Leadership Personality and Social Dis-Integration in Somalia

Asian Research Journal of Arts & Social Sciences

8(3): 1-9, 2019; Article no.ARJASS.47139 ISSN: 2456-4761

Leadership Personality and Social Dis-integration in Somalia

Abdisamad Hassan1*, Zawiyah Mohd Zain2 and Mohd Na’iem Ajis2

1School of Government, University Utara Malaysia, Malaysia. 2School of Government, College of Law, Government and International Studies, University Utara Malaysia, Malaysia.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. All authors designed the study, performed the analysis, wrote the protocol, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI:10.9734/ARJASS/2019/v8i330101 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Raffaela Giovagnoli, Pontifical Lateran University, Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano 4, Rome, Italy. Reviewers: (1) Md. Amir Hossain, IBAIS University, Bangladesh. (2) Zaiton Binti Osman, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle3.com/review-history/47139

Received 28 October 2018 Accepted 30 January 2019 Original Research Article Published 28 February 2019

ABSTRACT

The study seeks to explore the impact of leadership personalities of previous Somali political leaders on social integration. As Somalia now transit into post conflict reconstruction, there is the need to explore how previous flaws in leadership personalities resulted into social disintegration of the Somali society. To achieve this objective, qualitative interviews were held with 13 respondents across Somali elite in Mogadishu. Using the Big Five personality framework, the results revealed that previous Somali leadership personalities were deeply flawed due to colonial legacy and influence of clannism. In addition, fear of losing and retaining power at all cost instituted clannism as a means on obtaining and retaining political power, thereby compromising unity and social integration. The result also depicted that a significant number of Somali leaders were generally low in conscientiousness as a necessary leadership quality within the Big Five framework. The study maintains that the ongoing post-conflict reconstruction is unlikely to succeed unless leadership personality adapts properly to the prevailing situation of social integration. Moreover, the study recommends that leadership in Somalia should prioritize the restoration of social trust so that Somalia’s reconstruction process can succeed.

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*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected];

Hassan et al.; ARJASS, 8(3): 1-9, 2019; Article no.ARJASS.47139

Keywords: Previous leadership personality; clan manipulation; social dis-integration; post-conflict reconstruction; Somalia.

1. INTRODUCTION and nation Building [11]. Several other studies have considered Somalia as post- conflict The partitioning of Africa into colonies placed the country from various dimensions [12,13,14,15]. northern part of Somalia under British rule while Therefore, understanding leadership the southern part became an Italian colony. personalities and practices that led the Coincidentally in 1960, Somalia became an disintegration and destruction of Somalia can independent country with different colonial help present and future leaders in Somalia to legacies. Such diversity implied that, the Somali avoid making similar mistakes and this aids the post-colonial leaders must as a necessity unite ongoing post-conflict reconstruction process in and integrate the two parts under a unified Somalia. system of governance. However, the impact of the divide and rule tactics implored by the 2. THE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP colonial powers, left behind a society that is PERSONALITY somewhat divided. Consequently, the social groupings and leadership personalities that Studies of leadership has extensively generated emerged after independence were deeply based many discussions aimed at developing an on clan identity, a phenomenon that was later analysis of criterion on what makes great exploited as means of political manipulation by leaders. Most findings conclude that the subsequent post-colonial leaders [1, p. 64]. personality of a leader has a key role in Furthermore, rather than strive towards unity and determining performance. In his leadership integration, the impact of colonial legacy and experience study, Professor Richard Daft defines clannism tended to shape the leadership leadership personality as “the set of unseen personality of Somali leaders. Thus, a significant characteristics and processes that underlie a part of post-colonial leadership in Somalia was relatively stable pattern of behavior in response characterized by failure to unite towards creating to ideas, objects, or people in the environment” a social system that integrates the diverse parts [16, p.119]. However, understanding leadership of the Somali society. Such failure is evidently personality requires more than defining the term. rooted in flawed personalities that were products Most of previous researchers in the field of of colonial legacies and clannism. Therefore, a leadership have applied perspectives from the context of war mongering created by colonial five-factor model to measure personality traits of legacy and clannism can be seen as responsible leader’s in relation to performance. The Big Five for the collapse of the Somali social fabric. As framework refers to a hierarchical model of posited by a large body of literature, the failure personality traits depicting five broad factors, and collapse of the Somali state rest on two key representing personality at a comprehensive factors: A history of bad leadership and a culture level of abstraction. The framework is conceived characterized by clannism [2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. across two bipolar factors of Extraversion and Interestingly, on one hand, recent studies have Introversion with each summarizing several more indicated the transition of Somalia into a post specific sides of personality. These includes conflict stage, which implies the need for Somalia traits like sociability, which, in turn, subsume a to go through the post conflict reconstruction large number of even more specific traits stages. On the other hand, studies on leader’s manifesting in features like , talkative, outgoing personality have documented the importance of etc. The Big-Five framework suggests that most leader’s figure in the ability to havepositive effect individual differences in human personality can on social integration and nation building during be classified into five broad, empirically derived post-conflict reconstruction [10]. Thus, if social domains. Thus, the Big Five model can be used integration is to be successfully attained in to analyze personality and to assemble actions Somalia, there is the need for a study on the related to specific traits like leadership contributing factors that led the disintegration of responsibility among others. To be more explicit, the society in Somalia. Importantly, the study the Big Five traits are: Openness, focused on previous leadership personalities, Conscientiousness, Extraversion (or divisive policies and why the civil war persisted. Introversion), Agreeableness, and Emotional The article is relevant due to the fact that Stability (or Neuroticism), often represented by Somalia is recovering from the effects of the war the acronym OCEAN. As noted by [17, p.121]. and is experiencing a period of relative stability

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“Conscientiousness describes socially 3. METHODOLOGY prescribed impulse control that facilitates task-and goal-directed behavior, such as This study adopted qualitative method to explore thinking before acting, delaying gratification, the role of leadership personalities in the following norms and rules, and planning, disintegration of the society in Somalia. The role organizing, and prioritizing tasks. [Emotional of the researcher was that of an interviewer and Stability describes even-temperedness and] analyser; in other words, the researcher collected contrasts...with negative emotionality, such the data through in-depth face to face interviews as feeling anxious, nervous, sad, and and took his time to analyses the phenomenon. tense...Openness to Experience (versus Therefore, the study utilized face-to-face closed-mindedness) describes the breadth, interview to ensure that questions in the interview depth, originality, and complexity of an guides were meaningful and easily understood individual’s mental and experiential life”. by the respondents. The interviews were conducted between December 2017 and With regards to unity and social integration, the February 2018. And most respondents were Big five framework can explain personality of located in the capital city of Somalia Mogadishu leaders on one hand, based on traits of the respondent in the study comprise former and extraversion such as sociability, activity, current Cabinet Ministers from different political assertiveness, and positive emotionality tend to groups, Academics, former and current be relevant to leadership personality’s ability to Government Advisors, Clan Elders, Prominent lead by example and influence followers towards Business Leaders and MP’s. For the purpose of positive results. Further, leaders that are this study, knowledgeable respondents were Conscientious tend to be more socially oriented interviewed to explore the information needed in styles that facilitates task-and goal-directed and achieve the purpose of the study. Interview behavior in relation to their followers. In practice, settings were convenient to members these might include the ability for deeper participating. A high sense of confidentiality was reflections, appropriateness of actions, delaying observed. The interviews were guided by semi- gratification (more likely to less corrupt and most structured questions to explore the needed likely to be trusted), abiding by norms and rules, response. The methods of analysis for the data planning, organizing, and arranging tasks. generated by this study involves the thematic Extraversion in leadership might politically result analysis because thematic analysis offers an to more openness in policies and actions towards avenue for both interpretation and involvement of unity and social integration. On the other hand, the researcher in the analysis [22]. the big five framework explains how negative emotionality, anxiety, nervousness, sadness, 4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION closed-mindedness results into flaws in personalities. Thus, leaders with negative traits 4.1 Leader’s Personality might generally disunite their followers and creates contexts that are complex and Leadership Personality traits of a significant dysfunctional to a given social system. number of previous leaders in Somalia can be attributed to the influences of colonial social Most leaders may have one or two of the above structure. The reason being that in less than a factors that reflects their personalities. Therefore, decade of post-colonial era, democratic leadership personality is an important factor that governance was interrupted. This was evident in either aids or impedes leader’s performance. [18, the depiction of intense predatory aggression by p. 473] argues that “it is not what a person does, General Mohamed Siad Barre in his quest for but how he or she does it (e.g., calmly, power through a military coupin 1969. In relation creatively, attentively, etc.) that determines to his leadership personality traits, Barre did two effective performance” in other words, Hogan’s irresponsible acts, that places his personality assessment and several other studies [19,20,21] high on the neuroticism personality trait score. associate good leadership personality with First, he overthrew a legitimate and effectiveness and better outcomes while bad democratically elected government, thereby leadership personality leads to bad outcomes, undermining the constitution. Second, he and it’s this reason why this study aims to look concentrated both political and military power to how previous leadership personalities and their his clan, so as to prevent another military policies contributed to the disintegration of the takeover by creating an alliance called MOD. The Somali society. MOD comprises three sub-clans of Darod

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namely Marehan, Ogaden and Dhulbahante [23, weaken the state institutions. Barre was not p. 226]. Consequently, the MOD alliance alone in the corrupt activities in fact, promoted clan supremacy which began to President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke is undermine the cohesion of the society in considered by many historians in Somalia to Somalia. The impulsive nature of Barre’s be the first politician who bribed MPs to leadership personality resulted in compromising secure their votes in the election of 60s. So i the principles of unitary governance that he was think their personality and their policies have supposed to uphold. Thus, his regime placed in the past contributed to the disintegration of members of the alliance with unlimited privileges, the society and destroyed the country. while the rest of the society struggled. President Therefore, to succeed the ongoing post- Barre openly demonstrated clan favoritism while conflict reconstruction in Somalia, leadership oppressing anyone who opposed his injustice must prioritize to re-integrate the society first. [24]. The MOD alliance and the exclusionary policies of Barre planted the seeds of social Similarly, another interview conducted on 7 mistrust and division across Somali society. February 2018 at his house in Mogadishu, a Interestingly, due to the neuroticism tendencies former interior minister blamed the personality of of Barre a number of MOD allied Darod sub- most post-colonial leaders but in particular clans did not benefit from his policies because President Barre for the disintegration and some sub-clans were perceived to be a threat to mistrust among the society made the following his regime. remarks:

Barre had a personality that has zero tolerance The personality of president Barre could for any form of opposition and demonstrated this explain why such a homogenous society by executing military and religious figures in 1972 disintegrated because after seizing the and 1975 respectively. Apart from his clan power through force, Barre started to favor favoritism, Barre created social animosity for his his clan and oppress the rest of the society, regime when he executed and imprisoned he then started to pressure any section of religious ulama for opposing unpopular regime the society he though could pose a threat to policies that contradicted the teaching of Islam his regime, when rebel groups started to take and the norm of the society in Somalia. up arms, Barre refused to leave peacefully to According to [[23, p. 219] Somalis are deeply avoid total collapse, instead, Barre armed his attached to their Islamic faith and Barre’s loyalist and his clan members to defend his politically motivated intervention in the religious failing regime leaving a dis-integrated society affairs has negatively affected his already behind, so I think he is to be blamed for the damaged popularity in the society. current social situation in Somalia and without restoring social trust, any When questioned about the relationship between reconstruction process will likely to fail due to personalities of previous leadership in Somalia the disunity of the society. and the current disintegration of the society in Somalia in an interview conducted on 23 January It’s obvious from the above accounts that the 2018 in Mogadishu, a former advisor to the then personality of previous leadership in Somalia President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was less characterized by with the personality administration [2012-2017] made the following trait of conscientiousness. Rather, corruption and comment: power abuse rendered previous leaders ability to prioritize the establishment of inclusive The personality of previous leadership institutions that are transparent, accountable and particularly Barre can be characterized by distribute resources evenly in the society. In fact, widespread corruption, political and several studies have noted that shortly after economic favoritism and I think this has independence, political leaders in Somalia contributed to the social mistrust because a started to bribe MPs to win their votes and this large portion of the society felt that they were transformed the nature of the assembly from treated unfairly since Barre distributed the lawmaking body to money making tool that national resources unevenly while politicians used to enrich themselves [3]. oppressing his political opponents. The leadership style of previous leaders was Of relevance to the above findings is Lewis’s based on defensive and manipulative assessment which demonstrates the inner personalities and this divided the society and motivation of most post-colonial leaders in

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Somalia as anti-democratic, since they have margins. This gave the Somali polity a structure failed to establish a democratic state that that is ultimately dependent on person’s rather promotes inclusivity and public participation, than social institutions that hold the society respects human rights and due process. Similar together. Therefore, changes in ruling elites assessment was made by [25] which concludes resulted into changes in this web of persons. For most educated Somalis after independence knew example, the clans that are weak in one regime, the incompetency and the inabilities of the became stronger in another depending on how Somali Youth League in 1960s to move the the leadership chose to share and allocate country forward. However, the educated elite in resources and positions. As noted by [26] the Somalia prioritized securing prominent different personal characteristics, belief sets, or government posts rather than informing the ambitions of most previous leaders in Somalia public and presenting an alternative system that display similar features of behavior towards moves the country in the right direction. leadership failure. Castagno’s study illustrates the personalities of previous political class and how self-interest 4.2 Clan Manipulation overshadowed the common good of the country and this over the years had destroyed the social In the early years of the Somali independence fabric and later created a fragmented society. the clan system was politicized and manipulated. For instance, politicians compete for influence Throughout the interviews, it is evident that within their various clans by securing the support personal traits of previous Somali leaders were of clan elders. By getting the support of the shaped by the desire to remain in power and this seniors, they were able to represent their clan in resulted in personal rule and the promotion of the government. Consequently, most politicians authoritarianism. Due to the authoritarian traits in promoted clan politics above national politics. most of previous Somali leaders, there was Gradually clans became relevant in the political mismanagement of resources and injustice arena and eventually became most powerful and through successive regimes. Personal traits of even the basis for power in Somali politics. With leaders might therefore largely perceive as the influence of clans emphasized as crucial for responsible for the onset of social dis-integration political power, clans became the basis of every of the Somali society. Specifically, the social Somali regime [27]. Despite evident disastrous disintegration phenomenon was evident in the impact of placing the clan system as most leadership trait of president Barre, whose relevant and powerful political institutions, behavior grossly undermined the cohesion of previous leaders tolerated and openly endorsed Somali society. The responses from the this corrupt practice. interviews were consistent that Barre promoted a patron-client networking with clans which he The reason being that, the clan system allows manipulated to control the polity. The result was easy manipulation for securing the support clans rivalry among the clans who scrambled for through buying the influence of corrupt clan positions, and in turn created an environment of elders. This shows how previous leaders in insecurity rendering the society in deep divisions. Somalia instead of seeking the support of the Similarly, respondents expressed that, like many wider society opted to promote clan-based leaders in Somalia, the rise and fall of politics and manipulated their clan lineage to try Mohammed Siad Barre (1969 – 1991) can be and gain political power. This behavior is attributed to neuroticism personality flaws. consistent with findings that inauthentic or ineffective leaders do not engage a broad The responses from interviews also revealed that spectrum of perspectives in their decision making President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke’s Personality process and as such are prone to make unethical trait was also perceived to have contributed to and immoral decisions [28,29,30]. the corruption, nepotism, clan loyalty and patronage in the country. His personality trait From the above analysis, clan manipulation and resulted in personal rule where the Somali corruption has been transmitted as a continuous political system was transformed into a series of process to subsequent Somali leaders over the relations linking previous rulers as patrons, years. Thus, Somalia has been under leadership associates, clients, supporters and rivals. Under personalities that seem to be a continuation of this regime the society was segmented into core either Barre or Sharmarke. Such process had allies that are closer to the power corridors, and negatively affected the quality of pervious the rest of the public who wereignored to the leadership, where regimes have mastered how to

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mobilize and manipulate their clans. For they failed to understand was creating clan example, whenever a politician fails to secure based alliances would alienate majority of government posts that he/she is after, they would the people in the country and could lead to mobilize their clans to oppose the regime and social mistrust and fragmentation that could attack the character of their opponents, in his trigger clan conflicts, unfortunately their study of Somali polity, Castagno wrote “as soon recklessness and clan manipulation tactics as a leader gains national stature and had cost the country’s unity and today, prominence, his clan affiliation is exploited by his Somalis do not trust one another simply competitors, within and outside his political party, because of the legacy of previous leaders in order to reduce his appeal” [25]. and in my opinion, I think it’s possible to restore social cohesion and trust, however, it Previous leadership manipulation led the dis- requires time, resources and patient from integration of the society since leaders current and future leaders. weaponized the clan system and portrayed the clans of their opponents as an enemy, this From the above two accounts, the views of most further complicated the country’s unity because respondents illustrates that, leaders in Somalia different leaders created different alliances that manipulated the clan system to reach their short- torn the society apart. During an interview term political goals. Most post-colonial leaders conducted on 3 January 2018 in Mogadishu with used the clan system to either win an election, a Member of Parliament and Minister of state for prevent coups or oppress their opponents, Finance discussed how leaders in Somalia president Barre for example promoted several manipulated their clans and how those strategies generals from his Marehan sub clan to lead the led the civil war and social disunity in Somalia: military, he also ensures the domination of the MOD alliance in the civil servant and other Previous leaders used clan politics to sensitive government positions to make sure his manipulate the society, they divided the regime was coup proof [31, p. 174]. Such society based on their clans, and they then leadership personality traits is consistent with low favored some clans over the others by conscientiousness which makes Barre’s style, to rewarding them with high government be flighty, impetuous, and impulsive among positions while neglecting the rest of the Somali post-colonial leaders. society to ensure their regime survival, as a result, a lot of people in the country felt that The above accounts further revealed the failure they don’t have an equal representation in of previous leaders in being fair to all citizens on the government and their concerns were basis of equality. As widely documented by purposefully ignored, the MOD alliance many scholars, shortly after he took over the during Barre’s military regime reveals the country through bloodless coup, President Barre extent to which pervious leaders used clan vowed to establish a system that erases based politics to undermine the unity of the clannism, corruption and promised to create a society and weaken any resistance that just system that leads to prosperityand social threatens their rule and this has contributed equality. However, the evidence shows to the mistrust in the society which later otherwise. Rather, corruption, clannism and fueled the fragmentation of the society and human rights violation became the norm during the civil war that followed. It’s crucial his regime. For example, in the 80s Barre therefore to start healing the society’s ills and completely centralized power to his sub-clan of restore trust and cooperation so that the Marehan and even appointed some of his country can recover from the ills of previous immediate family members to top government leadership and this task awaits the current posts [31, p. 191]. These actions resulted in clan and future leader’s commitment and grievances, hatred and division which later turn dedication. into an active civil war. Therefore, as it has been well-documented in history, policies and actions Similar views were expressed by a prominent of previous leaders are to blame for the businessman and clan elder who knows how destruction of social fabric and this poses an clans operate in Somalia: obvious challenge to possibilities of social cohesion in today’s Somalia. The main concern of pervious leadership was to remain in power and use any tactic The inference made from the above interviews that prolongs their regimes longevity, what indicates Personal rule as one of the dimensions

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of leadership failure in Somali political history. the current social disintegration of Somali This sheds light on a significant factor that society. combined to form the genesis to social disintegration. Other factors related to this 5. CONCLUSION include among others patronage and clientelism, factionalism, succession crises and coups. Most respondents in this article agree on the notion that the Somali social dis-integration A common method that previous leaders apply in phenomenon is the result of previous leadership personal politics is a type of behaviour involving personalities which manifested as issues of coercion, violence and conspiracy. All these are political marginalization, economic inequality, personal traits of previous leaders mentioned by corruption, electoral fraud; unemployment, social different respondents. The consequence of this injustice, alienation and poverty. The finding of style of leadership is the current post conflict the article shows the need to improve the social society that obtains in Somalia with deep integration situation through restoration of polarization in the social environment in addition democratic institutions and restructuring the to political insecurity that prevails. Another factor public administration in the country to ensure that that shapes the behaviour of previous leaders is national resources are judiciously allocated to the fact that they live in a constant fear of plots, sectors that can speed up the improvement in coups or successions. As a result of this insecure the living conditions of the people. This is environment, infightings between rulers and perceived as the surest way of re-integrating the factions create a vacuum of effective ruling and social system. Furthermore, the analysis of the induce leadership failure. Consequently, the article also demonstrates that there is a need for authoritarian rulers become tyrants, and this new political leaders that should devise an weakens the state structure by imposing abusive inclusive style of leadership in order to absorb and unrestrained policies. The results remain a the huge population of the unemployed youths. socially disintegrated society stemming from Moreover, findings of the study points to the personal rule [32]. need for economic diversification towards allocating a significant percentage of the Further, it was evident that previous Somali country’s resources to employment generation to leaders were influenced by the potential dangers ensure massive promotion of productivity, create of losing power, which encouraged such leaders employment opportunities and to address the to manipulate factional conflicts within clans by deepening poverty and despair. It highly sustaining them in rivalry so as to implement recommended that leadership personality of personalized policies. However, such policies led current Somali leadership should mark a radical to disunion within the populace, and departure from low conscientiousness evident consequently the disintegration of society. At the across a significant number of Somali leaders, to end, present Leaders found themselves faced a more adaptive style characterized by being with diverse factions that must be reunited and thorough, efficient, reliable, diligent, organized, reintegrated into a nation that functions for all reliable, and friendly and persevere to realize Somalis [33]. national goals in spite of obstacles.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Finally, Consistent with most findings on the big five framework, Somali leadership personalities We would like to acknowledge our discussants, were shaped by a context created by colonial the former Interior Minister, former official from legacies and clannism. As such, previous the Union of Islamic Courts, Former Governor of leadership personality traits among Somali Central Bank of Somalia, the Rector of leaders was continuum of failure which resulted Institutional Development at Simad University, in a context characterized by the growth of Mogadishu University’s Vice-President for violence and, flawed institutions. Further, the Relations, Civil Society Activists, and the Somali deteriorating infrastructure, and most importantly, Ambassador to Malaysia,we are grateful for their declining social cohesion was the most severe valuable contributions in this study. impact that leadership personality had on Somali society. Therefore, it can be argued that, Somalia COMPETING INTERESTS has witnessed state failure due to leadership flaws arising from low conscientiousness evident The authors declared no potential conflicts of across a significant number of Somali interest with respect to the research, authorship, leaders.The consequence of which is evident in and/or publication of this article.

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