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Ritualisering Van Funeraire Gebruiken Aan De Academiejaar 2011-2012 RITUALISERING VAN FUNERAIRE GEBRUIKEN AAN DE VOORAVOND VAN HET CHINESE KEIZERRIJK Een studie van graven en funeraire cultuur van het Chinese Neolithicum tot en met de Zhou-dynastie. Promotor: Prof. dr. Ann Heirman verhandeling voorgelegd aan de Faculteit der Letteren en Wijsbegeerte, tot het verkrijgen van de graad van Master in de Oosterste talen en culturen door Lore Decock. Inhoudstafel Voorwoord............................................................................................................................ 1 Inleiding................................................................................................................................ 2 Deel 1: Het Neolithicum - genesis van funeraire rituelen ................................................... 5 1.1. Het begrip “Neolithicum” binnen een Chinese context ............................................................ 5 1.2. Het begrip “ritueel” binnen een funeraire context ................................................................... 8 1.3. Archeologie: problematiek en doeleinden ..............................................................................11 1.4. Funeraire gebruiken in het Chinese Neolithicum ....................................................................13 1.4.1. Positionering van het graf en lichaam: controle over de doden ........................................13 1.4.2. Grafstructuur en begravingstijlen: indicaties van sociale stratificatie ...............................22 1.4.3. Grafgiften: prestigegoederen, macht en ritueel ...............................................................31 1.3.4. Varkens en wijn: een funerair feestmaal? ........................................................................46 1.4.5. Communicatie met de doden: genesis van de voorouderverering ....................................56 Deel 2: De Bronstijd - hoogtij van de voorouderverering ................................................ 73 2.1. Contextualisering ...................................................................................................................73 2.1.1. Het probleem van staatsvorming en de Drie Dynastieën ..................................................73 2.1.2. Het begrip “Bronstijd” binnen een Chinese context .........................................................81 2.2. De Erlitou-cultuur en Erligang-cultuur .....................................................................................85 2.2.1. Funeraire gebruiken in de Erlitou-cultuur.........................................................................85 2.2.2. Funeraire gebruiken in de Erligang-cultuur ......................................................................93 2.3. De late Shang-dynastie .........................................................................................................102 2.3.1. Funeraire gebruiken in de Yinxu-site ..............................................................................102 2.3.2. Orakelbeenderen en voorouderverering ........................................................................117 2.4. De Zhou-dynastie .................................................................................................................125 2.4.1. De Westelijke Zhou: uniformiteit en conformiteit ..........................................................125 2.4.2. De Oostelijke Zhou: regionale diversificatie en nieuwe ideeën .......................................133 Conclusie .......................................................................................................................... 154 Bibliografie ....................................................................................................................... 157 Primaire Bronnen ........................................................................................................................157 Secundaire Bronnen ....................................................................................................................162 1 Voorwoord Deze scriptie is een werk van lange adem geweest, een onderneming die niet zomaar zonder hulp en steun geklaard kon worden. Bij deze neem ik dan ook de gelegenheid om eerst en vooral Prof. dr. Ann Heirman, de promotor van deze scriptie, te bedanken voor haar behulpzaamheid, begrip en aanstekelijk enthousiasme die niet beperkt blijven tot het begeleiden van deze Masterproef. Haar oprechte interesse in de verdere academische plannen van haar studenten alsook de adviezen waarmee ze hen te raad staat hebben mij tijdens het schrijven van deze scriptie zeker een hart onder de riem gestoken. Verder wens ik ook Dr. Mathieu Torck te danken voor de hulp die hij me verleende in het kader van de vertaalopdracht van de Masterproef en de tijd die hij vrijmaakte om samen met mij de moeizamere tekstfragmenten tot een goed einde te brengen. Ten slotte verdient ook het thuisfront een dankwoord, omwille van hun engelengeduld en aanmoedigende woorden. 2 Inleiding De funeraire gebruiken van het verre Chinese verleden; het lijkt in de ogen van sommigen mogelijks een grimmig onderwerp om zich een goed jaar in te verdiepen en een scriptie over te schrijven, maar het zijn juist dergelijke onderwerpen die het sterkst spreken tot mijn verbeelding. Welke ontwikkelingen gingen vooraf aan het grandiose Terracotta Leger dat werd mee begraven met Qin Shi Huangdi 秦始皇帝 (3de eeuw BCE), China's eerste keizer? Hoe ging men om met de dood in een periode waar men nog niets wist van boeddhistische hellen of hemelse sferen? In welke mate vonden millennia oude funeraire gebruiken hun neerslag in het archeologische bestand, en schilderen ze een geschiedenis van continuïteit of van heterogene ontwikkelingen? In welke mate manifesteerden religieuze en rituele concepten zich in de graven van de oudheid? Dergelijke onderwerpen interesseren me mateloos. Het staat zonder twijfel vast dat mocht ik in het verleden mijn passie voor Oosterse talen zijn mislopen, dat ik dan de weg zou zijn ingeslaan van geschiedkunde en archeologie enerzijds, of van religieuze en antropologische studies anderzijds. Het verleden spreekt tot mij als een luisterrijk boek en de graven van de Chinese oudheid vertellen een uitzonderlijke boeiend verhaal. Vanwege een gebrek aan tijd en pagina's ben ik echter genoodzaakt me te beperken tot één bepaalde invalshoek; deze van de materiële grafcultuur en de archeologie. Tot en met het midden van het 2de millenium BCE is men namelijk louter aangewezen op de archeologische ontrafeling van graven, en in een klein aantal gevallen ook rituele structuren, indien men zich een beeld wil vormen van de ideeën die men er op nahield inzake de dood. Vanaf de vroege Bronstijd komt het Chinese schrift dan wel tot ontwikkeling, maar de overgeleverde teksten zijn beperkt in aard en inhoud en kunnen lang niet alle archeologische fenomenen verschaffen met een betekenisvolle interpretatie of context. Chinese archeologen en geschiedkundigen zouden mogelijks de onderzoeker er aan herinneren dat er een rijk corpus bestaat van rituele en filosofische teksten die het uitgebreid hebben over de funeraire gebruiken van zelfs het verste Chinese verleden. Om even één van de meest belangrijke en gezaghebbende voorbeeld aan te halen is er bijvoorbeeld de Liji 礼记 (Optekeningen over de Riten), een collectie van beschrijvingen, definities en anekdotes inzake rituele aangelegenheden, waarbij onder andere 3 ook de funeraire rituelen worden besproken van periodes die reeds meer dan een millenia in het verleden lagen op het moment van de compilatie van deze tekst (ca. 3de-2de eeuw BCE).1 De vraag die zich hier dan naar voren dringt is in welke mate het wetenschappelijk verantwoord is om de inhoud van dergelijk niet-contemporaine teksten zonder meer te aanvaarden als feit. Het kan niet de bedoeling zijn om krampachtig aan de hand van veel latere beschrijvingen vermeende funeraire gebruiken op te sporen en te identificeren in het archeologische bestand, vaak met gebrekkig bewijsmateriaal en veel speculatie als gevolg. Dit is nochtans een methode die door meerdere Chinese archeologen en geschiedkundigen wordt gehanteerd. In mijn onderzoek ben ik tal van Chinese essays en artikels tegengekomen die vaak vergegrepen interpretaties geven aan archeologische vondsten. Deze problematiek wordt verder besproken in deel. 2.1.1. met betrekking tot de pogingen van Chinese geleerden om legendarische dynastieën uit de tekstuele overlevering van latere periodes te doen passen in de voorhanden archeologische vondsten. Ik, daarentegen, doe in deze scriptie afstand van een dergelijke tekstuele methode en concentreer me op rechtstreekse, archeologische vondsten. Archeologisch onderzoek is binnen de Chinese context zeer rijk aan culturele artefacten en het is belangrijk dat het onderzoeksproces niet gedomineerd wordt door veronderstellingen die zijn ontleend aan geschreven bronnen. Deze representeren namelijk de subjectieve wereldvisies van geschiedkundigen uit de oudheid, of de motieven van moderne nationalisten. Antieke teksten zijn belangrijk voor archeologische interpretatie, maar ze mogen niet gebruikt worden als een blauwdruk. Het eigenlijke doel van deze scriptie is het identificeren van rituelen en hun ontwikkelingen in de funeraire overblijfselen van het Chinese Neolithicum tot en met de Zhou-dynastie, met een opdeling in het Neolithicum enerzijds en de Bronstijd anderzijds. Dit is evenwel niet voor de hand liggend, deels vanwege de grote tijdsperiode die in dit tweeluik wordt behandeld en deels vanwege het gebrek aan comprehensieve
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