Gender and Sports Studies: an Historical Perspective

Movement & Sport Sciences – Science & Motricit´e 86, 15–27 (2014) c Susan J. Bandy, 2014 DOI: 10.1051/sm/2013111

Gender and sports studies: an historical perspective

Susan J. Bandy

College of Education and Human Ecology, Department of Kinesiology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (USA) Received 5 February 2013 – Accepted 27 October 2013 Abstract. In the late 1970s, scholars from North America began to incorporate gender in their critique of contemporary sport, and soon thereafter European sports scholars also embraced gender as a transformative concept in the discipline of Sports Studies. Initially, scholars focused on the female athlete as a subject from a disciplinary perspective. With the inclusion of gender in the 1980s, scholars turned from a “categoric” to a “relational” perspective and gender was thus expanded beyond that of a distinct category and redeﬁned as a dynamic, relational process that introduced new directions, theories, and paradigms for research in Sports Studies as the focus shifted from the female athlete to a cultural critique of sport using interdisciplinary and cultural studies perspectives. Most recently gender has been viewed as both interrelational and intersubjective as scholars began to challenge the universalizing nature of feminism and its uniformity in the 1990s. A paradigmatic shift toward intersectionality emerged and enabled scholars to critique the view that gender was monolithic; rather they purported that it intersects with a number of other dimensions of human experience and identity such as age, ethnicity, race, and social class in sport. This shift encouraged a more trandisciplinary and transnational focus concerning the study of sport. This perspective has paralleled and contributed to the inclusion of such topics as language, power, narrativity, and representation and has yet again transformed the scholarly analysis of sport.

Key words: Gender, sport, history, trandisciplinarity, intersectionality

Résumé. Sport et Genre : une perspective historique. Alafindesann´` ees 1970, les chercheurs d’Amérique du Nord ont commencéàintégrer la notion de genre dans leur critique du sport contemporain. Peu de temps après, les Européens ont également adoptélegenrecommeconceptpourétudier les transformations du sport. Dans un premier temps, les chercheurs se sont concentrés sur l’étude des femmes athlètes en menant des travaux discipli- naires. A` l’issue de l’introduction du concept de genre dans les années 1980, les chercheurs ont fait évoluer le statut de ce concept, d’abord appréhendéentantquecatégorie sociale, pour l’appréhender d’une manière plus large en étudiant les rapports sociaux de sexe. La signification du concept de genre fut donc étendue et redéfinie comme l’étude des rapports sociaux de sexe, permettant ainsi d’envisager de nouvelles directions et d’introduire de nouvelles théories et paradigmes dans les re- cherches. Les objets d’étude se sont alors déplacés. Après s’être concentrés sur l’évolution du sport feminin, les travaux se sont progressivement inscrits dans une histoire culturelle et des perspectives interdisciplinaires. Plus récemment, le genre a étévuà la fois comme analyseur interrelationnel et intersubjectif par l’intermédiaire de travaux visanta ` contester le caractère généralisant du féminisme et de son uniformité dans les années 1990. Un changement paradigmatique vers l’intersectionnalité aémergé et permis aux historiens du sport de critiquer la vision monolithique du genre en intro- duisant de nouvelles dimensions de l’expérience humaine et de l’identité tels que l’âge, l’ethnicité, la race et la classe sociale. Cette évolution s’explique aussi grâcea ` l’introduction de nouveaux objets tels que la langue, la puissance, la narrativitéetlareprésentation, permettant ainsi d’enrichir l’analyse savante du sport.

Mots cl´es : Genre, sport, l’histoire, trandisciplinarity, intersectionnalit´e

A version of this paper was previously as a chapter published in S. Pope & J. Nauright. (2010). Routledge Companion to Sports History. New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.

Article published by EDP Sciences 16 Movement & Sport Sciences – Science & Motricit´e 86 — 2014/4

1 Introduction scholarship includes the largest volume, the most varied examples and interpretation of the subject, and the fullest In 1978, Canadian sport sociologist Ann Hall formally in- 1 elaboration of the theoretical debates concerning gender troduced the concept of “gender” in sport studies in a and sport3. It includes as well the subsequent work done monograph entitled Sport and Gender: A Feminist Per- by European scholars in sports studies. spective on the Sociology of Sport in which she reviewed the sociological research and literature as it related to the 3 female experience in sport and offered a critique of this Considerable work concerning gender and sport has been material from a feminist perspective. Hall’s use of the done by scholars in a number of other countries. For example, term “gender” was, to the best of my knowledge, with- see Trangbæk and Krüger (1999); Pfister (2000), pp. 170−201; out precedent in sports studies, and, in retrospect, her and Hartmann and Pfister (2003). Also for international per- early work seems crucial to the development of sports spectives, see the following: studies because it brought the concept into the discourse Argentina: Liana Morelli. Mujeres Deportistas (Buenos Aires: El Planeta, 1990). Australia: John Daly. Feminae and called for a feminist perspective, which would begin Ludens ( Adelaide: Openbook Publishers, 1994). Canada: to significantly alter research in sport studies. With the Jean Cochrane, et al. Women in Canadian Sports (Toronto: work of Hall and others, who began to use the concept Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1977); M. Ann Hall and Dorothy “gender” rather than “sex”. Gender was used to reject bi- Richardson. Fair Ball: Towards Sex Equality in Canadian ological determinism and to view the behavioral, cultural, Sport ( Ottawa, ON: The Canadian Advisory Council on or psychological traits typically associated with one sex the Status of Women, 1982); Laura Robinson. She Shouts as socially constructed. The focus of research began to She Scores: Canadian Perspectives on Women and Sport shift away from the female athlete toward the concept (Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishers, 1997); and of “gender” and later to a critique of sport and physical Phillip White and Kevin Young, Eds. Sport and Gender 2 culture, as I have argued elsewhere (Bandy, 2004a) .As in Canada (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); M. I will attempt to show in this paper, the concept of “gen- Ann Hall, The Girl and the Game: A History of Women’s der” would be further expanded beyond that of a distinct Sport in Canada (Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press, category and redefined as a dynamic, relational process 2002); China: Fan Hong. Footbinding, Feminism and Free- that introduced new directions, theories, and paradigms dom: The Liberation of Women’s Bodies in Modern China for research in the discipline of sports studies. Moreover, (London: Frank Cass, 1997) and Jinxia Dong. Women, the inclusion of the concept of “gender” – along with such Sport and Society in Modern China: Holding Up More concepts as race, social class, and ethnicity, as well as a than Half the Sky (London: Frank Cass, 2003). Denmark: turn toward postmodernism and deconstruction (and the Inge Kryger Pedersen. Den excellente præstation. Elites- introduction of theories of hegemony and power) – fur- port, kvinder og Karriere (Sociologisk Institut, Københavns ther encouraged the study of such topics as globalization, Universitet, 1998); Thing, Lone Friis. Sport – en emo- tional aff˚are. Kvinder, holdsport og aggression ( Sociologisk post-colonialism, space, and the media that moved the de- Institut, Københavns Universitet, 1999); and Alice Riis velopment of the discipline of sports studies from a disci- Bach. Kvinder p˚a banen: sport, køn og medier (København: plinary to an interdisciplinary focus. Most recently “gen- Narayana Press, 2002). France: Fran¸coise Laget, et al. Le der” seems to have been viewed as an interrelational con- Grand Livre du Sport (Bellville-s-Saone: SIGEFA, 1982) and cept by scholars, and this perspective has paralleled and Pierre Arnaud and Theirry Terret. Histoire du sport féminin contributed to the inclusion of such concepts and topics ( Paris: L’Harmattan, 1996). Germany: Gertrud Pfister. as language, narrativity, power, and representation with Frau und Sport (Frankfurt/M.: Fischer, 1980); Marie-Luise a more recent transdisciplinary and transnational focus Klein. Frauensport in der Tagespress (Bochum: Studien- in the study of sport (Bandy, 2004b, pp. 17−39). A “cul- verl. Brockmeyer, 1986); Birgit Palzkill. Die Entwicklung les- tural turn” in many disciplines at this time spawned a bischer Identität im Sport ( Bielefeld: Frauenoffensive, 1990); focus on cultural anthropology, cultural history, and cul- and Gertrud Pfister. Frauensport in der DDR (Köln: Strauß, tural sociology as well as the creation of new fields of 2002). Hungary: Levelekiné, R. Matild, Ed. ANöés a Sport study including Cultural Studies and African American (Budapest: TTT, 1963). Italy: Giana Maria Madella. Atleta Studies. al femminile: la donna e lo sport: storia di un’ emancipazione The essay begins with an examination of scholarship difficile (Como: Editnova, 1979); Alessandro Salvinni. Identita in North America and Great Britain and shows the ori- Femminile e Sport ( La Nuova Italia, date of publication un- gin of the study of gender and sport and notes that this known); Angela Teja. Educazione fisica al femminile (SSS Ed.: Roma 1995), and Gigliola Gori. Female Bodies, Sport, Italian 1 I am using the term sports studies to include the various Fascism: Submissive Women and Strong Mothers (London: names that are and have been used by departments that are Frank Cass Publishers, 2004); Norway: Gerd Von der Lippe, devoted to the study of sport and physical culture. Among ed. Kvinner og Idrett: Fra Myte til Realitet (Oslo, Gyldendal the more common of these are: exercise science, idræt,human Norsk Forlag, 1982). Spain: Mujer y Deporte (Madrid: Min- movement studies, kinesiology, physical education, and sport isterio de Cultura, 1986). United Kingdom: Kathleen E. science. McCrone. Playing the Game: Sport and the Physical Emanci- 2 For a more detailed analysis of this transition from “sex” pation of English Women, 1870−1941, (Lexington: University to “gender” see Birrell (1988)andHall(1988). Press of Kentucky, 1988). Gender and sports studies: an historical perspective 17

The principal focus of this scholarship reflected the the social organization of the relationship between the concerns of that which has been termed “Second Wave sexes. Further Scott argues that the word denoted a re- Feminism”, which began in the 1960’s and included a cri- jection of the biological determinism implicit in the use of tique of the societal roles of women, equality of opportu- such terms as “sex” or “sexual difference” and that per- nity in sport, the emancipation of women and their bodies haps most importantly, with the use of “gender”, feminist in sport, and obstacles which prohibited the full partici- scholarship “would fundamentally transform disciplinary pation of females in sport. As was the case of feminism in paradigms”. general, the focus broadened to include a range of issues As research concerning the development of disciplines including media representations of the female athlete and reveals, they are dynamic structures that undergo con- sexuality. tinuous change (King & Brownell, 1966; Arthur Koestler, 1964). Around the middle of the 20th century, disciplinary 2 The introduction of gender into boundaries began to blur as methods, approaches, or the discourse in sports studies frameworks known as interdisciplinarity and multidisci- plinarity soon began to emerge. At approximately the The introduction of “gender” into the discourse in sports same time, the discipline of women’s studies began to de- studies in the 1970’s reflected and depended on the con- velop. According to Aino Saarinen, feminist researchers vergence of a number of interrelated factors: the introduc- were inspired by Thomas S. Kuhn’s theories in The Struc- tion of “gender” into the discourse of the academy by fe- ture of Scientific Revolutions, in which crises in prevail- male scholars, especially in women’s studies and women’s ing paradigms were resolved by the emergence of a new history; the development of disciplines generally and the research frame (Saarinen, 1992, p. 4). Such a context academic development of sports studies specifically, which provided fertile ground for the acceptance of the use of included an emphasis placed upon theory (as opposed to “gender”, and its use slowly began to transform disci- practice); second wave feminism and the contemporane- plines of knowledge. At the same time, rather dramatic ous increase in the participation of women in sport and changes in the discipline of sports studies began to ap- an increase in the number of female scholars in sports pear as American scholars called for a transformation of studies; the influence of postmodernism and deconstruc- their own discipline (Brooks, 1981;Henry,1964;Kenyon, tion on the development of theory in sports studies (most 1968;Loy,1968;Nixon,1967;Rarick,1967). According to notably Marxist theory and the work of Italian Antonio these scholars, it was imperative that sports studies (then Gramsci and French theorists Pierre Bourdieu and Michel known as physical education) become an “academic disci- Foucault), and, lastly, a general interest in the body in pline” (rather than an applied field or pedagogical disci- the academy at large. pline) and to do so, theoretical work was necessary. In the 4 Following the distinctions made between “sex” and context of this development, the various sub-disciplines “gender” by Robert J. Stoller (1968) and the influence of emerged, and the need for more theoretical work opened an emerging feminist scholarship in which the distinctions the way for importing theories from other “parent” disci- between male and female, nature and culture, and sex plines such as history, sociology, etc. Women’s issues and and gender were being questioned–and dualistic, hierar- the concept of “gender” were then embraced by feminists chical forms of knowledge challenged–scholars in women’s in a dramatically changing discipline of sports studies. 5 studies began to incorporate “gender” in the 1970s .Ac- In the 1960s, “second wave feminism” emerged and cording to historian Gisela Boch (1991, p. 7), the concept brought with it political activism that focused on gain- of “gender” was introduced “... as a social, cultural, po- ing full social and economic equality in Western nations litical, and historical category, in order to express the where women had already gained most legal rights. Sec- insight that women’s subordination, inferiority and pow- ond wave feminism produced the context for the emer- erlessness are not dictated by nature, but are social, cul- gence of the women’s sports movement in North America tural, political and historical constructions”. As another and Western Europe and produced a steady growth in historian, Joan Wallach Scott (1987, p. 153), explains, women’s sport at both the national and international lev- feminists began to use “gender” as a way of referring to els. While more and more women were entering the sport- 4 ing arena, feminist analysis of sport “(...) was growing due See Boch in Offen, Pierson, R.R., & Rendell, J. (1991, to the emergence of a small but critical mass of women p. 7) who suggests that the dichotomous distinction between sex and gender is largely specific to the English language. As scholars trained in academic disciplines and excited by the is the case with the German, Italian, and Turkish languages, potential of feminist theory”, as Susan Birrell notes. By there is no term to designate sex and make the distinction the early 1980s, it was apparent that feminist researchers between sex and gender in the Danish language. Therefore the were engaged in forging connections between feminist the- term sex, when used in the essay, will be kept in its English ory, sporting institutions, and the social practice of sport form and will be used to designate the biological and gender or as Ann Hall writes about her own experiences: “As to be understood as the social and cultural. feminists, our theory, politics, and practices are inextri- 5 Refer to the following books that were among the more cably linked” (Birrell, 1988, p. 477). influential books during this early period: Oakley (1972); Patricia Vertinsky (1999)andAnnHall(1996) attest Firestone (1970); Chodorow (1968); and Gilligan (1982). to the importance of the convergence of developments in 18 Movement & Sport Sciences – Science & Motricité 86 — 2014/4 feminist thought, postmodern theory, and critical theory 3 The female athlete as subject: disciplinary in sports studies, particularly with regard to sport history perspectives and sport sociology respectively. According to the exten- sive analysis of Alan Ingham and Peter Donnelly, the si- As Joan Wallach Scott (1987) claims, the first approach multaneous convergence of three currents of thought – the to a rewriting of women’s history has been based on the Gramscian, the poststructuralist, and the Foucauldian – assumption that women are indeed different from men became the theoretical tools of sports feminists. The work and have different experiences than men, which leads to of Gramsci was useful concerning arguments about pa- a writing of “her-story” (Howell, 1982). The work of the triarchy and enabled a focus on hegemonic masculinity first female scholars in sports studies similarly noted that and sport; post-structuralism provided an analysis of the the focus of the research had been “on sportsmen and social construction of gender and sexuality and its repre- men’s sport” (Gerber, Felshin, Berlin, & Wyrick, 1974) sentation in the media; and Foucault’s work concerning and they then began their research with a focus upon power – as hierarchically ordered, possessed by persons, sportswomen and women’s sport. What underlay such an and enmeshed in networks variously asserted through approach was the basic assumption that the female ath- modern institutions and manifested most concretely at lete was indeed different and her experiences in sport were the level of the body – informed the discourse and en- different as well. gaged sports feminists (Ingham & Donnelly, 1990). By the 1970s, interest in women and sport was evi- Developments concerning the inclusion of “gender” in dent in the newly emerging sub-disciplines of sports stud- the discourse were also furthered by an academic interest ies. Following the demand for theoretical work in sports in the body that became apparent in the 1960s. By the studies, female scholars in the discipline opened the way 1970s, there was an expanding interest in the body as a for a more scholarly approach to the study of women in topic of teaching and research as noted by Mike Feather- sport. Some of the most influential work was done by stone and Bryan S. Turner (1993) in the introduction of sport philosopher Eleanor Metheny and sport psycholo- the first issue of Body and Society. “Bodies are in” noted gist Dorothy V. Harris. Metheny exposed the ideological, Arthur W. Frank in a review article in Theory, Culture & symbolic, and mythic nature of sport, which foreshad- Society in 1990. Although this interest was a result of a owed the feminist critique of sport that would eventually diverse range of theoretical traditions, many scholars at- appear7. Harris focused on the distinctive nature of the tribute it to the influence of the work of French historian female athlete and incorporated a variety of psychologi- and social critic Michel Foucault, the contradictory im- cal concepts in the study of female athletes. Harris’ work pulses of modernity, and to feminism (Frank, 1990). Fur- provided the foundation for the beginnings of theoretical ther, given the emphasis upon theory in the discipline of work within the sub-discipline of sport psychology with sports studies, as well as the influence of postmodern the- the adaptation of the female apologetic and the notion ories, Foucault, and feminism, a wide-ranging interest in of psychological androgyny to the sporting context. In the body was shared by many scholars in sport studies6. particular, the concept of androgyny, in retrospect, can As Hall writes, the work of Foucault was useful because it be seen as a transitional concept that would enable the regarded the body as an historical and culturally specific concept of “gender” to be incorporated into sports stud- entity and allowed the conception of the sexualized body ies. In 1972, Harris hosted the first conference devoted to without “positing an original sexual difference or fixed women in sport at Pennsylvania State University, in the biological essence” (Hall, 1996, p. 53). Foucault’s work United States, “Women and Sport: A National Research concerning the social construction of bodies through dis- Conference”, and the research presented at this confer- course appealed to sports feminists as they sought to un- ence revealed an expanding interest concerning the psy- derstand the construction of the sporting body through chological, sociological, physiological, and biomechanical modern sport. With the introduction of the concept of considerations of women in sport. “gender”, sports scholars, largely using constructivist the- With the publication of Ellen Gerber, et al. (1974), ories, came to understand the sporting body as a “gen- scholars introduced additional perspectives from history, dered” body. sociology, and biophysiology to the fledgling literature on Much of the research that has been done concern- the female athlete. This book was of particular signifi- ing gender and sport has been done in the context of cance in that it offered the first feminist perspectives of three conceptual or theoretical frameworks that have sport by examining the social construction of woman and been used by many feminists, especially sports sociolo- femininity, as well as the symbolic aspect of sport, years gists and sports historians, in the past twenty-five years. before ideas concerning social construction of women and These will be discussed in the following sections in which sport entered the discourse. At approximately the same the focus will be on the assumptions, theories, concepts, time Carole Oglesby’s collection of essays, Women and and methods used rather than the conclusions that have sport: From myth to reality and Hall’s previously men- been drawn. tioned monograph also brought a feminist critique to 6 A few examples that show the diverse and on-going interest in the body include: Hovden (1983); Greneau (1993); Park 7 Important work before Metheny and Harris was also done. (1994); Hall (1994); and Bale and Philo (1997). For a discussion of this work see Birrell (1988). Gender and sports studies: an historical perspective 19 sport research. With this work, “gender” entered the dis- J.A. Mangan (1987) indicated a turning point concerning course and began to destabilize concepts such as sex and research on women’s sports history, as Vertinsky (1994, sex roles. p. 13) suggests, marking the trend toward the use of fem- Sports historians from Canada, the United Kingdom inist analysis of sport and examining the crucial period of and the United States, provided additional feminist cri- the formation of attitudes and practices concerning sport tiques of sport and frameworks of an inclusive, relational that were predominant in the 20th century. nature rather than frameworks based on the notion of The research of these and other scholars was of criti- sexual difference. Nancy Struna called for the inclusion of cal importance for it brought the female athlete and her gender as a “fundamental historical variable” that should sporting experiences into the discourse and then called lie “at the center of theoretical debates and methodolog- for a feminist analyses of sport. Moreover, the questions ical innovations” in sports history (Struna, 1984, p. 120). that this research raised required more complex analyses Patricia Vertinsky’s (1994) work concerning exercise, the that would provide further insight concerning the gen- physical capabilities of women, and the medical profession dered nature of modern sport. Thus ‘gender’ entered the further placed gender at the center of historical research discourse and began to destabilize concepts such as sex and opened the way for research concerning the biological and sex roles. basis of women’s exclusion from sport and the social con- The assumption of difference, upon which this early struction of the female body. Jennifer Hargreaves (1994) research was based, was problematic yet fruitful for fu- also forged ideas concerning the social production of gen- ture research. On one hand, it presented the notion of der in and through sport, linking social constructivist the- sexual difference and reinforced essentialist ideas concern- ories to the patriarchal character of modern sport. ing females, which had prevented their entry into sport The historical work of this early period also reflected and would later be addressed as a political issue concern- international perspectives as well as interest in various ing equality in sport (English, 1978; Postow, 1980, 1983; historical periods, as evidenced by the publication of Wentz, 1981; Young, 1979). It raised the age-old ques- two collections of papers that were presented at the tion about dualistic tending views that both feminism and International Congress on Women and Sport held in postmodernism would address. For feminists, engagement Rome, Italy, in 1980. Of vital importance were those de- with such oppositions as nature versus culture, body ver- voted to the historical aspects of women and sport, in sus mind, and private versus public, in which women were which scholars from several countries (Australia, Canada, identified with the former, was critical in understanding Egypt, England, Germany, Israel, and Japan) explored the exclusion of women from sport. As the research of this the participation of women in sport in various histor- and later periods revealed, arguments for the exclusion of ical periods including ancient Greece, the Renaissance, women and sport were supported by such dominant du- and 19th –and20th centuries Egypt and Germany. The alistic views. On the other hand, such reigning assump- work of international scholars such as Reet Howell, Max tions and enduring dualisms evoked important questions Howell, and Jennifer Hargreaves, as well as American that could only be addressed through the incorporation scholar Betty Spears, fostered an interest in women and of a revised concept of “gender” into the scholarly dis- sport in classical Greece. More recently, classical scholar course. Accompanying this revision was a cultural stud- Bettina Kratzmüller of Austria has continued to refine ies approach, a concern with sociological and historical the scholarship concerning women and sport in classical issues that brought a critique of modern sport and so- Greece (Kratzmüller, 2008). In other countries of Con- ciety, and the introduction of postmodern, feminist, and tinental Europe, Gertrud Pfister’s Frau und Sport was deconstructionist theories. published in 1980 and was among the earliest books devoted to women and sport, soon to be followed by Nor- wegian Gerd von der Lippe’s Kvinner og Idrett: Fra Myte 4 From the female athlete to cultural til Realitet in 1982 and Leena Liane’s Kropp, idrott och critique: Interdisciplinary and relational kvinnohistoria in 1991 in Finland. The work of these and perspectives other European scholars placed the female athlete at the center of the developing work in sports history and lay the The study of gender brought an examination of women foundation for comparative and synoptic work concern- and men in relation to one another in sport and being the history of women and sport such as Uriel Simri’s gan to destabilize the discourse, moving it away from A Concise World History of Women’s Sports (1983) and a focus on sex and binary modes of thought toward Allen Guttmann’s Women and Sports: A History (1991), an interdisciplinary focus in the various sub-disciplines8. which also appeared in these early years. In what Hall (1996) refers to as a turn from “categoric” A more expansive, international view of the female to “relational” research, feminist research turned away athlete was also offered by Roberta J. Park (1985), who from a focus on the female athlete toward sport and provided a model for other scholars to follow when ex- sporting culture and thus introduced a second approach amining “gender” more closely from a transatlantic perspective in order to understand how sport is depicted 8 Of particular importance here is Costa and Guthrie as the “natural” arena of males. Her later work with (1994). 20 Movement & Sport Sciences – Science & Motricité 86 — 2014/4 to the study of “gender”. Conceiving gender as a pro- transformation of sports, an approach taken by several cess and a relational concept, scholars began to approach other scholars. Sport psychologist Dianne Gill noted the research from interdisciplinary and cultural studies per- importance of a feminist perspective and advocated that spectives incorporating a number of theories from a vari- research in sport psychology should be placed in a broader ety of disciplines in their analyses. As Scott (1987, p. 41) cultural context. In 1992, Gill (p. 156) wrote that “sound suggests, gender, when understood in relational terms, sport psychological research on gender beliefs and pro- requires scholars to ask about the implications of def- cesses within the social context of sport and exercise could initions and laws that apply to one group for another advance our overall understanding of gender and sport”. group, what do the comparative location and activities In 1984, Nancy Struna (p. 130) noted the limitations of men and women reveal about each other, and what within women’s sports history that employed paradigms do representations of sexual difference suggest about the that had been used to examine men’s modern sport. She structure of social, economic, and political authority. Us- argued, “[t]he history of sportswomen in the twentieth ing the work of Foucault, Gramsci, and postmodern and century also raises innumerable questions about relation- feminist theories, sports scholars began to deconstruct ships between sport and society and why people became modern sport, arguing that “sporting practices are histor- involved in varying degrees in sport”. As Vertinsky (1994) ically produced, socially constructed, and culturally de- notes in her review of women’s sports history, Struna ad- fined to serve the interests and needs of powerful groups vocated the exploration of such themes as conflict, iden- in society”, as Hall (1996, p. 11) later wrote. In a most tity, and the relativity of equality. In 1991, Struna focused fertile time of sports studies research, the discipline be- on both sport and other recreational forms according to came much more focused on research and concepts such consumption and production, which allows sport histori- as globalization, post-colonialism, power, hegemony, mas- ans to more fully examine the dimensions of gender re- culinity, the socially constructed body, and the media be- lations. Later in 1996, she continued to integrate gender gan to dominate the discourse. It was within the sub- relations into the “broader context of relationships be- disciplines of sport sociology and sport history, however, tween labor and leisure”. In so doing, she framed sport where one finds the use of “gender” as a process most more broadly and thereby more thoughtfully explored the fruitful for research during the 1980s and 1990s. physically recreative and sporting practices of women of Feminist scholars in sports, as was the case with post- the 17th and 18th centuries and revealed the relational modernists, began to challenge the anthropocentric def- nature of gender and sport to the broader historical con- inition of knowledge and to critique the epistemology text. Catriona M. Parratt (1998, p. 9) similarly called of modernity, specifically its rationalism and dualism as for an expanded focus of sport history beyond that of masculine modes of thought that serve to legitimate a the hierarchical, contemporary understanding of sports patriarchal society9. Researchers also began to formulate as “male, modern, and athletic” to encompass a more di- clear and coherent challenges to the conceptual frame- verse range of activities and the writing of women’s sports works in the various sub-disciplines of sport studies. Us- history rather than the history of women in sports. ing new approaches to research, scholars began to recog- A focus on power and the processes of domination nize the autonomy of sport in society and, therefore, its and subordination, as these relate to gender relations in power of legitimation. The use of analytic cultural criti- sport, as well as critiques of the place of sport in cultural cism, in particular, enabled scholars to examine the ide- productions, brought the body into the discourse (Cole, ological processes concerning gender differences in sport, 1993). Following the early work of Eleanor Metheny con- and, as Paul Willis (1982, p. 123) argued, “achievement cerning the symbolic nature of sport, Jennifer Hargreaves particularly strengthens male identity; it is assumed that more explicitly linked the symbolic nature of the female sports success is success at being masculine”, and there- body with the patriarchal character of modern sport. The fore “Physical achievement and masculine activity are inclusion of the body in the discourse also revealed two taken to be the same”. Willis’ work further clarified the additional areas of research that were related to an inter- legitimative power of sport in terms of an ideology of dif- est in the body: sexuality and masculinity. In 1981, Ann ference and female inferiority and was among the first Hall introduced the idea of sexual identity in sport and to portray sport as having been socially constructed and this later would be understood as a barrier to the par- mediated to show that the patriarchal nature of sport is ticipation of women in sport. The research of Canadian natural. Helen Lenskyj further elaborated the importance of male In addition to analytic cultural criticism, Mary A. control of female sexuality and its relationship to the Boutilier and Lucinda SanGiovanni (1983) introduced the exclusion of women from sport10. Lenskyj was among the first analysis of alternative feminist frameworks – liberal first to draw attention to the relationships among ideol- feminism, Marxist feminism, radical feminism, and so- ogy, female sexuality, and sports participation by linking cialist feminism – into the discourse. They questioned the institution of male sports and called for a radical 10 Hall’s Hall Sport, sex roles, and sex identity (1981)isper- haps the first text to address issues of sexual identity in the 9 For a more detailed discussion of the relationship between discourse on sport. Lenskyj has continued her work with sport feminism and postmodernism, see Hekman (1990). and sexuality in her recent book (2003). Gender and sports studies: an historical perspective 21 the anatomical, physiological, social, and expressive di- and later expanded his analysis to Europe with Making mensions of female sexuality11,12. Susan K. Cahn’s work European masculinity: sport, Europe, and gender (2000) (1994), which extended the critique beyond that of sport and “Manufactured” masculinity: Making imperial man- to the American culture at large to show that women’s liness, morality and militarism (2012). French scholar efforts for over a century in sport revealed the history of Thierry Terret connected rugby to masculinity in Learn- gender relations in American culture. Equally important ing to be a man: French rugby and masculinity (1999), is that Cahn’s book brought the subject of homophobia and he and Arnaud Waquet – like their European coun- and her inclusion (perhaps for the first time) of the ques- terparts – linked sport and masculinity to the experience tion of the De Beauvoirian “other” in women’s sport – of war and politics (Terret, 2011;Waquet,2011). Some- black women and lesbians – into the discourse. Cahn fur- what later, Julie Gaucher, another French scholar, em- ther clarified the notion of sport as contested terrain not- braced the connections between race, masculinity, sport, ing, as few feminist works have, that sport, in addition to and representations of these intersections in French liter- being a site of female oppression, is also a site of female ature, again a different approach to the study of gender liberation (Cahn, 1994)13,14. and sport (Gaucher, 2009). Feminist critiques concerning sex roles, sexuality, and The research concerning sexuality also brought dis- the patriarchal and sexist character of modern sport also cussions of the marginalization of women of color and brought a focus on masculinity, and thus male scholars gay men in sport as well an exploration of homophobia began to critique modern sport as an activity formed in sport (Connell, 1987). Of considerable note in under- as a consequence of a crisis in 19th century masculin- standing the relationship between gender and sex and ity. The early work of D.F. Sabo and R. Runfola in 1980 with a focus on the experience of non-elite level ath- was followed by critical analyses that used gender as a letes – instead of elite level sport – is Brian Pronger’s fundamental category of analysis. Much of this work ad- work (1990). Extending the exploration of homosexuality dressed the nature of the relationship among sport, men, to a broader understanding of the relationship between and the gender order and the way in which sport has sex and gender, Pronger’s work foreshadowed the work been used in the construction of masculinity, which is that would begin somewhat later as scholars sought to oppressive of women and repressive of men15. Slightly deconstruct gender in an attempt to understand the rela- later, European scholars also contributed to the research tionships among sexuality, sex, and gender, using a new concerning sport and masculinity with different perspec- feminist paradigm expressed as intersubjectivity. tives, often linking sport and masculinity to nationalism Viewing “gender” as a process and with a critique and militarism, which differentiated it from research in turned toward the contributions of sport and other insti- the United States. Danish scholar Hans Bonde published tutions to the on-going domination and sub-ordination of Mandighed og Sport (Masculinity and Sport) in 1991 and women, scholars began to critique the institutionalization later with his work concerning Niels Bukh, gymnastics of discrimination in modern sport. Recognizing sport as and masculinity in Denmark forged a connection between an institution that developed, performed, and rewarded politics, masculinity, and sport. In the United Kingdom, discrimination against women was of critical importance J.A. Mangan initially connected gender and sport with in examining other institutions such as the media and analyses of education of British men in public schools politics, which promoted similar ideologies of difference.

11 Of notable importance is the socio-historical analysis of Vertinsky (1994) is also an important work in revealing the Jennifer Hargreaves (1994)inwhichshenotedthelackof power of the relationship between discourse, societal views of use of gender theories in sport and offered a most compre- women, and their participation in sport. 12 hensive analysis of the gendered nature of modern sport The essays in Mangan & Park’s (1987) added to the lit- and the institutionalization of discrimination in modern erature concerning the social construction of femininity and sport. Scholars became interested as well in the ways in its relation to the exclusion of women from sport. In addition, which institutions promoted sexual difference in sport, the book offers the first comparative and transatlantic perspectives concerning women in sport with essays devoted to and researchers soon took up an interest in the media Great Britain, Commonwealth, and American perspectives. and the “importance of discourses, representations, and 13 ideologies in naturalizing masculine dominance in sport- After Birrell and Cole’s work introduced homophobia, Pat 16 Griffin published Strong women, deep closets: Lesbians and ing practices” (McKay & Huber, 1992, p. 207) . homophobia in sport (1998). Research concerning “gender” of the 1980s and 1990s, 14 The work of Cahn and others, concerning sexuality has most particularly in sport history and sport sociology, been continued in Scraton and Anne (2002). was important for the academic development of the dis- 15 The earliest work concerning masculinity was done by cipline of sports studies for many reasons. Through a Donald F. Sabo and Ross Runfola (1980). This pioneering text gendered analysis, scholars embraced postmodernism and was followed by several others; among the more influential of feminism and brought a much-needed critique of mod- which are Messner & Sabo (1990); Pronger (1990); Messner ern sport. The feminist, interdisciplinary, and cultural (1992); Messner & Sabo (1994); and McKay et al. (2000), which offers perspectives of scholars from Canada, Australia, 16 See Creedon (1994) the first book devoted exclusively to the United States, and England. women, sport, and the media. 22 Movement & Sport Sciences – Science & Motricité 86 — 2014/4 studies approach of this period also challenged the hege- were also determinants of female gender, and they deter- monic nature of knowledge in the discipline (of its theo- mined it differently for white middle-class women, women ries and paradigms of analysis as well as the relation be- of color, and poor women. tween the various knowledges and methodologies in the Feminists responded with an analytical tool known sub-disciplines). Such research “decentered the center”, as “intersectionality”, which Jennifer C. Nash (2008)re- encouraged a movement across the borders of traditional cently defined as the feminist paradigm for theorizing disciplinary configurations, and transformed the method- identity and oppression and combating hierarchy, hege- ological approaches as well as the concerns of the disci- mony, and exclusivity (within feminism also). Noting that pline. Issues pertaining to “gender” also contributed to categories – including race and gender – are too simplistic the need for an alternative view of gender – the interre- to capture the complexity of lived experience, Nash pro- lational. Such a view required a new focus for the disci- posed that gender be understood as the different ways pline of sports studies as well and the introduction of new in which women act, think, and feel, given their histori- paradigms and methodologies. cal circumstances as well as the variety of roles, expecta- It was again the work of Roberta J. Park that reflected tions, and limitations imposed on them. Moreover, gen- changing perspectives and the search for new paradigms der always has specific, contextualized meanings; it is not and methodologies concerning gender and sport. In 1991, something that all women share in the same way. Ac- as the guest editor of a special issue of the Journal of cording to Nash, intersectionality serves a few theoreti- the History of Sport that was devoted to gender, Park cal and political purposes that enable scholars to create argues that conceptions of it, “[f]ar from being mono- new paradigms for a revisioning of gender. First, it si- lithic...maybeinfluenced by race, ethnicity, chrono- multaneously subverts binaries concerning race and gen- logical age, social class, political status and much more”. der when theorizing identity. Second, racial variations Further, she avers: “For many . . . “gender” can best – and within gender and gendered variations within race can be probably only – be understood from comparative perspec- more easily understood through an intersectional view. tives”. The interconnectedness and interrelational nature Last, intersectionality enables scholars to understand the of understandings concerning gender and sport had thus legacy of exclusions of marginalized subjects from femi- become apparent and became the basis for changing nist and critical race theories and the impact of those ab- views of gender that informed the scholarly discourse sences on both theory and practice. As critical examina- in sport as well as requiring different methodological tions of society and culture, critical race theory, feminist approaches. theory, and Marxist theory, with shared interests in exclusion and privilege in sport, became useful in critiquing sport from an intersectional point of view in the 1970s and 1980s. 5 Gender as interrational and intersubjective: According to this view, intersectionality is supposed transdisciplinary perspectives to avoid essentialism precisely because it allows for the recognition of different female genders. It is hoped that it avoids essentialism which posits a sameness about women In the 1970’s women of color, lesbians, and working class that can be derived from theories based only on the expe- feminists began to challenge the feminism of difference – riences of middle-class women. Further, intersectionality that is difference from men – arguing that the perspective refers to multiple oppressions experienced by non-white was universalizing and a feminism of uniformity. The chal- and poor women in particular and requires a de-gendering lenge stemmed from the assumption that all women have of our perspectives. something in common and that this commonality creates A number of important critiques of gender that a particular kind of common experience and, therefore, a pointedtowardaneedforanintersectional analysis ap- uniform understanding of feminism. peared in feminist literature. In her book (2005), Ju- A healthy debate that focused on the diversity among dith Lorber argues that “gender is a binary system of women as well as the implications of this diversity for social organization that creates inequality”. To degen- conceptualizations of gender emerged in the literature. der means “to recognize that the two genders are not The claim was that white middle-class feminists did not at all homogenous categories since they are intersected speak for all women. According to Spelman, white femi- by other major social statuses – racial ethnic group, so- nism saw itself as a universal feminism and it did not suc- cial class, national identity, religious affiliation – and by ceed in reconstructing an inclusive foundation (Spelman, individual variations such as age, sexual orientation, re- 1988). Second wave feminists had claimed that feminists lational and parental statuses, and physical status”. In had used the term “gender” to destabilize biology. As other words, multiplicities of genders – gender diversity we came to understand, female gender was not simply and gender freedom – suggest a living outside of the bi- understood as a cultural and psychological effect of be- nary sex/gender system. Further Lorber advocates that ing biologically female, but rather as a cultural effect of we should be open to intersexuality, transgender queer- male dominance and patriarchy. Women of color insisted ing, and sexual fluidity and deliberately ambiguous non- that other cultural forces such as racism and classicism gendered presentations of self. Further viewing gender Gender and sports studies: an historical perspective 23 within the logic of intersectionality redefines it “as a con- intersectional point of view. Of particular note here is the stellation of ideas and social practices that are historically appearance of a journal explicitly devoted to the use of situated within mutually construct multiple systems of themes as a means of approaching interdisciplinary per- oppression” (Collins, 1999). spectives that incorporated ideas that have often been In support of this new paradigm, third wave feminists, used in scholarly analyses of Sport. Structured around according to Leslie Heywood and Jennifer Drake in Third specific topics rather than around specific disciplines, Wave Agenda, take cultural production and sexual pol- Junctures: The Journal of Thematic Dialogue first ap- itics as key sites of struggle, seeking to use desire and peared in December of 2003 and was created to push the pleasure, as well as anger, to fuel struggles for justice. boundaries of interdisciplinarity by including the work of Further, third wave feminists seek a new subjectivity and several disciplines from a variety of disciplines, who ex- languages and images that account for both multiplicity amine a particular theme such as the body, play, space, and difference, that negotiate contradiction in affirmative language – subjects that can easily be linked to sport. ways, and that give voice to a politics and coalition. Scholars have been able to draw from an immense Questions concerning the methodologies of intersec- amount of research from a diverse range of perspectives tionality soon appeared in order to conduct research that and have adopted new methodologies and approaches to is not based on universalizing and essentializing ideas their work, which reflect an approach that “decenters” hi- research that “lives outside of the binary sex/gender erarchical organizations and patterns of knowledge that system?” According to Lorber, most research designs (in have predominated and points to the importance of trans- 18 sociology) assume that each person has one sex, one sex- disciplinary perspectives . Among the most important 19 uality, and one gender (Lorber, 1996). In her later work, of these are the use of concepts or themes (rather than she argues that we need to recognize the multiplicity of theories) and an admixture of methodologies and sources genders, sexes, and sexualities, but the difficulty lies in of knowledge, most particularly the use of narratives needing categories for analysis yet at the same time de- (Sparkes & Silvennionen, 1999; Denison & Markula, 2003; constructing them. In other words, how do scholars con- Bandy, 2004c;Markula,2005). In this context, gender be- duct research without reifying and contributing to the comes fluid and multiple and serves as an interconnecting existence of such categories? Further Lorber posits that concept in understanding multiple points of view, result- scholars should split that which has been conflated or ing in the simultaneous inclusion of a gendered perspec- 20 joined: sex (biology, physiology); sexuality (desire, sexual tive among connecting and multiple perspectives .Al- preference, sexual orientation); and gender (a social sta- though much research that has recently been published tus, sometimes with sexual identity). Additionally schol- fails to incorporate a gender perspective, some research ars argue that there is a need to create research paradigms points to transdisciplinary perspectives in sports studies, that examine the social constructions and means of sex, and a few of these present us with a new and alternative 21 sexuality, and gender as we have done for race, ethnicity, views and treatments of gender and sport . and social class. As scholars continued their work, the interrelational This paradigmatic shift toward intersectionality in and the multiplicities of gender – intersections between feminist research also appeared in sports studies research gender, color, ethnicity, race, and sexuality – brought concerned with gender. As early as 1990, sports studies forth an interest in “other” women – women of color, scholars embraced the work of feminist scholars such as 18 Judith Butler, Elizabeth Grosz, and Judith Lorber. As See Nicolescu (2002) for an introduction to transdisciplinarity. noted previously, following the work of Roberta Park, 19 in the early 1990s, sports historians began to recog- See Bal (2002) for a more detailed examination of the use of concepts in research and teaching. nize that gender was not monolithic; rather it intersects 20 with a number of other dimensions of human experi- For a discussion of the concept of circularity and a rejec- ence and identity in sports such as race, ethnicity, age, tion of linearity in language and the hierarchical ordering of knowledge, see Ostriker (1986). social class, and political status. Reflecting a trend to- 21 ItcanbearguedthatEichberg’s“thirdway”,withwhich ward intersectionality, sports scholars began to approach he advocated several approaches to the development of a the study of gender in news ways, including the use 17 Scandinavian sociology of the body – biographical, autobio- of concepts or themes (rather than theories) and an graphical, situational, scenical, social ecological – suggests new admixture of methodologies and sources of knowledge, methodological ways of understanding the body, and such an most particularly the use of narratives (Bandy, 2004c; approach foreshadowed the work that would come after the Denison & Markula, 2003;Markula,2005; Sparkes & publication of his work in 1994. Similarly Olav Ballisager’s Silvennionen, 1999). Moreover, scholars began to adopt work in 2002 concerning “physical culture as idræt and play”, transdisciplinary and transnational perspectives as they shows the interaction between several concepts that produces sought to deconstruct gender, viewing gender (and race, what Ballisager has identified as a “mutual third”. In sup- social class, and ethnicity) from an interrelational and port of new directions for the integration of gender relations, physical education, and sport history, Patricia Vertinsky ad- 17 See Bal (2002) for a more detailed examination of the use vocates, like Eichberg, the importance of comparative studies of concepts in research and teaching. using intercultural and inter-lingual perspectives. 24 Movement & Sport Sciences – Science & Motricité 86 — 2014/4 lesbians and those outside the margins of mainstream to Reflexive Sociology (1992), more consciously mixes sport theory and practice – entered the discourse, most sources, theories, and methodologies, while embracing in- notably in the sociological approach to sport. Susan tersectionality as a method of studying sport by viewing Cahn’s work concerning the “Cinderellas” of sport, for race, gender, and sport, as social processes that inform example, included histories of women of color as well as each other while at the same time operate in specific ways. lesbians in sport. Jennifer Hargreaves (2000) similarly rec- In analyzing race in Body and Soul: Notes of An Ap- ognized the “others” in sport in a study of Aboriginal, dis- prentice Boxer (2004), for example, Wacquant advocated abled, Muslim, and lesbian women from a transnational that social scientists should “skirt the issues of origins perspective22. Rather than in interest in the globalizing and abandon a search for a single overarching concept to process and its impact upon contemporary sport, Harg- develop an analysis of racial domination”. In his work, he reaves looks from a transnational point of view and uses dismisses a search for “origins” and examines the way var- an admixture of methods and sources to examine the re- ious processes of subordination and experience coalesce lationship between sporting experiences and identity of during particular social moments. In his masterful anal- “others” from different parts of the world. Using Fou- ysis of boxing, Wacquant not only embraces intersection- cault’s notions of power, she examines power relations ality, he utilizes a transdisciplinary approach, including among women, using concepts of inclusion and exclusion, the perspectives of sociology, ethnology, literature, and power and privilege, and the relationship between the lo- sport to provide a social critique from the perspectives of cal and the global. In this context, gender is seen as a the nexus of race, social class, and gender. Educated as a shared and universal experience, while at the same time is sociologist and engaged as an amateur boxer, Wacquant an experience of difference (according to nationality, sex- brings to his analysis sociological theory, ethnographic uality, physical ability, religion, and social class) and indi- “data”, and literary insights while at the same time vali- vidualidentityinsport.Withaninterestinthetransna- dating experiential, gendered, and bodily ways of knowing tional – as that which exists between nations or perhaps from the sport experience. Such an examination reveals between people – Hargreaves’ work examines both the si- knowledge that exists on different levels of reality and is multaneity of multiple oppressions and the complexity of revealed in multiple ways of knowing, thus pointing to the identity. importance of transdisciplinary approaches to the study In an attempt to further deconstruct gender within of sport. Wacquant describes the purpose of his book as the context of sport, intersectionality surfaced as a follows. methodology or approach to understanding the multiplic- “Breaking with the moralizing discourse – that in- ity and fluidity of gender. For example, Leslie Heywood differently feeds on celebration and denigrations – and Shari L. Dworkin (2003) study the female athlete produced by the “gaze from afar” of an outside as a cultural icon through a variety of approaches: fem- observer standing at a distance from or above the inist theory, film, interviews, poetry, and representation. specific universe, this book seeks to suggest how Their work also focuses on the body in sport, including boxing “makes sense” as soon as one takes pains the female and male body in sport, attempting to further to get close enough to it to grasp it with one’s explore the fluidity of gender. In a similar way, Barbara body, in a quasi-experimental situation. It is for Cos and Shona Thompson connect “multiple bodies” in this reason composed of three texts of deliberately sport with matters concerning the experiences of sexual- disparate statuses and styles, which juxtapose so- ity in sport and the multiple discourses that suggest the ciological analysis, ethnographic description, and liberating bodily experiences of female soccer (football) literary evocations in order to convey at once per- players (Cos & Thompson, 2000). cept and concept, the hidden determinations and Historians also turned to less traditional sources in the lived experiences, the external factors and the writing scholarly analyses of sports history with the in- internal sensations that intermingle to make the tention of more fully examining their subject. According boxer’s world. In short, the book aims to dis- to Jeff Segrave’s analysis, Elliot Gorn’s book, The Manly play and demonstrate in the same move the social Art, is not just the history of the sport itself. Rather it in- and sensual logic that informs boxing as a bodily cludes gender history, social history, and labor history in craft in the contemporary black American ghetto an analysis of boxing. In this integrative approach, Gorn (Wacquant, 2004,p.7).” uses sources that are often not used in more traditional sport history: newspapers and popular pamphlets, fiction Scholars of sport can draw from Wacquant’s work in a and poetry, and even doggerel verse and ballads (Segrave, number of important ways: examining the way in which 2010). racial and social categories utilize differing technologies It can be argued that Löic Wacquant, former student of categorization, observing the disciplining of the body of Pierre Bourdieu with whom he wrote An Invitation in distinctive ways, and reflecting upon the coalescence of certain social, historical, representational, bodily, and 22 Hargreaves used archival materials, newspapers and mag- sporting experiences. azines, personal correspondence, films and videos, material The introduction of “queer theory” also supplied a from the internet, and interviews using the internet. theoretical framework that could be used to advance Gender and sports studies: an historical perspective 25 intersectional and transdisciplinary investigations of gen- Boutilier, M.A., & SanGiovanni, L. (1983). The sporting der and sport. Introduced in 1991 by Teresa de Laurentis, woman. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. “queer theory” provoked a critique of sexual identity Brooks, G.A. (Ed.) (1981). Perspectives on the academic dis- and postmodernism’s suspicion of fundamental truths an cipline of physical education Champaign, IL: Human categories and altered the way we think about gender, Kinetics Publishers. sexuality, desire, and the body in sports studies. On a Cahn, S.K. (1994). Coming on strong: Gender and sexual- theoretical level, scholars have noted the absence of queer ity in twentieth century women’s sport. London: Harvard theory in sport – as is the case of the academy in general – University Press. revealing that this absence has worked against a more Caudwell, J. (2006). Sport, sexualities and queer theory. expansive, comprehensive, interrelational, and intersec- London: Routledge. tional analysis of sport. 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