of Ginger

Planting depth is one of the most limiting agronomic factors that affect productivity of crops. Ginger producing farmers of SNNPRS prefer dry planting in December and January on the unit of lands that have been pulverized to a fine tilth during wet season for the purpose of moisture conservation (Janson, 1981). Ginger prefers soils that mostly have proper water holding capacity and aeration. It also prefers deep, sandy loam soils. The upper layer needs to be permeable. For higher yield, the soil should be loose, friable and offer minimum resistance to rhizome development. Well drained soil with at least 30cm depth is essential (Janson, 1981). As depth of soil increases, its suitability for cultivation of the ginger increases. In heavy clay soils, deep plowing allows better root penetration and free rhizome development. Stony and water logging soils need to be avoided for ginger production. Compact clay soils, which are subject to water logging or coarse, sands without water holding capacity, gravelly soils or those with hard pan are not conducive for the production of high yielding healthy plants. The most favorable soil pH is 6.0-6.5(Farm Africa, 2013).

2.2.1.1 Climate requirements

According to woreda Agrictural and Rural development office, Kacha bira woreda have mostly temperate climatic condition and it is suitable to ginger production. Ginger has wider adaptability for different climatic requirements. It prefers sunshine, heavy rain fall and high amount of relative humidity for a promising yield. Dry spells during land preparation and before harvesting are required for large scale cultivation. Ginger prefers warm and humid climate, with most soils that have proper water holding capacity and aeration (Farm Africa, 2013).

2.2.1.2 Temperature and rainfall

According to Kacha bira woreda Agriculture and rural development office, the woreda climatic temperature 14-26⁰C and1001 to 3000 mm suitable for ginger production. The base temperature requirement for ginger is 13⁰C and the upper limit is 32⁰C/27⁰C

(day/night), whereas the favorable range is 19-26⁰C. The optimum soil temperature for germination is between 25-26⁰C, and for growth it needs 27.5⁰C(BoARD,2012).A temperature in excess of 32⁰C can cause sunburn; on the other hand, low temperatures induce dormancy. The day and night length does not have significant variation in Ethiopia; however, in other ginger growing countries as day length increase from 10 to 16 hours, the vegetative growth was enhanced, while it was inhibited and rhizome swelling promoted as the day 20.The rainfall requirement for optimal ginger production ranges from 1500 mm to 3000 mm (Purseglove, 1972). A rainfall of, well distributed in 8-10 months is ideal for ginger production. In Ethiopia, ginger is cultivated under sub optimal conditions with rainfall often less than 1500 mm per year (Jansen, 1981). Since ginger is cultivated under rain fed and irrigated conditions in areas that receive less rainfall, the crop needs regular irrigation. Data on physical environment for major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS is indicated in Table 2.However, research is required to determine the climatic requirements for the different ginger cultivars for an optimum yield and premium quality.

Table 2. Physical environment data for the major ginger growing areas of( SNNPRS B0ARD,2006/07)

Woreda Area Mean annual Mean annual Elevation ( km2 rain fall (mm) temperature (masl) ) (⁰C) Hadaro- 367.9 1201-1400 15.1-22.5 1001-3000 TuntoZuria Kacha-Bira 367.9 1201-1400 14-26 1001-3000

BolosoSorie 543.5 1201-1600 17.6-25 501-2500

West Badawacho 552.8 801-1400 17.6-27.5 1501-2500

In SNNPRS, for dried and fresh ginger, mature rhizome with a full aroma, flavor and pungency are harvested after planting when the leaves begin to turn yellow or completely withered away, internal flesh color should be pale yellow. According to Geta

and Kifle (2011), with-in-the-season harvesting is recommended.

Table 3. Distinctions between with-in season and extended harvesting Source :

SNNPRS B0ARD,2006/07)

One- season (non-perennial) Extended(perennated) harvesting

harvesting high production cost Reduced cost of production more appropriate for improved varieties More appropriate for local varieties

Rhizomes are preferred as a seed Rhizomes are less preferred as a

better rhizome appearance (acceptable Poor rhizome appearance(dull

pale yellow rhizome cortex color) rhizome cortex color)

low fiber content of the rhizomes High fiber content of the rhizomes

reduced harvesting cost High cost of harvesting

relatively low soil depletion High soil depletion Risk of

disease/pest hosting

2.2.2 Postharvest management practices

The harvesting of ginger, a perennial herb but often grown as an annual, depends on the cultivar and varies from 7-9 months for annual crops while perennial crops are harvested at the growers‟ discretion (Krishnamoorthy et al.,2002).Postharvest management practices of ginger involve several activities. These include preparation of dry ginger, storage and processing. Farmers’ practice in the study areas were identified and presented as follows.  Preparation of dry ginger According to Kachabira woreda Agricultural and Rural development office, majorities of farmers follow poor post harvesting management techniques; for instance, for drying the harvested ginger rhizomes spreads on dusty and dirty floors without cleaning and trimming roots from the rhizomes to prepare a dried ginger also leave it on farm after

11 harvesting until it loses some percentage of moisture and spread on floor for full drying This can directly reduce the ginger quality. According to Geta and Kifle (2011),drying process employed in the SNNPR so far for the preparation of dried ginger is too primitive and, hence could not maintain the product’s quality. Consequently, its contribution to the livelihood of ginger growers and to the economy of the country has been insignificant.  Storage Storage provides protection against weather, moisture, insects, micro organisms, rodents and any type of infestation and contamination (BoARD,2013).According to Geta and Kifle (2011), in SNNPRS, farmers often sellout their fresh ginger immediately after harvesting especially, when there is a high market demand .As a matter of fact, the ginger market has always been so much unstable and farmers are enforced to keep their produce in the storage for some period after drying until they get remunerative price (BoARD,2008). In Kacha bira woreda, most farmers store ginger in contaminated and unsafe area easily affected by different pathogens.  Processing Ethiopian ginger Factor, which are engaged in oleoresin extraction could not operate to their full capacity due to the following reasons (Geta and Kifle, 2011; BoARD, 2012). 1. The dried ginger has been full of impurity as it is prepared traditionally by local farmers. 2. There is low percentage of oleoresin content per unit volume of ginger as a result of perenniated /extended harvest, long storage period, over drying and/or re-drying due to dampness. 3. The factories which were designed to extract pepper oleoresin formerly require high cost for modification of parts. Currently, both factories are not functional due to transition. Even if they operate to their full capacity, it would remain insignificant as they absorb only the small fraction of the volume of the ginger yield produced per year in the region.Apart from these, the Ethiopian Essential Oils Research Center sometimes extracts essential oils from different essential oil yielding plant spices for research purposes. Otherwise, no company in the region or at the country level was engaged in practical ginger processing activity.

2.3 Factors affecting Ginger production

Both a biotic and biotic factors affect yields and quality of ginger. Unfavorable environment, which can cause physiological disorders in Ginger, is an example of a biotic factor. Therefore, a biotic factors are essentially nonliving components that affect living organisms, while biotic factors that affect ginger are living organisms such as diseases, insect pests and weeds that are present in the ecosystem and their consequent action affects life cycle of a ginger plant.

2.4 Ginger Bacterial wilt

Ginger bacterial wilt, caused by a bacterium known as R. solanacearum (Smith, 1896 ; Yabuchi et.al.1992) is the most limiting factor in the production of ginger. It is a complex and difficult disease to control, infecting the ginger crop through all phases of a production cycle. It is present systemically in seed rhizomes as both an active and latent infection that contaminates seed-pieces when they are cut and prepared for field planting(Sinedu,2013).In open-field production, even when disease-free starting materials are used in a clean field, it is difficult for a grower to prevent introduction of the disease from nearby diseased fields by means such as water runoff and human, equipment, and animal traffic In fact, it is becoming more difficult for ginger farmers in Ethiopia to find suitable planting areas that are not already contaminated by the ginger wilt bacteria (Sinedu,2012).

In Ethiopia, the symptoms of bacterial wilt of ginger for the first time were reported in 2012. However, it is one of the major destructive diseases of ginger worldwide affected the economy of most ginger farmers to the extent of causing food insecurity. Management practices for ginger bacterial wilt

2.5.1 Traditional Management practices for ginger bacterial wilt

Traditional methods doesn’t allow to apply any new, technologies such as, plow the land without exposing to the sun, from selecting soil type to plant ginger, not consider (whether it is local or introduced (resistant) ginger Varity, without considering the plowing materials (contaminated or not).Generally traditional cultivation management practice doesn’t precisely follow the ‘packages’ of pre- and post (use Extended or perennated) harvesting Technologies. These methods greatly contributes and increase the disease transmission rate and its prevalence. 13

2.5.2 Modern cultivation management practices

2.5.2.1 Land Preparation

Plowing is necessary to prepare the land for a new crop for it. Improves the structure and water holding capacity of the soil. In areas where water is limiting factor, plowing enhances water conservation as well. It also reduces soil-born pests and diseases by exposing the soil to the sun(Janson, 1981).Deep plowing is necessary to break an impermeable hard sub soil layer (plowing pan), remove the weeds and bring the land to fine tilth.It also encourages root growth. To produce high yield of ginger, the soil should be loose and friable. Most ginger growing farmers in SNNPRS start plowing the land allocated to ginger production just at the end of the main rain season (between late

September and early October) after harvesting the previous crop. Plowing the same unit of land will be repeated for about 3-5 times. The land that has been pulverized to a fine tilt at the end of the rainy season when the soil is at moist condition will conserve its moisture until 2-3 months. Depending on the soil type and the moisture content of the soils as well as the capacity of the farmer to use oxen power, the total number of tillage frequency ranges between 3 and 10, with the highest frequency being more productive

(Geta and Kifle, 2011).

2.6 Economic Impact

Ralstonia solanacearum is classified as one of the world's most important phytop athogenic bacteria due to its lethality, persistence, wide host range and broad geographic distribution (kifelew et al.,2015).It causes a wilt disease in several important agricultural crops such as potato, tomato, tobacco, banana, pepper and eggplant(Mondal et al.,

2014).Many more dicots suffer from the disease than do monocots. Among the monocot hosts, the order Zingiberales dominates with 5 over 9 families being infected by this bacterium (Sinedu, 2012).In SNNPR, the prevalence of the disease was noted to begin

14 with the over seasoned ginger plantation, in the season. The symptom of the disease on new plantation was observed 3-5 months of planting leading to a ceased development of rhizomes, .This, in turn, resulted in a considerable yield reduction of the crop (Sinedu,

2013).Although, ginger is a minor crop, its contribution to the national economic development is not negligible. Because it is one of the export commodities selected to play its important role in achieving the objectives of the Growth and Transformation Plan

(GTP) of the government (Sinedu, 2013).

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the Study Area

Kacha birra woreda is located in SNNPRS, Kambata Tembaro zone. It is laid between 7.10-7.340 latitude and 37.58-37.86 0longitudes. The woreda divided in to 21 rural and 2 urban kebeles. The total area of woredas estimated to be 367.9 k2 and the total population size is male, 69,347, female, 71,700 and total are 141,047. The average population density of woredas is 489 persons per square kilometer which makes the woredas to be one of the most populous parts of the zone. The Location of kacha birra woreda is boarderd to in Badewacho kedida Gamella woreda in the East; Hadero tunto and Duna woreda to the West; Doyoganna, and Angacha woreda to the North; Bolosso sorro woreda to the South.

Figure 1.Map of the study area Source; Kacha bira woreda finance and Development office,2014

3.2 Socio-economic study

3.2.1. Sampling design and Data collection

1. This research was conducted in purposively selected 3 kebeles in kacha bira woreda of KambataTembaro Zone, SNNPRS. And 102 households, 95 males and 7 females were randomly selected and detailed information on the impact of ginger bacterial wilt on farmers livelihood from household demographic and socio-economic condition, were collected by questionnaire. The survey questionnaire included both open and close ended questions. Necessary arrangements were made on questionnaire. This was ultimately translated from English into Amharic. As farmers in the area are speaking kambatigna, bilingual enumerators and those who know the area well were recruited for the enumeration. The questionnaires had handled by skilled enumerators who were trained to collect appropriate data. The sources of data for this study was from primary and secondary data sources. The primary data was collected from villages and Woreda agricultural experts and household heads and from field experiment. The primary data were supplemented by secondary data in order to bridge information gap from primary sources. Secondary sources include published materials such as reports, official records, census records, and research papers. To obtain the data and counter check the disease incidence on ginger plant, field experiment on plot survey method was employed. Subsequently, the prevalence and impact of ginger bacterial wilt on ginger cultivation in

the selected area was studied. Data were recorded and analyzed.

3.3 Field Experiment

3.3.1. Land preparation and planting

Best and appropriate soil type that is sandy loam soil was selected in my home garden and 90 cmx135cm plots was laid ,and before planting, the soil was exposed to the sun up to two weeks to minimize the reaction of pathogenic microbes and more suitable to plant, we used new plowing material to prevent contamination ; in addition to this the land we used for planting was not planted before to reduce the chance of disease transmission because the disease can be easily transmitted by staying in the soil and

materials for a long and long period of time. We were started planting the ginger after plowing and we used for planting 15cm, 30cm space b/n plant and rows respectively and 8cm depth. Also we carefully followed the standard of planting by using35-40 gm. weight of ginger with 3-5 cm in size approximately. The field plots for both groups were prepared on 90cm width × 135cm length for each quadrants (1215cm2) area. The planting season was not actually the rainy season we planted it was in the late October so there were high light intensity and we applied different techniques such as mulching to infiltrate the soil, and minimize transpiration by using crashed banana steam, every days at evening both experimental and control groups were watered enough amount of water per day.

3.3.2. Assessment of bacterial wilt and harvesting

To investigate the wilt incidence of the diseases, two common varieties of ginger the local (Hargema) and introduced (Volvo) was selected and collected from farmers. The effect was studied between experimental group and control group by using the non- infected varieties of ginger. We tried to infect some of the Hargema and Volvo by using traditional infecting methods such as;-storing the non-infected with the normal rhizome together for two months and planted that was our experimental group. On the other hand, the other group the two non-infected varieties would separately planted( control group).In interval of seven days the wilt incidence of both experimental and control group plants were recorded on minute-book for sixteen weeks or four months. At the end of cropping season the yield of both groups were recorded and analyzed.

3.4 Data Analysis

Combinations of both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to analysis the data. The household survey data were coded and entered into computer environment for analysis. Then using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS), data computation of frequencies, descriptive statistics (mean and percentage) were used, MS-Excel were used to generate tables, for summarizing and categorizing data. Furthermore, interviews with local people, DAs, crop experts and subject matter specialists as well as field observation on farmers farm land were analyzed qualitatively.

The wilt incidence effect of R. solancarium on ginger plant using % of wilt incident were calculated according to Horita and Tsuchiya (2001).The harvested values of ginger

17 between control and experimental groups were analyzed and compared by chi-square test.

Wilt incidence (%) = 100

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4. RESULT

4.1 Ginger cultivation and management practice

A total of 102 households were considered in this study. According to the household heads and key informants, traditional ginger cultivation management practice was found to be traditional (32.6%) and integrated (66.4%) using only local ginger varieties regardless of disease susceptibility, yield and quality (Table.10). However, the application status varied from farmer to farmer in terms of applying local ginger varieties; some of them used ‘Hargama’the other used ‘Volvo’. Further, modern ginger cultivation management practices are newly introduced methods which were applied in the study area. Sampled households were asked whether they have been using modern ginger cultivation management practices in their farm lands or not, out of the total sampled household heads only model farmers (1%) implement modern methods (Table 10-11, Appendix V).

4.2 Impact of ginger bacterial wilt on production

[The information collected from each household showed that 100% of the respondents had awareness about ginger bacterial wilt and its impact on production and productivity of ginger (Appendix IV). The impact of bacterial wilt production and productivity found to decrease by 37% and 40% respectively from 2002-2007 E.C. as shown (Table 4).

Table 4.Ginger land coverage per hactar and production per quintal from 2002-2007 E.C

2002E.C 2003E.C 2004E.C 2005E.C 2006E.C 2007E.C

Land/ha Producti on/qn Land/ha Producti on/qn Land/ha Producti on/qn Land/ha Producti on/qn Land/ha Producti on/qn Land/ha Producti on/qn 2563 410080 2691 497835 2819 563238 2957 354840 443 23922 28 672

Figure. 2 Ginger farm affected by bacterial wilt in wlana kebele. Photograph taken by Adissie Anulo, 2016.

4.3 Field experiment

The field experiment was conducted and the disease incidence was recorded using the formula below. 36 plants were grown in each four plots (Fig.6).The result showed that the bacterial wilt affects both varieties commonly cultivated in the area (Table 5).The highest

20 from experimental group Hargema infected(69.4%), and the lowest from control group or volvo healthier,(19.4% ) of wilt incidence was recorded shown in Table 5 and 6).

Table 5. Ginger Bacterial wilt incidence Recorded per month Month Healthier Externally infected

Volvo Hargema Volvo Hargema

February 0 0 0 0

March 1 1 3 4 April 2 3 8 9 May 4 4 13 14 June 5 6 20 19 July 7 9 23 25 Total 7 9 23 25

Figure.3 Observation and recording of the symptom of ginger bacterial wilt on home garden. Photograph taken by Adissie Anulo,2016

Table 6. Percentage of bacterial wilt incident

Varieties % of wilt incident Healthy Hargama 25

Volvo 19.44

Hargama 69.4 Infected Volvo 63.9

Table 7.Yield of ginger from field experiment

Yield Yield Varieties Seed (gm) in (gm) (kg)/m2 Hargama 1260 gm 968gm 0.97kg Healthy(Control) Volvo 1260 gm 1361gm 1.36kg Hargama 1260 gm 754gm 0.75kg Infected(Experimental) Volvo 1260 gm 908gm 0.91kg

The impact of the bacterial wilt on yield was also recorded and the result is shown in (Table7).The maximum yield from both experimental group (Hargema and Volvo Externaly infected), (0.75 kg; minimum) and (0.91 kg; maximum) respectively.And from control group (hargama and volvo healtheir) yield were obtained and found to be(0.97kg; minimum) and (1.36kg;maximum)was recorded respectively.Futher the yield was compared from the expected yield of ginger at normal condition using chi-square test and the result showed that the yield is significanly lowered from the expected value (X2=6.12 ).

Table 8. Chi-square test to compare the yield with the expected yield of ginger

2 Varieties Observed Expected (Observed- (o-e) (o- value value expected) e)2 e

Volvo 38.9 47.1 -8.2 67.2 1.43 Healthy Hargema 27.7 33.1 -5.4 29.2 0.89 Volvo 25.9 29.25 -3.35 11.2 0.38 Infected Hargema 13 21.6 -8.6 73.9 3.42 Total 105.5 131.05 -25.55 181.5 6.12

X2=6.12

Figure 4. Harvesting ginger rhizome in home garden A) Harvested rhizome, B) Measuring and recording yield, C) infected fresh rhizome form ring. Photograph taken by Adissie Anulo, 2016. .

4.4 Farmers’ perception on bacterial wilt control

Table 9. Farmers’ perception on the effectiveness of modern methods Farmers’ Kebeles Overall total perception

Gemesha(%) Bugae(%) Walana(%)

Less effective 39.2 19.6 39.2 100 98.0

More effective 0 0 1.96 2 1.96

The most 0 0 0 0 0 effective

Total 39.2 19.6 41.2 102 100

Farmers were interviewed to understand their perception up on the effectiveness of modern ginger management practices to prevent the incidence of disease on their farm, (Table 9), about 98 % of the household heads were skeptical about the importance of modern methods.

4.5 Technological support from woreda agricultural and rural development office

4.5.1 Crop rotation

Table 10. Farmers response to apply crop rotation and protect the plowing material from contamination

Advise gotten Kebeles Over all percentage total Gemesha Bugae Walana Respond

To use crop rotation and 35 17 37 89 87.3 leave the land to 2-3 years

To protect plots and 5 3 5 13 12.7 plowing material from contamination

Total 40 20 42 102 100

4.6. Socio-Economic impact of Ginger bacterial wilt on farmer’s livelihood According to our study, with communities across three kebeles indicated that ginger production is decreasing in their respective areas over years and the disease affect the livelihood of farmers significantly (Appendix IV,V). we asked the farmers how much their livelihood affected by the disease, and impact on their household income,100% of farmers answered that their income decreased(Appendix IV).and as a result of this their livelihoods affect significantly in all aspects.

As stated in (Table11-12) both younger and intermediate age group farmers not implement modern methods except one model farmer out of 102 house hold heads; and; younger age group (20-40)farmers are less likely to participate in the implementation of integrated cultivation management practices(28.4%) and disease controlling than

intermediate age group households (41-64) ; they were implement about (38.2%) .

Table.11: Age of house hold and implementation of ginger cultivation practices Ginger cultivation management practices (% of HHH) Variables Total % Count Traditional Modern Integrating

20 – 40 0 0 28.4 29 28.4

41 – 64 27.5 1 38.2 68 66.7

Age >65 4.9 0 0 5 4.9 Age group Total 32.4 1 66.6 102 100

As stated in (Table 11)both younger and intermediate age group farmers not implement modern methods except one model farmer out of 102 house hold heads ;and younger age group (20-40)farmers are less likely to participate in the implementation of integrated cultivation management practices(28.4%) and disease controlling than intermediate age group households (41-64) ; they were implement about (38.2%) . This was due to the fact that younger age group farmers have engaged in different types of off-farm activities such as for education, small business, daily labor, migration (seasonal, neighboring, illegal international migration)and other sources of income to maximize their capitals instead of investing in farm conservation practices. From our survey, we understand that aged house hold head (>65) implement the indigenous cultivation practices they refused to applied modern and integrated methods and not accept.

Table 12: Educational status of household head and implementation of Ginger cultivation

Variable Ginger cultivation management practices Total Indigenous Modern Integrating

% of % of % of HHH Count % HHH HHH Educ Illiterate 4.9 0 2.9 8 7.8

27 ationa Learned grade 1- 40.2 0 42.2 84 82.4 l 6 status Learned grade 7- 0 0 8.8 9 8.8 \ 12 Learned above 0 1 0 1 1 12 Total 45.1 1 53.9 102 100

Educational status of house hold is the main factor that affects implementation of modern methods and controlling ginger bacterial wilt. As (Table 12) indicates, out of the total 8 illiterates,(4.9%) of house hold implement indigenous methods and 2.9% implement integrated methods; and 82.4% of house hold educated from (1-6),40.2% implement traditional methods and 42.2% used integrating methods and 0% for modern methods; out of the total 8.8% of house hold learned from (7-12), all of them used integrating methods of ginger cultivation practices. And only 1% of house hold (model farmer) implements modern ginger cultivation management practice (Table 11).

5. DISCUSSION In this present study, we tried to evaluate the socio-economic impact of ginger bacterial wilt on farmers livelihood particularly in Kacha bira woreda, KambataTembaro zone. The socio-economic impact of ginger bacterial wilt was assessed by taking 102 households from 3 kebeles,(nine villages).As we surveyed from woreda Agricultural office and crop expertise, in the study area from the beginning of 2005 E.C, due to the incidence of ginger bacterial wilt productivity was decreased by 40 % and in the meantime the production is decreased by 37% due to this especially from 2006 E.C the total ginger land coverage, productivity, and production per quintal decreased(Table.4).

Similar study have been carried out by kifelew et al. (2015), on ginger bacterial wilt incidence in major ginger growing areas of the country and laboratory work have been done to identify the causal agent of ginger bacterial wilt and the diseases were found distributed in all ginger growing areas and the loss were estimated up to 100%.

According to our survey,98.04% of interviewed farmers confirmed that they have obtained support from woreda agricultural office and crop expertise only to identify the symptom and nature of the disease (Appendix V).During focus group discussion the key informants also described that indicators of the disease on their farm can easily be identified. According to the farmers and key informants, the indicators of diseases are yellowing, curling and wilting of the leaves and stem. These symptoms could spread within 3-4 months and result in decrease quality and yield of the ginger in the study area. The long-term effect of the disease is its ability to infect the soil which is also confirmed in our study in a field experiment (Table 5).

Considering the devastating role of the disease on ginger prodcutioon, the worera agricultural office advice the farmers to use crop rotation farming practices and control the disease. Of the total farmers considered in the study, 87.3% practices the crop rotation practices and somehow control the disease (Table 9-Appendix V). Farmers’ choose crop rotation based on their personal preference, agro-climatic condition and suitability of the soil type of farm plot for the chosen crops. According to the key informant discussion, major crop rotation system practiced by farmers in the study area were cereals to cereals The remaining 12.7% of the farmers practices both crop rotation and protect the soil from contamination source. Planting of different crops on the field in rotation can inhibit the disease spread, transmission, increase soil nutrients and crop yields. On the other hand, if

29 the same crop (ginger) is grown on the same land frequently it may develop and stimulate the disease spread capacity and its adaptation to the environment. Thus, crop rotation and leaving the land from two to three years by planting other crops or cultivating ginger every three years and also protecting the plowing materials from contamination before using can be taken as a means to control the spread of the disease.

Trend of farmers ginger cultivation practices in study area showed that 32.4% of house hold implement traditional method and 66.6% of farmers applied integrated methods and only 1% of house hold apply modern methods (Table.11).

The key informants also indicated that farmers were advices to avoid weeds and plow their farm every three weeks. Thus, interviewed household said that their ginger production achievement or effectiveness was mainly limited by bacterial wilt. In general, traditional methods has a lot of drawbacks such as low crop production, increased disease prevalence, low farmers’ income and elevate food insecurity. So, majority of the farmers tends to use integrated methods to limit the bacterial wilt. Male households spent much time and labor in engaging on farm than the female counterpart implementing integrated methods. On the other hand, female head households are active participants in weed controlling management take care of children in home. According to key informants and experts’ view from Woreda agricultural department, in most cases modern soil management practices were constructed by active participation of local government through Productive Safety Net Program and this program provide financial support mostly to female household heads those from low income groups; due to this they were not to be more aware and involved in introduced ginger cultivation methods than male households.

According to the DA’S and crop expertise, some farmers still applying traditional/integrated methods and used local varieties rather that modern methods. This is because, local varieties had low productivity but it had spicier in terms of taste than the introduced. However, the farmers were not willing to follow the standard planting package of the modern methods. Due to this the disease prevalence rate increased significantly in the study area.

In our study area only 1% of the farmers (model farmer) had very good understanding and awareness about the disease and implementation of modern cultivation management practices relatively with the others. Also we asked DA’s about their perception on

30 implementing modern methods have contribution directly or indirectly to control the disease prevalence?(Apendix II).They answered that “modern ginger cultivation practice such as selecting resistant varieties, applying the standard(the weight of plant, the size, the depth of soil, space b/n plant, and rows) of cultivation or (the so called ‘packages’),monitoring the plowing materials from contamination, applying crop rotation are more or less implemented in the area but still there is limitations; also there is no any technological support from different Agricultural Research Center, from different stakeholders, about ginger Bacterial wilt unlike that of other crops. Besides some farmers not willingly or voluntarily implement introduced method and agreed that solution must find to this problem from the Government, NGOS’ and other stakeholders”.

As stated in (Table.11-12) both younger and intermediate age group farmers not implement modern methods except one model farmer out of 102 house hold heads ;and younger age group (20-40)farmers are less likely to participate in the implementation of integrated cultivation management practices(28.4%) and disease controlling than intermediate age group households (41-64) ; they were implement about (38.2%) . This was due to the fact that younger age group farmers have engaged in different types of off- farm activities such as for education, small business, daily labor, migration (seasonal, neighboring, illegal international migration)and other sources of income to maximize their capitals instead of investing in farm conservation practices. From our survey, we understand that aged house hold head (>65) implement the indigenous cultivation practices they refused to applied modern and integrated methods and not accept.

Also there is no any anti-bacterial wilt chemicals is given by the woreda Agricultural office and other stakeholders. Lack of this chemical can be stimulating and aggravating factor for the disease.When the government and any stakeholders pay attention to this disease.

The bacterial wilt of ginger significantly impact on the farmer’s livelihood. According to the farmers’ responses, before five and six years ago, they were producing ginger in bulk and earn large amount of money. They led an improved livelihood with their family. For instance, they built better house and send their children to school. According to key informants, the house hold head were full fill all demands of the family without any problem; they sent their young boy for better job opportunity to South Africa legally by

31 paying 70,000 Eth. Birr at that time (2004-2005E.C).Farmers said ginger for them is like “Cash in bank”. Also they used Ginger for as a spice value day to day in their food, traditional coffee (Known as” Mechabuna”, for treating “cough”, common cold etc. In addition to this, they sold ginger and bought livestock’s instead and they were maximized and increase their values, resources and generally capitals. As a result of a growing population in this area, the average size of land allocated to ginger crop has decreased significantly. According to our survey, the households income gradually decreased and this results crises on farmers livelihood it affect the family members ’education, health, and they cannot ensure food security of the family.Therefore, the house hold head and the family members find other opportunities to survive.

In the study area in the past only a few groups used to be engaged as full-time daily laborers (labor-based livelihood activities) in towns and rural areas, but now there are a large number of people who are actively pursuing this activity year round. Similarly, selling fuel woods and fresh grass (trade-based livelihood activities) was a supporting type of livelihood strategy for a few poor and very poor groups.

Impact on education of house hold, as we discussed above the farmer livelihood before five and six years, they were highly benefited their family, child by covering school fee but now they can’t cover the house rent when they enjoyed high school; so majority of student forced to travel long distance for at least two hours daily; as a result of this most of the time they become late for class and cannot follow the class properly. This affect their education not to be effective therefore they cannot compete with other students and it became boring and totally lost interest for education. So they started to drop out school and find another job opportunities by choosing migration as lone option. This situation is so difficult for the government also; because the government encourages majority of younger age groups to educate and become entrepreneur and serve their country.

Similar studies conducted on migration on the study area and neighboring woredas in the zone supported our findings how migration is a serious problem; during the last ten years or so, the nature and direction of movement and migration of people from the study area and other neighboring ginger, enset-growing districts have changed from local and seasonal to regional and international/cross national boarder (Solomon 2011; Dome et al. 2012; Lolamo 2014).

According to our survey, opportunities for household members, particularly men, migrate to areas where they can pick up seasonal jobs and earn additional income to increase their overall livelihood income .As a result, migration on a permanent, seasonal and circular basis to, Alaba,Guragae(Durgi),Arsi Negele, Shashamene area, Hawassa,Wondo,Wonji, Methahara and Tendaho, kuraz,Afar(Dufti) sugarcane and cotton plantations, upper Awash Agro-processing areas, coffee plantations in Jimma etc.; and the female also migrated to the horticulture projects in Adama- Nazereth, Zeway. The others house hold choice international illegal migration to South Africa, South Sudan females to Beirut, kweit etc. migration to South Africa illegally through Moyali - Keneya. This is very serious and dangerous measurement and majority of the community was victim of illegal brokers and lost their assets,house hold head, young boy and generally their family in desert migration in the study area. This is a serious headache for the government also.

Field experiments to assess the impact of ginger bacterial wilt on ginger plant was carried out in our study also the field experiment result reveals that ginger plant was highly infected by the disease and reduce its production and qualities. To understand the impact of the disease on field experiment, wilt incidence was scored (Table.5). Percent of wilt incidence was calculated in each month (February -July) based on curling, yellowing, wilting symptoms of leaf in each quadrant. In Volvo and Hargema externally infected (both varieties exposed to be infected) or the experimental group, 63.9% and 69.4% of plant was infected respectively.In control group of both Hargema and volvo healthier(by considering the external factors as a constant we treated the plant not contaminated) .Even though we practically followed the standard of planting to protect the healthier plant from contamination and infection, but 25% of was also recorded and the result is shown in (Table7).The maximum yield from both experimental group (Hargema and Volvo Externaly infected), (0.75kg; minimum) Hargama and 19.4% of Volvo infected respectively. Also the impact of ginger bacterial wilt on yield was recorded and evaluated. The impact of the bacterial wilt on yield and (0.91 kg; maximum) respectively.And from control group (hargama and volvo healtheir) yield were obtained and found to be (0.97kg; minimum) and (1.36kg;maximum) was recorded respectively.Further the yield was compared from the expected yield of ginger at normal condition using chi-square test and the result showed that the yield is highly smaller than from the expected value (X2=6.12 ).

From our experiment of evaluating the impact of ginger bacterial wilt on the production, we found that even though we followed the standard of planting(Packages) and we tried to use normal varieties as much as possible, but the plant couldn’t be free from the disease.

6. Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1 Conclusion

In conclusion, in this study we found that, majorities of farmers do not apply and follow the packages or standard of planting starting from plowing the farm, selecting of non contaminated rhizome seed etc and also we found that majorities of farmers not implement modern methods of cultivation and do not have clear awareness about using full ‘packages’ and also they didn’t got much technological support from expertise. Due to this the disease can easily transmitted from any contamination source and the prevalence increased rapidly. As a result of this, the income of the farmers decline and the livelihood of farmers affect significantly and the households find different job opportunities to survive due to the crises especially migrating to different areas. In addition to this, there was no much effort done by all responsible bodies. Ginger bacterial wilt affects the agricultural sector significantly. Above all, farmers are highly discouraged as they cannot get „seed‟(mother rhizome) of a healthy ginger for the immediate future use for ginger production. In general, as the result of the prevalence of the disease, the socioeconomic conditions of the farmers and concerned stakeholders affect significantly. Thus appropriate measure for management of such disease in Ethiopia is becoming mandatory.

6.2 Recommendation

1. Development Agents /DAs/, Subject matter specialist/SMS/, Crop expertise and others have join hands with the farmers in addressing modern cultivation management practice including appropriate agronomic, pre and post-harvest management practices, maintain the quality of product ;also assist farmers to easily identify the incidence of Ginger bacterial wilt and take measure to control and produce quality of product by adding values, and organizing Ginger producers into producers and marketing cooperatives through unions, ECX(Ethiopian Commodities Exchange). 2. The prevalence of the disease result decline of production and loss of many ginger farm and reduce the house hold income. Therefore, the impact of ginger bacterial wilt on crop production and loss of ginger species should be assessed by researchers for the future in the study area. Moreover, Pathogen city test is required to examine the biology, ecology, and epidemiology of the ginger bacteria should also be assessed by researchers. Researchers have to assist farmers in identifying improved varieties with desirable traits, encourage and support farmers to apply new technologies, getting new resistant varieties from research centers, train farmers about the nature of the disease, its symptom, way of transmission briefly in FTC/Farmers Training Center/ collaborated with SMS (Subject Matter Specialists).

3. The severity of the risk of ginger bacterial wilt increases even if integrated management practices were implemented by majority of households in the study area until the attitude of farmers changed to apply introduced methods and new technologies To minimize such problem, the concerned implementing organs should maintain appropriate design and assess the perception, willingness, fitness, of the expert, the methods/practices / that implement to the socioeconomic realities of the farmers, environment before implementation. And they have to make the farmers to stay their land to take appropriate disease controlling and managing measures by themselves and provide technical supports.

4. Zonal, woreda, agricultural office experts, farmers and other concerned NGOs should apply disease controlling management measures in all types of infected areas and farm lands uniformly for reducing ginger bacterial wilt prevalence and advancing crop productivity. In addition, there should be need of formulating appropriate plan and strategies for creating awareness among farmers on the area to avoid the farm from any

36 contaminating source such as; during irrigating the plant, using plowing material, selection of varieties, during cleaning, drying and storing rhizome.

5. Baseline survey at National, Regional, zonal and woreda level is required: A detailed baseline research and survey about anti-Ginger bacterial wilt chemical is needed to understand and document the advantage and its impact on health, soil, environment etc. also investigating another possibilities to eradicate the disease by biological control methods; this method is very good approaches to minimize and reduce risk.

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