religions

Article Literate Shamanism: The Priests Called Then among the Tày in and Northern

David Holm Department of Ethnology, National Chengchi University, 64 Zhinan Road Section 2, Wenshan District, Taipei 11605, Taiwan; [email protected]

 Received: 30 November 2018; Accepted: 9 January 2019; Published: 18 January 2019 

Abstract: Then is the designation in Vietnamese and Tày given to shamanic practitioners of the Tày ethnicity, who reside mainly in the northern provinces of Vietnam. Scholars are long aware that the predominantly female spirit mediums among the Zhuang in Guangxi, variously called mehmoed or mehgimq, had a ritual repertoire which included shamanic journeys up to the sky as their essential element. The ritual songs of the mehmoed are orally transmitted, unlike the rituals of male religious practitioners in Guangxi such as Taoist priests, Ritual Masters, and mogong, all of which are text-based. One was led rather easily to posit a dichotomy in which male performers had texts, and female performers had repertoires which were orally transmitted. This division also seemed to hold true for certain seasonal song genres, at least in Guangxi. For that matter, shamanic traditions cross-culturally are seen as predominantly or exclusively oral traditions. Recent research among the Tày-speaking communities in northern Vietnam has confounded this tidy picture. Religious practitioners among the Tày include the Put, who in many cases have texts which incorporate segments of shamanic sky journeys and may be either male or female; and the Then, also both male and female, who have extensive repertoires of shamanic rituals which are performed and transmitted textually. The Then have a performance style that is recognisably based on shamanic journeying, but elaborated as a form of art song, complete with instrumental accompaniment (two- or three-stringed lutes), ritual dances, and flamboyant costumes. Apart from individual performances, there are large-scale rituals conducted by as many as a dozen priests. The present paper gives an overview of the practices and rituals of the Then, based on recent fieldwork in Vietnam and Guangxi, and discusses the implications these have for our conventional understandings of shamanism, literacy, gender, and the cultural geography of the border regions.

Keywords: shamanism; literacy; gender; Tày; performative orality; Vietnam; Guangxi; centre and periphery

1. A Personal Odyssey The immediate context of my interest in the practitioners called Then was a project to document the vernacular character scripts of the Tai-speaking peoples of northern Vietnam.1 My interest in the languages and folk religions of the Tày and Nùng in northern Vietnam began much earlier, in the early 1990s. At that time, I had already begun to collect relevant materials, including reports on the Then in Vietnamese. Then, in 2004, my long-time research associate Ling Shudong 凌樹東 visited a number of different localities in Cao Bằng province, across the border from his native county

1 Funded by the National Science Council, Ministry of Science and Technology, from 2011 to 2017. Project title: “Vernacular Character Writing Systems among the Tai-speaking Peoples of Southwest China and Northern Vietnam”. Then is pronounced like English “ten”.

Religions 2019, 10, 64; doi:10.3390/rel10010064 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

靖西, and collected texts from mogong 麽公 in a number of different districts.2 These were later Religions 2019, 10, 64 2 of 22 included in the Mapping the Old Zhuang Script survey volume. Ling’s explorations re-confirmed to me that there was a cultural and linguistic continuum on both sides of the China–Vietnam border, and Jingxi 靖西, and collected texts from mogong 麽公thatin aan number understanding of different of the districts. cultural2 These geography were later of northern Vietnam could be of vital importance included in the Mapping the Old Zhuang Script surveyfor improving volume. Ling’sour understanding explorations re-confirmedof Zhuang society to me and culture. that there was a cultural and linguistic continuum onWith both shamanism, sides of the my China–Vietnam research interest border, goes back and further. I conducted ten years of fieldwork on that an understanding of the cultural geographyprocessional of northern Vietnamdances and could theatre be of in vital North importance Shaanxi, forbeginning in 1981, and came across healing rituals improving our understanding of Zhuang societyperformed and culture. by the shenhan 神漢, one of which I recorded in the Chenghuangmiao 城隍廟 in Yulin 榆 With shamanism, my research interest goes林.3 back Early further. in the 1990s, I conducted I collaborated ten years with of Gu fieldwork Jianguo 顧建國, Director of the Guangxi Arts Research on processional dances and theatre in North Shaanxi,Institute beginning廣西藝術研究所 in 1981,, to and conduct came a across survey healing of ritual theatre among the Zhuang and other ethnic rituals performed by the shenhan 神漢, one ofgroups which Iin recorded Guangxi, in covering the Chenghuangmiao 來賓, Guigang城隍廟in 貴港, Hengxian 橫縣, Shanglin 上林, Binyang Yulin 榆林.3 Early in the 1990s, I collaborated with賓陽 Gu, Jianguo 顧欽州建國, , Director 河池, of the and Guangxi Jingxi 靖西 Arts.4 It was a deliberate decision on my part to Research Institute 廣西藝術研究所, to conductinclude a survey the ofmehmoed ritual theatreand other among ritual the specialists Zhuang of and Jingxi in this project, partly to address the gender other ethnic groups in Guangxi, covering Laibinimbalance來賓, (all of貴 the港, Hengxianshigong 師公橫縣 , andShanglin daogong上林 , 道公 were male). Everywhere, though, we Binyang 賓陽, Qinzhou 欽州, Hechi 河池, and Jingxidiscovered靖西.4 Itand was documented a deliberate the decision key role on my played part toby female spirit mediums or shamans (called include the mehmoedReligionsand 2019 other, 10, x FOR ritual PEER specialists REVIEW mehgimq of Jingxi and in this yahgimq project, in partlymost places) toReligions address in 2019organising the, 10 gender, x FOR rituals PEER REVIEW for 6the of 21 local community. As part of this 3 of 21 imbalance (all of the shigong 師公 and daogong 道project,公 were I conducted male). Everywhere, fieldwork though,in Jingxi wein 1997 discovered, and, together with Ling Shudong, recorded a mehmoed In this paper, we follow this example and look at the ritual practices2. The Tàyof the Then on both sides of and documented the key role played by female spiritinitiation mediums ritual or (Lau shamans3 thei1 (calledlang4, Ceremonymehgimq and of yahgimqTying the Sash). the border. in most places) in organising rituals for the local community.In northern Vietnam, As part of I conducted this project, Thefieldwork I conductedethnic in group three I provinces discuss here on ais number the Tày. of In different Vietnam, religious the Tày are the minority nationality with fieldwork in Jingxi in 1997, and, together withpractitioners. Ling Shudong, The recorded list includes a mehmoed mogongthe largestinitiation and daogongpopulation, ritual, as well numberin as shamanicg some practitioners 1,626,392 people like Pinụ t 2009.and 7 The Tày are now concentrated 5. The Then: Performance Style and Repertoire (Lau3 thei1 lang4, Ceremony of Tying the Sash).Then. In early 2015, I conducted mainlyfieldwork in thein Caonorthern Bằng, provinces and spent of severalCao Bằ ng,days L ạattendingng Sơn, B ắritualsc Kạn, Thái Nguyên, Quảng Ninh, Bắc In northern Vietnam,Among I conductedthe Tày in fieldworkVietnam,conducted there in three are provinces manyby a female differen on aP numbertụ kindst who oflived ofNinh, religious different in and the practitioners.B religiousoutskirtsắc Giang, of where Cao The B kindstheyằng city.have I livedattended for several a Chúc millenia. Thọ 祝壽8 In Vietnam, the Tày are classified practitioners. Thethat listare includestransmittedmogong by mastersand daogong who(Celebration rece, asived well ofan as Longevity) ordination shamanic practitionersritualcertificate inseparately a arevillage like the fromPjustụt, andtoThen the the , Nùng, Mowest, and of who CaoTạo . areBằng, also a houseTai-spea blessiking,ng butritual are in descendants of relatively recent Then. In earlyOf 2015, these, I conducted the Mo correspond fieldwork to in theHà Cao mogongQu Bằảng,ng of河廣 and Guangxi spent district, severaland and Guizhou, also daysmigrants a attendingclinic while 門診 from the rituals Theld China.ạo are by quite Inthe Guangxi, P similarụt for neighbourhood however, the Nùng people (bouxnungz with sick in Zhuang) are lumped together conducted by ato female the daogongP t who. The lived Tạo, in and the in outskirts somefamily places members of Cao the B ằMo inng suburbanas city. well, I attended are Cao thewith B onesằ ang. Chthe Inúwho cZhuang, late Th conductọ summer祝壽 while funerals, of the the Tày same and populati year, Ion returned refer to and themse conductedlves as Bu-Dai 布傣, a transliteration of (Celebration ofare Longevity) responsible ritual for in conducting a village just thefollow-up to soul the west of researchthe of Caodeceas Bwithằedng, to athe housethe same other blessingthe P ụ world.nativet and ritual herterm.As infamily; If Hother oneà Iconfines areasalso didto theones fieldwork reading on to daogong Chinese-language in Chợ Đôn accounts, though, this designation Quảng 河廣 district,north andof the also border, a clinic the門 T診ạo heldmake bydistrict use the ofP intextst thefor primarily neighbourhoodfar southwest in Chinese, of people Bắmeansc recitingKạ withn province.the sickthese Tày family textsare My too indirect a easily“southern encounter confused with with the the Then Dai began 傣 in in Yunnan. early 9 This is unfortunate: the four members in suburbanpronunciation”, Cao Bằng. while In late the summer Mo useFebruary of texts the same in 2016, demotic year, when I returnedscript. I conducted The and P conductedụmajort , fieldworkThen concentrations, and follow-up inthe four Mo separatein of most Dai people areasvillages in inYunnan—in the Tày-speaking Sipsong areaPanna, of in Dehong, in Jinping, and along research with theconcentrate same P tonand rituals her family;for the Ibenefit alsoJinlongdong did of fieldworkthe living,金龍洞 onand indaogong Longzhourecite textsin Chthe 龍州 inợ Yuanjiang—are Đôthe county,n Tày district language Guangxi. in all alongspeakers I recorded with of fiSouthwesternve or six ritual Tai performances, languages, while the Tày are speakers of a the far southwestritual of Bsongsắc K ạofn offering province. which My direct theyincluding learn encounter by two heart. withseparate23 theBoth Thenlarge-scale the Pbeganụt andCentral inannual the early Then Tai communal February language. perform rituals10 In other whichCầu words,Mùa 求務 linguistically, (Praying for Tày a is(Good) reasonably close to Nùng and to what 2016, when I conductedinvolve shamanic fieldwork journeys in four separateinto theHarvest) sky. villages and in a thesmall Tà householdy-speaking ritual areain Guangxi ofconducted Jinlongdong is called duri ngSouthern a baby’s Zhuang. first three months to remove astral 金龍洞 in LongzhouIt龍 is州 significantcounty, Guangxi. that the names I recordedobstructions Pụt and five Then or (Gi sixả arei ritualH ạbothn 解限 performances, usually). Finally, written inHowever, including August with the 2017,a two samecloser I conducted character look also infieldworkreveals some on Thensign ificantand other differences ritual between the Tày and the Nùng separate large-scaletheir texts, annual 仸 communal, which is a rituals vernacular Cspecialistsầu Mvariantùa 求 in 務for four(Praying 佛 separate fo “buddha”. for districts a (Good) Theor inSouthern Late Harvest)Lạng Han Sơ Zhuang.n andand province. aMiddle 5 Chinese small householdpronunciation ritual conducted of 佛 duringfo was a/but/. baby’s With firstFor the threefieldwork designation months evidence, to“Then remove”, the the astral presentcharacter obstructions paper 仸 was relies re-interpreted, primarily on fieldwork in Cao Bằng and (Giải Hạn 解限).so Finally, that 天 in tian August “heaven” 2017, I conductedon theJinlongdong, right-hand fieldwork andside on secondarily Thenis undeandrstood other on fieldwork3. ritualas Tày indicating and specialists in Zhuang Bắ cthe K inạ npronunciation. and Lạng Sơn. 6 four separate districtsHowever, in Litạ ngis more Sơn province.complicated5 than this, for “Then” is also the general designation in the Tai-Thai These differences become particularly salient in Jinlong in the northern part of , For fieldworklanguages evidence, in Southeast the present Asia paperfor sky reliesgods. primarilyMoreover, onsky fieldwork gods, in turn, in Cao represent Bằng a and particularly well- 2 This was for an Australian Researchin the Council-funded far southwest large ofgrant Guangxi project onprovince The Old Zhuangbordering Script, Vietnam. 1996– Tày in Guangxi are heavily Jinlongdong, anddeveloped secondarily and onpowerful fieldwork sector in B ofắc the Kạn Tai and pantheon Lạng Sơ,n. being6 closely connected not only with harvests 1999. Mogong are Tai-style ritualistsconcentrated who conduct in rituals this area,based whereon the recitationthey form of textsthe ma in Zhuangjority of or the other population. Tày are also found in and general prosperity, but also with political power and chieftaincy in the Tai domains. . On mogong, see forisolated example pockets (Holm 2017a). of surrounding counties such as Daxin, Pingxiang, and Fangcheng. On the differences in performance style between Pụt and Then, both shamanic practitioners of 3 Shenhan (literally “sacred men”) are maleJinlong shamanic is an pracareatitioners of karst found mountains. in the no rthwesternI visited theprovinces area inof February 2016, at a time which 24 2 Tày ethnicity, Bế Viết Dằng has the following pertinent observations: This was for an Australian Research Council-funded large grantChina. project Also on called The Old matong Zhuang 馬童 Script, (lit.happened 1996–1999. “horse boys”, toMogong coincide i.e.,are “grooms”), with the annualthese men large-scale also serve co asmmunal masters of ritual ritual to pray for good weather and good Tai-style ritualists who conduct rituals based on the recitationfor of processions texts in Zhuang and or otherlarge-scale Tai languages. rites, as On wellmogong as healers, see for of the sick. example (Holm 2017aAs). far as the melodies [of ritual music] are concerned, the harvestsThen have in differentthe coming songs year in (c ầu mùa). I was struck immediately by the difference between Jinlong 4 The name for this series was Guangxi Zhuangzu nuo wenhua congshu 廣西壯族儺文化叢書. Its main focus 3 Shenhan (literally “sacreddifferent men”) areplaces, male shamanicbut, in each practitioners place, foundthe melody in the northwestern is uniform provinces fromand beginning of the China. villages Also to calledend, further with south very near the county town. 馬童 was on the masked dances and ritual theatre of the Zhuang shigong. Field reports from this series are matong (lit. “horsefew boys”, variations i.e., “grooms”), in the these melody, men also while, serve asby masters contrast, of ritual the for songs processions of the andFor Pụ large-scale tJinlong, are much rites, we more are fortunate rich in having a report based on the early 1950s investigations into the as well as healers of the sick. currently being published by the Guangxi Nationalities Publishing House in . 4 壯 The name for this seriesand was varied. Guangxi Songs Zhuangzu such as nuo “Crossing5 wenhua The congshuplaces the Sea”, are廣西 the “The族 L儺ạng 文Lady 化叢Sơn 書inCity. the Its socialenvirons mainMoon”, focushistory and and was the of“Hand-to-hand on districts the the area. of AccordingCao L ộc, Vă ton Quan, that report and Đ,ình the L ậancestorsp. Văn Quan of the current Tày population began masked dances and ritualCombat theatre with of the Lady Zhuang Da shigong. Dun” Fieldare tr reportsuly beautiful from this series pieces are of currently music.their being migration published by from the Hải Dương in the Red River delta sometime around 600 years ago. The Guangxi Nationalities Publishing House in Nanning. district is famous for its Then. 5 6 migration of these people took them through Thái Nguyên and eventually to Hạ Lang district in the The places are the LạAsng Sforơn Citymusical environs instruments and the districts among The of Cao system the Lộ c,Then Vofă ntranscription, Quan,one uses and Đì a nhusedlute Lậ p.intính Vthisă nwith Quanpaper one, district for two,Tày is isor based three on the Vietnamese National Script (Quốc famous for its Then. ngữ). It is widely used in Vietnameastern and will part give readersof Cao accessBằng, to whence a range ofthey dictionaries. moved Toeast begin into with the tones: Jinlong area.11 Once in occupation of 6 strings to accompany and direct the singing, and a bunch of hand-bells may be carried on The system of transcription used in this paper for Tày is basedtones on theare Vietnamese indicated Nationalby diacritic Script marks (Quố cover ngữ). the It is vowel. widely No mark (a) indicates a high-mid level tone like the used in Vietnam andthe will foot give readersand shaken access to slowly. a range ofAmong dictionaries. the ToPụ begint, the with tính tones: is not tones used, areindicated but rather by diacritic only a bunch of first tone in Chinese (44); an acute accent (á) indicates a sharply rising tone (35); a grave accent (à) a gently marks over the vowel.iron No or mark copper (a) indicates chains a high-midwhich are level held tone in like the the hand first tone and in shaken Chinese to (44); set an the acute rhythm. accent (á ) indicates a sharply rising tone (35); a grave accent (à) a gentlyfalling falling tone tone (32); (32); a aquestion question mark mark ( ẚ) a tone thatthat falls falls then then rises (323); and a dot underneath the vowel (ạ) one /ê/ is pronounced as in “bait”, /o/ is pronounced as in “hot”, /ô/ is pronounced as in “goat”, /ơ/ is pronounced rises (323); and a dot underneath the vowel (ạ) one that fallsthat abruptly falls and abruptly ends in and a glottal ends stop in (31).a glottal Among stop vowels, (31). Among plain vowels, plain unmarked /a, i, u/ are pronounced The Then include many passages accompanied by dances, suchas long as /theɤ/, anddance /ư/ is“ch pronouncedầu slay” as / ɯ /. Initial consonants pronounced more or less as in English are: m, unmarked /a, i, u/ are pronounced as in Italian; /ă/ is pronouncedas in Italian; like / shortă/ is pronounced /a/, /â/ is pronounced like short /a like/, /â/ / /,is /e/pronounced is like /ɤ/, /e/ is pronounced like “e” as in “get”, pronounced like “e”(“audience as in “get”, / êwith/ is pronounced the master as inteacher”) “bait”, /o/ which is pronounced is quite as beautiful, in “hot”, /ô /with isf, pronouncedv, supplen, l, ch, andmovements, as in h. Others—p, which t, c (c, but also k and q)—are pronounced as unaspirated p, t, and k; ph, th,

the professionals perform during festive gatherings. The Then areand represented kh likewise, not but only aspirated; in ritual b is a glottalised voiced b /ʔb/, and đ is /ʔd/; sl sounds a little like th as in but also in festive gatherings. The Pụt songs are above all in the“thing” Tày language, or a mushy but sh; thenh sounds Then, like ny as in “vineyard”; x sounds like /s/; d sounds like th as in “this”; alongside Tày, include words in Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese,and ng sometimessounds like ngin ascomplete in “sing”. See further (Hoàng Văn Ma 1997). phrases. For example, 7 (General Statistics Office of Vietnam 2010, p. 134). 8 A substantial proportion of the Tày population in the north dates back to the time of the earliest human In my soul I want to fish for a fish… habitation in this area: see (Các Dân tộc ở Bắc Kạn 2003, pp. 77–78). This is in line also with DNA evidence, I love to see the moon surrounded by clouds on which see (Li 2002). Briefly, Li Hui and his colleagues at the Fudan University Centre for Human Genome I can neither forget nor think about my beloved. Research conducted Y-chromosome testing of populations identified as descendants of the Hundred Yue and Austronesian peoples. They found that these populations came from a single origin, and settled in The rear guard is lined up in rows of three Guangdong and the Red River Basin in Vietnam around 30–40,000 years before present (BP). From there, in The forward guard arranges the horses in front of the officersthe second of three stages, they gradually expanded towards the northeast and southwest. For further The rear guard with Ngủu Lang drives away the demons. discussion, see (Holm 2016, pp. 198–201). 9 Officially, however, the Tày are classified by the Chinese government as belonging to the Zhuang nationality. 10 The division of the Tai language family into northern, central, and southwestern branches comes from the 23 (Bế Viết Dằng et al. 1992, pp. 166–167). Actually, the Tạo (daogong) reciteclassification their texts proposed in Southwestern by Li Fang-kuei (see, e.g., his Handbook of Comparative Tai). For another view, based Mandarin, even well to the south of the China–Vietnam border (Holm fieldwork,on the two-fold Chợ Đôn classification district, Bắc propKạn osed by Haudricourt, see (Ross 1996). province, August 2015). 11 Local people reported that their ancestors came originally from Hải Dương 海陽 province, south of the Red 24 (Bế Viết Ðằng et al., p. 167). River midway between Hanoi and Haiphong, beginning some 14 generations previously (around 600 years

Religions 2019, 10, 64 3 of 22 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21 ReligionsReligions 2019 2019, 10, 10, x, xFOR FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 3 3of of 21 21 2. The Tày 2. The Tày 2.2. The The Tày Tày The ethnic group I discuss here is the Tày. In Vietnam, the Tày are the minority nationality with the The ethnic group I discuss here is the Tày. In Vietnam, the Tày are the minority nationality with largest population, numberingTheThe ethnic ethnic some group group 1,626,392 I Idiscuss discuss people here here in is 2009. is the the 7Tày. TheTày. In TInà Viy Vietnam, areetnam, now the concentratedthe Tày Tày are are the the mainlyminority minority nationality nationality with with the largest population, numbering some 1,626,392 people in 2009.7 The Tày are now concentrated in the northern provincesthethe largest largest of Cao population, population, Bằng, Lạng numberin numberin Sơn, Bắcg K gạsome n,some Th 1,626,392á i1,626,392 Nguyê n,people people Quảng in in Ninh, 2009. 2009. B7 ắ7The cThe Ninh, Tày Tày andare are now now concentrated concentrated mainly in the northern provinces of Cao Bằng, Lạng Sơn, Bắc Kạn, Thái Nguyên, Quảng Ninh, Bắc Bắc Giang, where theymainlymainly have in in livedthe the northern fornorthern several provinces provinces millenia. of 8of CaoIn Cao Vietnam, B Bằng,ằng, L L theạngạng TS àơSyơn, aren, B Bắ classifiedcắ cK Kạn,ạn, Thái Thái separately Nguyên, Nguyên, Qu Quảngảng Ninh, Ninh, B Bắcắ c Ninh, and Bắc Giang, where they have lived for several millenia.8 In Vietnam, the Tày are classified from the Nùng, whoNinh,Ninh, are and also and B Tai-speaking, Bắcắ cGiang, Giang, where where but theyare they descendantshave have lived lived for for of several relativelyseveral millenia. millenia. recent8 8 migrants In In Vietnam, Vietnam, from the the Tày Tày are are classified classified separately from the Nùng, who are also Tai-speaking, but are descendants of relatively recent China. In Guangxi,separately however,separately the from from Nù ngthe the ( bouxnungzNùng, Nùng, who whoin Zhuang)are are also also areTai-spea Tai-spea lumpedking,king, together but but are withare descendants descendants the Zhuang, of of relatively relatively recent recent migrants from China. In Guangxi, however, the Nùng (bouxnungz in Zhuang) are lumped together while the Tày populationmigrantsmigrants refer from from to themselves China. China. In In asGuangxi, Guangxi, Bu-Dai 布however, however,傣, a transliteration the the Nùng Nùng ( bouxnungz of(bouxnungz the native in in term.Zhuang) Zhuang) If one are are lumped lumped together together with the Zhuang, while the Tày population refer to themselves as Bu-Dai 布傣, a transliteration of confines ones readingwithwith to the Chinese-language the Zhuang, Zhuang, while while accounts,the the Tày Tày populati though,population thison refer refer designation to to themse themse meanslveslves as as the Bu-Dai Bu-Dai Tày are 布傣 布傣 too, a, atransliteration transliteration of of the native term. If one confines ones reading to Chinese-language accounts, though, this designation easily confused withthethe the native native Dai term.傣 term.in If Yunnan. If one one confines confines9 This ones isones unfortunate: reading reading to to Chinese-language theChinese-language four major concentrations accounts, accounts, though, though, of this this designation designation means the Tày are too easily confused with the Dai 傣 in Yunnan.9 This is unfortunate: the four Dai people in Yunnan—inmeansmeans the Sipsongthe Tày Tày are Panna,are too too easily ineasily Dehong, confused confused in Jinping, with with the the and Dai Dai along 傣 傣 in thein Yunnan. Yunnan. Yuanjiang—are9 9This This is is allunfortunate: unfortunate: the the four four major concentrations of Dai people in Yunnan—in Sipsong Panna, in Dehong, in Jinping, and along speakers of Southwesternmajormajor concentrations concentrations Tai languages, of of whileDai Dai people people the T àin yin Yunnan—in are Yunnan—in speakers Sipsong ofSipsong a Central Panna, Panna, Tai in in language.Dehong, Dehong, in10 in Jinping, Jinping, and and along along the Yuanjiang—are all speakers of Southwestern Tai languages, while the Tày are speakers of a In other words, linguistically,thethe Yuanjiang—are Yuanjiang—are Tày is reasonably all all speakers speakers close of of Southwestern toSouthwestern Nùng and Tai to Tai what languages, languages, in Guangxi while while isthe the called Tày Tày are are speakers speakers of of a a Central Tai language.10 In other words, linguistically, Tày is reasonably close to Nùng and to what Southern Zhuang. CentralCentral Tai Tai language. language.1010 In In other other words, words, linguistically, linguistically, Tày Tày is is reasonably reasonably close close to to Nùng Nùng and and to to what what in Guangxi is called Southern Zhuang. However, a closerinin Guangxi lookGuangxi also is revealsis called called Southern some Southern significant Zhuang. Zhuang. differences between the Tày and the Nùng or However, a closer look also reveals some significant differences between the Tày and the Nùng Southern Zhuang. However,However, a acloser closer look look also also reveals reveals some some sign significantificant differences differences between between the the Tày Tày and and the the Nùng Nùng or Southern Zhuang. oror Southern Southern Zhuang. Zhuang. 3. Tày and Zhuang 3. Tày and Zhuang 3.3. Tày Tày and and Zhuang Zhuang These differences become particularly salient in Jinlong in the northern part of Longzhou county, These differences become particularly salient in Jinlong in the northern part of Longzhou county, in the far southwest of GuangxiTheseThese differences provincedifferences bordering become become particular Vietnam.particularly Tly àsalient ysalient in Guangxi in in Jinlong Jinlong are in heavilyin the the nort nort concentratedhernhern part part of of Longzhou Longzhou county, county, in the far southwest of Guangxi province bordering Vietnam. Tày in Guangxi are heavily in this area, where theyinin the formthe farfar the southwestsouthwest majority of of theof GuangxiGuangxi population. provinceprovince Tày are bordering alsobordering found Vietnam. inVietnam. isolated Tày pocketsTày inin Guangxi ofGuangxi areare heavilyheavily concentrated in this area, where they form the majority of the population. Tày are also found in surrounding countiesconcentratedconcentrated such as Daxin, in in this Pingxiang,this area, area, where where and Fangcheng.they they form form the the ma majorityjority of of the the population. population. Tày Tày are are also also found found in in isolated pockets of surrounding counties such as Daxin, Pingxiang, and Fangcheng. Jinlong is an areaisolatedisolated of karstpockets pockets mountains. of of surrounding surrounding I visited counties counties the area su suchch in as as February Daxin, Daxin, Pingxiang, Pingxiang, 2016, at aand and time Fangcheng. Fangcheng. which Jinlong is an area of karst mountains. I visited the area in February 2016, at a time which happened to coincide withJinlongJinlong the annual is is an an large-scalearea area of of karst karst communal mountains. mountains. ritual I toIvisited visited pray forthe the good area areaweather in in February February and good 2016, 2016, at at a atime time which which happened to coincide with the annual large-scale communal ritual to pray for good weather and good harvests in the cominghappenedhappened year (c toầ tou coincide coincide mùa). I with was with the struck the annual annual immediately large-scale large-scale by co co themmunalmmunal difference ritual ritual between to to pray pray for Jinlong for good good weather weather and and good good harvests in the coming year (cầu mùa). I was struck immediately by the difference between Jinlong and the villages furtherharvestsharvests south in in nearthe the coming thecoming county year year town. (c (cầuầu mùa). mùa). I Iwas was struck struck immediately immediately by by the the difference difference between between Jinlong Jinlong and the villages further south near the county town. For Jinlong, weandand are the the fortunate villages villages infurther further having south south a report near near the basedthe county county on thetown. town. early 1950s investigations into For Jinlong, we are fortunate in having a report based on the early 1950s investigations into the the social history of theFor area.For Jinlong, Jinlong, According we we are are to fortunate that fortunate report, in in having the having ancestors a areport report of based thebased current on on the the T earlyà earlyy population 1950s 1950s investigations investigations into into the the social history of the area. According to that report, the ancestors of the current Tày population began began their migrationsocialsocial from history history Hả iof Dof theươ the ngarea. area. in According theAccording Red River to to that that delta report report sometime, the, the ancestors ancestors around of of 600the the current years current ago. Tày Tày population population began began their migration from Hải Dương in the Red River delta sometime around 600 years ago. The The migration of thesetheirtheir people migration migration took themfrom from throughH Hảiả iD Dươ Thươngángi Nguyin in the theê nRed andRed River eventuallyRiver delta delta tosometi someti Hạ Langmeme districtaround around in600 600 years years ago. ago. The The migration of these people took them through Thái Nguyên and eventually to Hạ Lang district in the the eastern part of Caomigrationmigration Bằng, whenceof of these these theypeople people moved took took them east them into through through the Jinlong Thái Thái Nguyên area.Nguyên11 Onceand and eventually ineventually occupation to to H H ofạ ạLang Lang district district in in the the eastern part of Cao Bằng, whence they moved east into the Jinlong area.11 Once in occupation of Jinlong, they forcedeastern theeastern local part part inhabitants of of Cao Cao B Bằ tong,ằng, work whence whence for them they they asmoved moved indentured east east into labourersinto the the Jinlong Jinlong and fieldarea. area. hands;1111 Once Once in in occupation occupation of of most of this population were Nùng. There is, thus, a vast social difference between Tày and Nùng

/ê/ is pronounced as in “bait”, /o/ is pronounced as in “hot”, /ô/ is pronounced as in “goat”, /ơ/ is pronounced /ê//ê/ is is pronounced pronounced as as in in “bait”, “bait”, /o/ /o/ is is pronounced pronounced as as in in “hot”, “hot”, /ô/ /ô/ is is pronounced pronounced as as in in “goat”, “goat”, /ơ //ơ is/ is pronounced pronounced as long /ɤ/, and /ư/ is pronounced as / ɯ /. Initial consonants pronounced more or less as in English are: m, “goat”, /ơ/ is pronouncedasas as long long /ɤ ///,ɤ /,and and and /ư /ư/ư is/ is ispronounced pronounced pronounced as as as / ɯ/ ɯ /./. /.Initial Initialconsonants consonants consonants pronounced pronounced pronounced more more more or less or or as less less in as as in in English English are: are: m, m, f, v, n, l, ch, and h. Others—p, t, c (c, but also k and q)—are pronounced as unaspirated p, t, and k; ph, th, English are: m, f, v, n, l, ch,f, f,v, and v, n, n, h.l, l, Others—p,ch, ch, and and h. h. t,Others—p, cOthers—p, (c, but also t, kt,c andc(c, (c, but q)—are but also also pronounced k kan and dq)—are q)—are as unaspirated pronounced pronounced p, t, as and as unaspi unaspi k; ph,rated th,rated p, p, t, t,and and k; k; ph, ph, th, th, and kh likewise, but aspirated; b is a glottalised voiced b /ʔb/, and đ is /ʔd/; sl sounds a little like th as in and kh likewise, but aspirated;andand kh kh b likewise, is likewise, a glottalised but but aspirated; voiced aspirated; b / b/,b bis andis a aglottalised đglottalisedis / d/; slvoiced soundsvoiced b ab/ littleʔ/b/,ʔb/, and like and thđ đ asis is in/ʔ /d/;ʔ “d/;th sling” sl sounds sounds or a a alittle little like like th th as as in in “thing”mushy or a mushy sh; nh sounds sh; nh like sounds ny as inlike “vineyard”; ny as in x“vineyard”; sounds like /s/;x sounds d sounds like like /s/; th d as sounds in “this”; like and th ng as sounds in “this”; like ng as in “sing”. See further (Hoàng“thing”“thing” Văn Ma or 1997or a amushy). mushy sh; sh; nh nh sounds sounds like like ny ny as as in in “vineyard”; “vineyard”; x xsounds sounds like like /s/; /s/; d dsounds sounds like like th th as as in in “this”; “this”; and ng sounds like ng as in “sing”. See further (Hoàng Văn Ma 1997). 7 (General Statistics Officeand ofand Vietnam ng ng sounds sounds 2010, like p. like 134). ng ng as as in in “sing”. “sing”. See See further further (Hoàng (Hoàng V Vănă nMa Ma 1997). 1997). 7 (General Statistics Office of Vietnam 2010, p. 134). 8 A substantial proportion7 7 (General of (General the Tày Statisticspopulation Statistics Offi Offi ince thece ofnorth of Vietnam Vietnam dates back2010, 2010, to p. thep. 134). 134). time of the earliest human habitation in this 8 A substantial proportion of the Tày population in the north dates back to the time of the earliest human area: see (Các Dân tộ8c 8ở B Aắ Ac substantial K substantialạn 2003, pp. proportion 77–78).proportion This of is of inthe the line Tày Tày also population withpopulation DNA evidence, in in th the enorth onnorth which dates dates see back (Liback 2002 to to ).the Briefly,the time time Li of of the the earliest earliest human human habitationHui andin this his colleaguesarea: see (Các at the Dân Fudan tộc University ở Bắc Kạn Centre 2003, for pp. Human 77–78). Genome This is Research in line also conducted with DNA Y-chromosome evidence, testing of habitationhabitation in in this this area: area: see see (Các (Các Dân Dân tộ tcộ cở ởB ắBcắ cK Kạnạ n2003, 2003, pp. pp. 77–78). 77–78). This This is is in in lin line ealso also with with DNA DNA evidence, evidence, on whichpopulations see (Li 2002). identified Briefly, as descendants Li Hui and of his the colleagues Hundred Yue at the and Fudan Austronesian University peoples. Centre They for found Human that theseGenome populations came from a single origin,onon and which which settled see see in (Li Guangdong(Li 2002). 2002). Briefly, Briefly, and theLi Li Hu Red Hui Riverandi and his Basinhis colleagues colleagues in Vietnam at at the around the Fudan Fudan 30–40,000 Un Universityiversity years Centre before Centre for for Human Human Genome Genome Research conducted Y-chromosome testing of populations identified as descendants of the Hundred Yue present (BP). From there,Research inResearch the second conducted conducted of three stages, Y-chromosome Y-chromosome they gradually testing testing expanded of of populati populati towardsons theons northeastidentified identified and as as southwest.descendants descendants For of of the the Hundred Hundred Yue Yue and Austronesianfurther discussion, peoples. see ( HolmThey 2016 found, pp. that 198–201). these populations came from a single origin, and settled in 9 andand Austronesian Austronesian peoples. peoples. They They found found that that these these popu populationslations came came from from a asingle single origin, origin, and and settled settled in in GuangdongOfficially, and however, the Red the River Tày Basin are classified in Vietnam by the around Chinese 30–40,000 government years as belonging before present to the Zhuang (BP). nationality.From there, in 10 GuangdongGuangdong and and the the Red Red River River Basin Basin in in Vietnam Vietnam around around 30–40,000 30–40,000 years years before before present present (BP). (BP). From From there, there, in in the secondThe division of three of thestages, Tai language they gradually family into expanded northern, towards central, and the southwestern northeast and branches southwest. comes from For thefurther classification proposed by Li Fang-kueithe (see,the second second e.g., his of Handbookof three three stages, ofstages, Comparative they they graduallyTai gradually). For another expanded expanded view, basedtowards towards on the the the two-fold nort northeastheast classification and and southwest. southwest. For For further further discussion, see (Holm 2016, pp. 198–201). proposed by Haudricourt,discussion,discussion, see (Ross 1996 see see). (Holm (Holm 2016, 2016, pp. pp. 198–201). 198–201). 9 Officially,11 Local however, people reported the Tày that are theirclassified ancestors by the came Chin originallyese government from Hải D ươas ngbelonging海陽 province, to thesouth Zhuang of the nationality. Red River midway 9 9 Officially, Officially, however, however, the the Tày Tày are are classified classified by by the the Chin Chineseese government government as as belonging belonging to to the the Zhuang Zhuang nationality. nationality. 10 The divisionbetween of Hanoi the Tai and language Haiphong, family beginning into somenorthe 14rn, generations central, and previously southwestern (around 600branches years ago). comes They from migrated the to the north via Thái Nguy10ê n10 太 The原 The,B divisionắ divisionc Ninh 北 of 寧of the,S theơ Tain Tai Tâ languagey language山西, and family Caofamily Bằ nginto into高 平northe northe. See (rn,Longjinrn, central, central, xian and Dairen and southwestern southwestern diaocha 1987 ).branches branches comes comes from from the the classification proposed by Li Fang-kuei (see, e.g., his Handbook of Comparative Tai). For another view, based classificationclassification proposed proposed by by Li Li Fang-kuei Fang-kuei (see, (see, e.g., e.g., his his Handbook Handbook of of Comparative Comparative Tai Tai). ).For For another another view, view, based based on the two-fold classification proposed by Haudricourt, see (Ross 1996). onon the the two-fold two-fold classification classification prop proposedosed by by Haudricourt, Haudricourt, see see (Ross (Ross 1996). 1996). 11 Local people reported that their ancestors came originally from Hải Dương 海陽 province, south of the Red 11 11 Local Local people people reported reported that that their their ancestors ancestors came came originally originally from from H Hảiả Di Dươươngng 海陽 海陽province,province, south south of of the the Red Red River midway between Hanoi and Haiphong, beginning some 14 generations previously (around 600 years RiverRiver midway midway between between Hanoi Hanoi and and Haiphong, Haiphong, beginning beginning some some 14 14 generations generations previously previously (around (around 600 600 years years

Religions 2019, 10, 64 4 of 22 in this area, with the Nùng forming part of an underclass and the Tày monopolising ownership of the best land and other forms of wealth. The Tày are literate, while the Nùng have a culture which is orally transmitted. This divide continues to this day. Recent reports indicate that Tày and Nùng did not inter-marry at all until sometime in the 1950s,12 and the Tày proudly retain traditional costumes, traditional housing, and traditional customs. Traditional customs include teeth-staining (also found among the Thai Lue and other Thai groups much further west) and betel-nut chewing.13 They also retain unbroken their performance culture (song, instrumental music, and dance), their writing system, and their literary traditions. Further to the south, the Nùng around the county town of Longzhou have a quite different traditional culture. Among the Nùng villages, as in other Zhuang areas, there is the custom of holding seasonal song festivals (“song markets”), but the song repertoire is orally transmitted and written song texts are hard to find. The Jinlong Tày managed to retain so much of their local power vis-à-vis other groups because a contingent of 500 young Tày men joined the Red Army in early 1930, taking part in the uprising at Longzhou (Longzhou qiyi 龍州起義) and the subsequent establishment of a Right River Soviet Area in western Guangxi under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping.14 The Jinlong Tày in this way came to have excellent connections with the provincial Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leadership, a crucial factor in resolving any number of difficult issues, such as preferential access to middle and higher education. The loyalty of the Jinlong Tày to the CCP and to the Chinese state is, thus, more or less unquestioned, in spite of their location right on the border with Vietnam and their Vietnamese origins.15 Another indication of this favoured status is that the art of playing the two- or three-stringed lute, the primary musical instrument of the Then, was among the first batch of proposals to be granted Intangible Cultural Heritage status by the Guangxi government in 2006.16 On the other side of the border, the Tày and Nùng peoples became active participants in the Indochinese communist movement from an early date. returned to Vietnam in early 1941 after 30 years in exile to the Bắc Bộ base area in the northwestern part of Cao Bằng. The population of Cao Bằng province at that time was 80% Tày and Nùng, and the newly established Viet Minh relied heavily on the support and participation of Tày and Nùng villagers, who had a long history of insurrection. Tày men also were among the earliest leaders in the Indochinese Communist Party beginning in the 1930s, and provided support for political training classes in Longzhou across the border. Beginning in 1941, Cao Bằng was also the site of a new initiative to foster local pride, and consolidated it by initiating a “culture-teaching movement” in the areas under the party’s control.17 A substantial amount of this cultural activity would have been conducted in the local languages, Tày and Nùng. Thus, Tày and Nùng villagers formed a core support group for the Vietnamese communist movement, and earned for themselves a right to a seat at the national table. It is probably no accident that scholarship on the Tày and Nùng got off to an early start in post-1954 Vietnam, and was well supported.

4. A Brief Review of Research on the Then in China and Vietnam The salience of the Then among the religious practitioners in northern Vietnam attracted the attention of scholars there from an early date. The first major conference on the rituals, music, dances,

12 (Nong and Tan 2015, p. 28). 13 (Nong and Tan 2015, pp. 25–27). 14 (Nong and Tan 2015, p. 4). 15 At the end of the 1970s, prior to the armed conflict between China and Vietnam during the Third Indochina War of 1979–1984, a few families in Jinlong were moved out to inland locations elsewhere in Guangxi. See (Nong and Tan 2015, pp. 14–15) for details. 16 (Tan 2010, p. 477). 17 (Woodside 1976, pp. 218–22). The positive stance adopted by the Viet Minh was very much in contrast with iconoclastic attitudes towards old peasant culture that were so prevalent in China. Religions 2019, 10, 64 5 of 22 and social position of the Then was held in 1975,18 just after the end of the war with the United States (US), and this was followed up by studies on various aspects of Then rituals and performance culture. Most of this work was conducted by scholars attached to the Institute of Popular Culture and the Ethnographic Museum of Vietnam. A thorough overview of this research is given by Nguyễn Thị Yên in her monograph on the Then, which was based on her doctoral thesis.19 There are now available many book-length studies of specific Then rituals, and annotated editions of quite a few liturgical texts. Overall, the quality of this scholarly output is high. Vietnamese scholars learned from French ethnologists, as well as Soviet scholars, and they were aware of some of the international dimensions of their research topic, including Russian scholarship on shamanism.20 A major point of difference with much scholarship from the People’s Republic of China (PRC) is that the Vietnamese are evidently allowed to describe minority cultures in terms of their own internal cultural logic and from the point of view of religious practitioners and local people, rather than filtering everything through the lens of the dominant majority culture. By comparison, much of the PRC scholarship on the Then is oddly off-centered. The performance culture of the Then in Longzhou attracted the attention of local and provincial scholars early in the Reform Era, and an investigation on the Then was conducted as part of the Cultural Compendium surveys of traditional cultural forms during the 1980s. A report on the dances of the Then was included in the Guangxi provincial volume on folk dance, under the title “Tianqin wu” 天琴舞 (“Dance of the Heavenly Lute”).21 The forms of performance, or rather their constituent elements—song, dance, vocal music, and instrumental music—remain one of the main foci of scholarly attention in China, but the actual content of the performances and ritual structure remain under-described. One recent encyclopaedia-style handbook of regional culture in the southwest of Guangxi devotes a great deal of space to the description of the two-string lute itself, mentioning in passing that it had its origins as a musical instrument used in wu 巫 performances, which are not described. The impression given in such accounts is that “Tianqin” rituals, as opposed to performances in non-religious settings, are either a thing of the past or are insignificant. Trying to make sense of the Then on the basis of these Chinese-language accounts would be next to impossible. There is some PRC scholarship that is much better than this. One report published in Minzu yanjiu was based on intensive fieldwork in Jinlong, and provides some specific information about ritual names given to ordinands, numbers of Then practitioners, and relationships between the Then and the general populace. It also points out the general preference among ordinary people to engage Then practitioners whose parents and grandparents were also Then, since these Then were seen as having access to some generations of accumulated knowledge and experience. Even in this article, however, there is an emphasis on a supposed secularising and modernising transition, away from traditional rituals to “entertaining people”. The fact that Then rituals entailed journeys up into the sky is mentioned only in a single sentence.22 However, we know also that scholars can produce useful work and provide useful information even if their explanatory frameworks are flawed. It is worth commenting, though, that recent Chinese scholarship treats the “Tianqin” practitioners solely as a China-based phenomenon, and does not look at any of the Vietnamese studies on the Then. The scholarly gaze stops at the border, even though the border is but a few kilometres away, and even though local people travel back and forth all the time. By contrast, at least some Vietnamese scholars incorporate Chinese scholarship within their purview, and at least one Vietnamese scholar conducted fieldwork in Jinlongdong, as well as in the northern provinces of Vietnam.

18 See (Mấy vấn đề về Then Việt Bắc 1978). 19 (Nguyễn Thị Yên 2007, pp. 24–41). 20 See, e.g., (Ngô Đức Thịnh 2004). 21 (Tianqin wu 1992). 22 (Qin et al. 2008). For the sentence mentioning sky journeys, see p. 43. Religions 2019, 10, 64 6 of 22 ReligionsReligionsReligions 2019 2019 2019, 10,, ,x10 10 FOR, ,x x FOR FOR PEER PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW REVIEW 6 of6 216of of 21 21

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5. The5.5.5. The The Then Then Then: Performance:: :Performance Performance Style Style Style and and andand Repertoire Repertoire RepertoireRepertoire AmongAmongAmongAmong the the thetheTày Tày TTày inày Vietnam,in inin Vietnam, Vietnam,Vietnam, there there therethere are are aremany many many differen differen differentdifferent kindstt kinds kinds of religiousof of religious religious practitioners. practitioners. practitioners. The The TheThe kinds kinds kindskinds thatthatthatthat are are arearetransmitted transmitted transmittedtransmitted by by masters byby masters mastersmasters who who who rece rece receivedreceivedivedived an an ordination an ordination ordination certificate certificate certificatecertificate are are arethe the thePụ tP ,P ụThenụtt,, Then Then, Mo, ,Mo ,Mo and, ,and and Tạ oT .T ạạoo. . Of Ofthese,OfOf these, these, the the theMo Mo Mocorrespond correspondcorrespond to tothe toto the the themogong mogong mogongmogong of of Guangxi ofof Guangxi GuangxiGuangxi and and andand Guizhou, Guizhou, Guizhou,Guizhou, while while whilewhile the the the theTTạ oạ T Toareạạareoo are arequite quite quitequite similar similar similarsimilar to to thetotheto the thedaogongdaogong daogongdaogong. .The The. . TheThe TTạ oạ T,To ạand,ạoo and, , andand in in some inin some somesome places places placesplaces the the the theMoMo Mo Moas aswell, asas well, well,well, are are are arethe the the theones ones onesones who who whowho conduct conductconduct funerals, funerals,funerals, and and andand areare areareresponsible responsible responsibleresponsible for for forforconducting conducting conductingconducting the the thethesoul soul soulsoul of the of ofof the thethedeceas deceas deceaseddeceased edtoed the to toto the thetheother other other world. world. world. As As Asin other in in other otherother areas areas areasareas to the to toto the thethe northnorthnorthnorth of theof ofof the thetheborder, border, border,border, the the theTạ oT Tmakeạạoo make make use use use useof textsof ofof texts textstexts primarily primarily primarilyprimarily in Chinese,in inin Chinese, Chinese,Chinese, reciting reciting recitingreciting these these thesethese texts texts textstexts in ain inin “southern a aa “southern “southern“southern pronunciation”,pronunciation”,pronunciation”,pronunciation”, while while while the the theMo Mo MoMouse useuse usetexts texts textstexts in demoticin inin demotic demotic script. script. script.script. The The The Pụ t P,P ụThenụtt,, ThenThen, and,, and andand the the thetheMo Mo Moin mostininin most mostmost areas areas areasareas concentrateconcentrateconcentrateconcentrate on onritualson rituals ritualsrituals for for forforthe the the thebenefit benefit benefitbenefit of of theofof the the theliving, living, living,living, and andand reciterecite reciterecite textstexts textstexts inin the theinin T the theàTàyy languageTàyTày language languagelanguage along along alongalong with with ritual withwith ritualritualsongsritual songs songs ofsongs offeringof offeringof of offering offering which which which theywhich they learn they they learn by learn learn heart.by by heart.by23 heart. heart.Both23 Both2323 the BothBoth Pthe tthe theandPụ tP Pandụ theụtt and and Thenthe the theThenperform Then Then perform perform perform rituals rituals whichrituals rituals which involve which which involveinvolveshamanicinvolve shamanic shamanic shamanic journeys journeys journeys journeys into theinto into sky.into the the thesky. sky. sky. It isItItIt significant is isis significant significantsignificant that that thatthat the the thethenames names namesnames Pụ tP P Pandụụttt and andand Then Then ThenThen are are are areboth both both usually usually usually written written writtenwritten with with withwith the the thethesame same samesame character character charactercharacter in in inin theirtheirtheirtheir texts, texts, texts,texts, 仸 , 仸which仸, , whichwhich is a is isvernacular a a vernacular vernacular variant variant variantvariant for for forfor佛 佛fo佛 “buddha”.fo fofo “buddha”.“buddha”. “buddha”. The The The Late LateLate Han HanHan and and and Middle Middle Middle Chinese Chinese Chinese pronunciationpronunciationpronunciationpronunciation of of佛 of 佛fo佛 wasfo fofo was waswas /but/. /but/. /but/./but/. With WithWith With the the thedesignation the designationdesignation designation “Then ““Then “ThenThen”, the”,”,”, the thecharacter the charactercharacter character 仸 仸was仸 waswas re-interpreted, re-interpreted, re-interpreted, so sosothatso thatthatthat 天 天 天天tiantian tiantian “heaven”“heaven” “heaven”“heaven” onon theononthe right-handthe theright-hand right-handright-hand side side is sideside understoodis undeisis undeunderstoodrstood asrstood indicating as asindicatingas indicatingindicating the pronunciation. the the thepronunciation. pronunciation.pronunciation. However, However,However,itHowever, is more it is complicatedit it more is is moremore comp compcomp thanlicatedlicatedlicated this, than for thanthan this, “Then this,this, for” forfor“ isThen also ““ThenThen” theis” ”also is generalis also also the the thegeneral designation general general designation designationdesignation in the Tai-Thai in the inin the theTai-Thai languages Tai-ThaiTai-Thai languageslanguagesinlanguages Southeast in Southeastin in AsiaSoutheastSoutheast for Asia sky Asia Asia for gods. for skyfor Moreover,sky sky gods. gods. gods. Moreover, Moreover, Moreover, sky gods, sky insky sky gods, turn, gods, gods, in represent turn,in in turn, turn, represent arepresent represent particularly a particularly a a particularly particularly well-developed well- well- well- developeddevelopedanddeveloped powerful and andand powerful sector powerfulpowerful of sector the sectorsector Tai of pantheon, the ofof the theTai Tai Taipantheon being pantheonpantheon closely, being, , beingbeing connected closely closelyclosely connected not connectedconnected only withnot not notonly harvests onlyonly with withwith andharvests harvestsharvests general andandprosperity,and general general general prosperity, but prosperity, prosperity, also with but but butalso political also also with with with power political political political and power chieftaincy power power and and and chieftaincy in chieftaincy chieftaincy the Tai domains.in thein in the theTai Tai Taidomains. domains. domains. OnOn OnOnthe the thedifferences differencesdifferences in inperformance inin performance performanceperformance style style stylestyle between between betweenbetween PPụ t P Ptandụandụtt andand ThenThen ThenThen,, both both, , bothboth shamanic shamanicshamanic practitionerspractitioners practitionerspractitioners of of T ofàofy TàyTàyethnicity,Tày ethnicity, ethnicity, ethnicity, B ếBếVi B ViBếếtế ếVi DtVi Dằếếngtằt Dng D hasằằ nghasng thehas hasthe following the thefollowing following following pertinent pertinent pertinent pertinent observations: observations: observations: observations:2424 2424

As AsAsAsfar far farfaras asthe asas the themelodies melodies melodies [of [of [of[ofritu ritu ritualritual music]alal music] music] are are areareconcerned, concerned, concerned, the the thetheThen ThenThenThen have havehavehave different different differentdifferent songs songs songssongs in in inin differentdifferentdifferentdifferent places, places, places, but, but, but,but, in eachin inin each eacheach place, place, place,place, the the thethemelody melody melodymelody is uniform is isis uniform uniform from from from beginning beginning beginning to end,to toto end, end, with with with very very very fewfewfewfew variations variations variationsvariations in the in in the thethemelody, melody, melody,melody, while, while, while,while, by by bycontrast,by contrast, contrast,contrast, the the thethesongs songs songssongs of the of ofof the thethePụ t PP areụụttt are arearemuch much muchmuch more more moremore rich rich richrich andandandand varied. varied. varied.varied. Songs Songs Songs such such such as “Crossingas as “Crossing “Crossing the the theSea”, Sea”, Sea”, “The “The “The Lady Lady Lady in thein in the theMoon”, Moon”, Moon”, and and and “Hand-to-hand “Hand-to-hand “Hand-to-hand CombatCombatCombatCombat with with withwith Lady Lady LadyLady Da Da DaDaDun” Dun” Dun”Dun” are are aretruly tr trulytruly ulybeautiful beautiful beautiful pieces pieces pieces of music.of of music. music. As AsAsAsfor for formusical musical musical instruments instruments instrumentsinstruments among among amongamong the the thetheThen ThenThenThen, one,, , one oneone uses uses usesuses a lute a aa lute lutelute tính tínhttính ínhwith withwithwith one, one, one,one, two, two, two,two, or orthree oror three threethree stringsstringsstringsstrings to accompany to toto accompany accompanyaccompany and and andand direct direct directdirect the the thethesinging, singing, singing,singing, and and andand a bunch a aa bunch bunchbunch of hand-bells of ofof hand-bells hand-bellshand-bells may may maymay be becarried bebe carried carriedcarried on on onon thethe thethefoot foot footfoot and and andand shaken shaken shakenshaken slowly. slowly. slowly.slowly. Among Among AmongAmong the the thethePụ tP P,P ụtheụttt,, ,the thethetính tính ttính íisnh not is isis not not notused, used, used,used, but but but butrather rather ratherrather only only onlyonly a bunch a aa bunch bunchbunch of of ofof ironironironiron or copperor oror copper coppercopper chains chains chainschains which which whichwhich are are are areheld held held in thein in the thehand hand hand and and and shaken shaken shaken to set toto settheset the therhythm. rhythm.rhythm. TheTheTheThe Then ThenThen include includeincludeinclude many many manymany passages passages passagespassages accompanied accompanied accompaniedaccompanied by by dances,byby dances, dances,dances, such such such suchas as the as theas dancethethe dance dancedance “ch “ch ầ“ch“chu u slay” ầầslay”uu slay”slay” (“audience(“audience(“audience(“audience with with with the the the master mastermaster master teacher”) teacher”)teacher”) teacher”) which whichwhich which is quite isis is quitequite quite beautiful, beautiful,beautiful, beautiful, with withwith withsupple supplesupple supple movements, movements,movements, movements, which whichwhich thethewhich theprofessionals professionals professionals the professionals perform perform perform during perform during during festive during festive festive gatherings. festive gatherings. gatherings. gatherings. The The The Then Then Then The are Thenare arerepresented represented representedare represented not not notonly only notonly in only ritualin in ritual ritual butbutin butalso ritual alsoalso in festive butinin festivefestive also gatherings. in gatherings.gatherings. festive gatherings. The TheThe Pụ t P Psongsụụtt The songssongs Pare t are aresongsabove aboveabove areall all aboveinall theinin the alltheTày in TàyTày language, the language,language, Tày language, but but butthe the theThen but ThenThen, , , alongsidealongsidethealongsideThen Tày,, alongside Tày,Tày, include includeinclude T àwordsy, words includewords in inVietnamesein words VietnameseVietnamese in Vietnamese and andand Sino-Vietnamese, Sino-Vietnamese,Sino-Vietnamese, and Sino-Vietnamese, sometimes sometimessometimes sometimes in incompletein completecomplete in phrases.phrases.completephrases. For For Forexample, phrases. example, example, For example,

In my InIn my mysoul soul soul I want I I want want to fishto to fish fishfish for for afor fish… a a fish… fish.fish… . . I love II love love to seeto to see seethe the themoon moon moon surrounded surrounded surrounded by by clouds byby clouds cloudsclouds I can II can canneither neither neither forget forget forget nor nor northink think thinkthink about about aboutabout my my mymybeloved. beloved. beloved.beloved. The TheThe rear rear rear guard guard guard is lined is is lined lined up up inup rowsin in rows rows of threeof ofof three threethree The TheThe forward forward forward guard guard guard arranges arranges arranges the the thehorses horses horseshorses in frontin inin front frontfront of theof ofof the the theofficers officers officersofficers The The The rear rear rear guard guard guard with with with Ng Ng ủNgu ủLangủuu Lang Lang drives drives drives away away away the the thedemons. demons. demons.

23 (B ế Vi ế t D ằ ng et al. 1992 , pp. 166–167). Actually, the Tạo (daogong) recite their texts in Southwestern Mandarin, even well to 23 2323(B ếthe(B (BViếế south ế VitVi Dếếtằt of ngDD theằ ằngetng China–Vietnam al.etet al.1992,al. 1992,1992, pp. borderpp.pp.166–167). 166–167).166–167). (Holm Actually, fieldwork, Actually,Actually, the Ch theợtheT Đôạ o Tn Tạ( district,ạdaogongoo ((daogongdaogong B)ắ crecite K)) ạ recitenrecite province, their theirtheir texts August textstexts in Southwestern2015).inin SouthwesternSouthwestern 24 (Bế ViếtD ằng et al. 1992, p. 167). Mandarin,Mandarin,Mandarin, even even even well well well to the to to thesouththe south south of the of of theChina–Vietnamthe China–Vietnam China–Vietnam border border border (Holm (Holm (Holm fieldwork, fieldwork, fieldwork, Ch ợCh Ch Đợônợ Đ Đ district,ônôn district, district, Bắc B BKắắạcc nK K ạạnn province,province,province, August August August 2015). 2015). 2015). 24 2424(B ế(B Vi(Bếế Vi tVi Ðếếằtt ngÐ Ðằ ằetngng al., et et al., p.al., 167). p. p. 167). 167).

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

In this paper, we follow this example and look at the ritual practices of the Then on both sides of the border.

5. The Then: Performance Style and Repertoire Among the Tày in Vietnam, there are many different kinds of religious practitioners. The kinds that are transmitted by masters who received an ordination certificate are the Pụt, Then, Mo, and Tạo. Of these, the Mo correspond to the mogong of Guangxi and Guizhou, while the Tạo are quite similar to the daogong. The Tạo, and in some places the Mo as well, are the ones who conduct funerals, and are responsible for conducting the soul of the deceased to the other world. As in other areas to the north of the border, the Tạo make use of texts primarily in Chinese, reciting these texts in a “southern pronunciation”, while the Mo use texts in demotic script. The Pụt, Then, and the Mo in most areas concentrate on rituals for the benefit of the living, and recite texts in the Tày language along with ritual songs of offering which they learn by heart.23 Both the Pụt and the Then perform rituals which involve shamanic journeys into the sky. It is significant that the names Pụt and Then are both usually written with the same character in their texts, 仸, which is a vernacular variant for 佛 fo “buddha”. The Late Han and Middle Chinese pronunciation of 佛 fo was /but/. With the designation “Then”, the character 仸 was re-interpreted, so that 天 tian “heaven” on the right-hand side is understood as indicating the pronunciation. However, it is more complicated than this, for “Then” is also the general designation in the Tai-Thai languages in Southeast Asia for sky gods. Moreover, sky gods, in turn, represent a particularly well- developed and powerful sector of the Tai pantheon, being closely connected not only with harvests and general prosperity, but also with political power and chieftaincy in the Tai domains. On the differences in performance style between Pụt and Then, both shamanic practitioners of Tày ethnicity, Bế Viết Dằng has the following pertinent observations:24 As far as the melodies [of ritual music] are concerned, the Then have different songs in different places, but, in each place, the melody is uniform from beginning to end, with very few variations in the melody, while, by contrast, the songs of the Pụt are much more rich and varied. Songs such as “Crossing the Sea”, “The Lady in the Moon”, and “Hand-to-hand Combat with Lady Da Dun” are truly beautiful pieces of music. As for musical instruments among the Then, one uses a lute tính with one, two, or three strings to accompany and direct the singing, and a bunch of hand-bells may be carried on the foot and shaken slowly. Among the Pụt, the tính is not used, but rather only a bunch of iron or copper chains which are held in the hand and shaken to set the rhythm. The Then include many passages accompanied by dances, such as the dance “chầu slay” (“audience with the master teacher”) which is quite beautiful, with supple movements, which the professionals perform during festive gatherings. The Then are represented not only in ritual but also in festive gatherings. The Pụt songs are above all in the Tày language, but the Then, alongside Tày, include words in Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese, sometimes in complete phrases. For example, In my soul I want to fish for a fish… Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW I love to see the moon surrounded by clouds6 of 21 I can neither forget nor think about my beloved. In this paper, we follow this example Religionsand look2019 at, 10the, 64 ritual practices of the Then on both sides of 7 of 22 the border. The rear guard is lined up in rows of three The forward guard arranges the horses in front of the officers 5. The Then: Performance Style and Repertoire The rear guard with Ngủu Lang drives away the demons.

Among the Tày in Vietnam, there are many In differen the original, t kinds these of religious lines are practitioners. entirely in Vietnamese. The kinds The overall impression is that the Then that are transmitted by masters who receivedlyrics23 an(B mayế ordination Viế bet D partlyằng certificateet basedal. 1992, on are pp. older the 166–167). Pụt,material, Then Actually,, Mo but, and the the T TạThenoạ.o (daogongrepresent) recite a form their of texts performance in Southwestern which Of these, the Mo correspond to the mogongis of more Mandarin,Guangxi artistically and even Guizhou, well developed to the while south and theof less the T closelyạChina–Vietnamo are quite tied tosimilar specifically border (Holm ritual fieldwork, functions. Chợ Đ Thereôn district, is, however, Bắc Kạn to the daogong. The Tạo, and in some placesquite theprovince, aMo lot as of well,August overlap, are 2015). andthe ones the Then whotend conduct to be funerals, referred toand in quite a number of localities as “P t”.25 24 are responsible for conducting the soul of the (B Bothdeceasế ViếThent edÐằ ngtoand etthe al.,P other p.t have 167). world. both As male in andother female areas practitioners,to the and they share much of the same north of the border, the Tạo make use of textsrepertoire. primarily This in Chinese, is significant reciting in itself, these and texts quite in a unlike“southern the situation in most of Guangxi, where male pronunciation”, while the Mo use texts inand demotic female script. specialists The P mayụt, Then collaborate, and the but Mo have in quitemost differentareas ritual traditions, often even in different concentrate on rituals for the benefit of thelanguages. living, and However, recite texts there in is the still Tày a difference language inalong the performancewith styles of male and female P t and ritual songs of offering which they learn byThen heart.. Male23 Both performance the Pụt and tends the to Then be text-based, perform rituals and male whichThen and P t recite or chant directly from the involve shamanic journeys into the sky. relevant ritual manuscripts. Female Then and P t do not do this, but recite their “texts” from memory. It is significant that the names Pụt andExisting Then are scholarship both usually on written the Then withtends the to same corroborate character this in picture. Personal observation in Jinlong, their texts, 仸, which is a vernacular varianthowever, for 佛 andfo “buddha”. critically importantThe Late Han information and Middle on the Chinese transmission of ritual knowledge suggest a more pronunciation of 佛 fo was /but/. With thecomplicated designation and “Then more”, the interesting character situation. 仸 was re-interpreted, I return to this question in a later section. so that 天 tian “heaven” on the right-hand side is understood as indicating the pronunciation. However, it is more complicated than this,6. for Are “Then the Then” is alsoReally the general Shamans? designation in the Tai-Thai languages in Southeast Asia for sky gods. Moreover,Some readerssky gods, may in findturn, it represent difficult to a associateparticularlyThen well-ritual practices with shamanism, so a word of developed and powerful sector of the Tai explanationpantheon, being is necessary. closely connected There is of not course only awith vast harvests scholarly literature on shamanism, and the term and general prosperity, but also with politicalis often power used and without chieftaincy any in attempt the Tai to domains. provide even a working definition. Scholars who are more On the differences in performance stylemeticulous between make Pụt and a categorical Then, both distinction shamanic between practitioners spirit mediumship,of which involves spirits speaking 24 Tày ethnicity, Bế Viết Dằng has the followingthrough pertinent the medium observations: of the religious practitioner, and shamanism, which involves a relationship to the As far as the melodies [of ritual music]spirit are world concerned, in which the the Then shaman have is different more powerful. songs 26in Even so, there are disagreements about how to different places, but, in each place, thedescribe melody the is uniform essential from features beginning of shamanic to end, ritual with practice. very 27 Mircea Eliade in his classic work identified few variations in the melody, while, tranceby contrast, states the as the songs core of feature, the Pụt but are other much scholars more rich have expressed discomfort with this idea.28 and varied. Songs such as “Crossing the Sea”,Under “The these Lady circumstances, in the Moon”, itand is helpful“Hand-to-hand to refer back to the region where shamanism was first Combat with Lady Da Dun” are trulydiscovered beautiful pieces and documented. of music. In its archetypal form, shamanism is found in Central and North Asia, and in China among the Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic-speaking peoples. There, a shamanic ritual is As for musical instruments among the Then, one uses a lute tính with one, two, or three structured as a spirit journey, in which the shaman journeys up into the sky, either by climbing the strings to accompany and direct the singing, and a bunch of hand-bells may be carried on World Mountain or by climbing the World Tree.29 In other contexts, such as funerals or healing rituals, the foot and shaken slowly. Among the Pụt, the tính is not used, but rather only a bunch of it involves spirit journeys down into the underworld, or out into the uninhabited forest or wilderness, iron or copper chains which are held in the hand and shaken to set the rhythm. in search of the lost souls of departed family members or the wandering souls of the sick. The Then include many passages accompaniedFor us here, by dances, the distinguishing such as the feature dance of “chThenầuritual slay” is that it is structured as a spirit journey up (“audience with the master teacher”)into which the is sky quite and beautiful, up to the with World supple Mountain, movements, or down which to the underworld, or horizontally out into the the professionals perform during festivedemon-infested gatherings. The wilderness, Then are andrepresented then back not again. only in ritual but also in festive gatherings. The Pụt songsBy the are same above token, all in it isthe clear Tày that language, the rituals but of the the Thenmehmoed, in Jingxi county are properly speaking alongside Tày, include words in Vietnameseshamanic, asand are Sino-Vietnamese, the rituals of the practitioners sometimes calledin completeP t or Then among the Tày people in the northern phrases. For example, provinces of Vietnam and in Longzhou 龍州 in southwestern Guangxi. Careful comparison indicates that the ritual practices of the mehmoed are similar to those of the Then and P t. Both employ strings In my soul I want to fish for a fish… of metal bells on chains, held in the hand (or tied to the foot) and shaken to resemble the sound of a I love to see the moon surrounded by clouds horse’s bridle, as a means of propelling the retinue of the ritual practitioners skywards.30 All three I can neither forget nor think about my beloved. kinds of practitioner share a designation in common: in the case of the mehmoed, this is pat31, a direct The rear guard is lined up in rows of three The forward guard arranges the horses in front of the officers

The rear guard with Ngủu Lang 25drivesFieldwork, away Jinlongdong, the demons. February 2016. 26 See (Davis 2001, pp. 1–3), discussing the work of I.M. Lewis and other scholars. 27 On which see (Max Deeg 1993, pp. 95–144). 28 23 (Bế Viết Dằng et al. 1992, pp. 166–167). Actually,(Eliade the[1964 T]ạo1989 (daogong). Lauri) recite Honko their and texts Å. Hultkranzin Southwestern are among the eminent scholars questioning this view. See (Basilov 1999, p. 23). Mandarin, even well to the south of the China–Vietnam29 On Celestial border Ascents (Holm in Central fieldwork, and Northern Chợ Đ Asia,ôn district, see (Eliade Bắc[ 1964Kạn] 1989, Chapter 6, pp. 181 ff); on the World Mountain, province, August 2015). also called the Cosmic Mountain, pp. 266–69. 24 (Bế Viết Ðằng et al., p. 167). 30 This is called the ‘horse’ (ma213 in Jingxi Vahyaeng dialect) and the ‘horse carriage’ (cộ mạ in Tày). On the latter designation see (Nguyễn Thị Yên 2010, p. 87). Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

In this paper, we follow this example and look at the ritual practices of the Then on both sides of the border.

5. The Then: Performance Style and Repertoire ReligionsReligions2019 2019, 10, 10 64, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of8 22of 21

Among the Tày in Vietnam, there are many different kinds ofthis religious is pat31 ,practitioners. a direct equivalent The kinds of P ụt.31 And the Then in many areas, including eastern Cao Bằng, call that are transmitted by masters who received an ordination certificateequivalentthemselves are the of PPụụtt., 31 ratherThenAnd, Mo than the, and ThenThen Tạ.ino32. Finally,many areas, transmission including ofeastern ritual knowledge Cao Bằng, to call apprentice themselves mehmoedP t Of these, the Mo correspond to the mogong of Guangxi and Guizhou,ratherand while thanalso toThen the Then .T32ạo andFinally, are Pquiteụt transmissionrequires similar both of a ritualmale and knowledge a female to teacher, apprentice a ‘fathermehmoed teacher’and alsoand toa ‘motherThen to the daogong. The Tạo, and in some places the Mo as well, areand theteacher’. Ponest requires who33 conduct both a malefunerals, and and a female teacher, a ‘father teacher’ and a ‘mother teacher’.33 are responsible for conducting the soul of the deceased to the otherComparison world.Comparison As in with other with the areasthe ritual ritual to mechanismthe mechanism of of Taoist Taoist priests priests reveals reveals a stark a stark contrast. contrast.Shigong Shigongand and north of the border, the Tạo make use of texts primarily in Chinese,daogongdaogong recitingdo do these not not travel texts travel in up upa “southern to to the the celestialcelestial realmsrealms themselves,themselves, but send send messenger messenger gods gods such such as as the pronunciation”, while the Mo use texts in demotic script. The thePụMeritorioust, Meritorious Then, and Officersthe Officers Mo inof of mostthe the Four areas Four Divisions Divisions of of Time Time Sizhi Sizhi gongcao gongcao 四值功曹四值功曹 asas intermediaries. intermediaries. By concentrate on rituals for the benefit of the living, and recite textsBycontrast, contrast, in the Tàythe the ThenlanguageThen,, Pụt ,along andand moedmoed with all all traveltravelup up to to the the celestial celestial realms realms themselves, themselves, along along with with their their ritual songs of offering which they learn by heart.23 Both the Pụretinuet andretinue the and Thenand cavalcade cavalcadeperform of rituals soldiersof soldiers which and and horses horses (bingma (bingma兵 馬兵馬). ). involve shamanic journeys into the sky. LestLest it beit be supposed supposed that that the theThen Thenundertake undertake their their celestial celestial journeys journeys with with no no recourse recourse to to trance, trance, I It is significant that the names Pụt and Then are both usuallyI mention mentionwritten herewith here brieflythe briefly same that that character both both male male in and and femalefemaleThen Thenemploy employ trancetrance statesstates onon theirtheir spiritspirit journeys.journeys. It their texts, 仸, which is a vernacular variant for 佛 fo “buddha”.It isTheis mymy Late impressionimpression Han and that thatMiddle female female ChineseThen Thenspend spend a a greater greater part part of of the the ritual ritual journey journey in in trance trance than than the the men men pronunciation of 佛 fo was /but/. With the designation “Then”, do.thedo. Nguycharacter Nguyễnễ Thn 仸 Thị Y wasịê Yênn documented re-interpreted, documented the the use use of of trance trance states states among amongThen Thenin in the the ordination ordination ritual ritual in in the the so that 天 tian “heaven” on the right-hand side is understoodeasterneastern as indicating part part of of H HạtheạLang Lang pronunciation. district, district, just just toto the west of of Lo Longzhou.ngzhou. The The ordination ordination ritual ritual is called is called Lẩu L Thenẩu However, it is more complicated than this, for “Then” is also theThen general(“Wine (“Wine designationof ofthe the ThenThen in”) the”)in in TàyTai-Thai Tà yand and L Lễ ễc cấ pp sắsắcc (“Ritual (“Ritual for for Conferring Conferring the the Imperial Imperial License”) License”) in in languages in Southeast Asia for sky gods. Moreover, sky gods, inVietnamese, turn,Vietnamese, represent and and takesa particularlytakes place place over overwell- three three days days and and nights. nights. The The presiding presidingThen Thengo go into into trance trance early early on on developed and powerful sector of the Tai pantheon, being closelythethe connected morning morning of not of the onlythe third third with day, day, harvests after after spending spending the the preceding preceding afternoon afternoon and and night night conducting conducting a series a series and general prosperity, but also with political power and chieftaincyofof formal formal in the rituals Tairituals domains. bearing bearing offerings offerings up up to to all all the the gates gates to to the the palaces palaces in in the the Heavenly Heavenly Domain. Domain. ThisThis is On the differences in performance style between Pụt and isThen aa collectivecollective, both shamanic trancetrance (practitioners(nhnhậậppđồ đồngng tậtập pof th th ể),ể), the the purpose purpose of of which which is is to to reward reward the the heavenly heavenly guests guests with with Tày ethnicity, Bế Viết Dằng has the following pertinent observations:foodfood and24 and wine. wine. This This collective collective trance trance is conductedis conducted under under the the guidance guidance of of the the presiding presidingThen Then(ông (ông quan quan As far as the melodies [of ritual music] are concerned, thelang langThen), who), havewho ensures ensuresdifferent that that songs all all the thein guest guest officials officials from from all al thel the palaces palaces in highestin highest Heaven Heaven obtain obtain their their fair fair 34 34 different places, but, in each place, the melody is uniform fromportionportion beginning of of the theofferings to offeringsend, with and and very enjoy enjoy the the banquet. banquet.In In this this case, case, clearly, clearly, the the trance trance episode episode takes takes place place few variations in the melody, while, by contrast, the songsseparately ofseparately the Pụt from are from much the the recitation morerecitation rich of scriptures.of scriptures. and varied. Songs such as “Crossing the Sea”, “The Lady in the Moon”, and “Hand-to-hand 7. The7. The Journey Journey to to the the Sky Sky Combat with Lady Da Dun” are truly beautiful pieces of music. TheThe feature feature of Thenof Thenrituals rituals that that is mostis most characteristically characteristically shamanic shamanic is theis the mode mode of of communication communication As for musical instruments among the Then, one uses a lute tính with one, two, or three withwith heavenly heavenly deities. deities. Unlike Unlike Taoist priests,Taoist whopriests, dispatch who messengerdispatch messenger gods up to thegods sky, up accompanied to the sky, strings to accompany and direct the singing, and a bunch of hand-bells may be carried on byaccompanied written documents by written (invitations, documents petitions, (invit andations, the petitions, like), the Thenand thejourney like), upthe to Then the skyjourney themselves, up to the the foot and shaken slowly. Among the Pụt, the tính is not used, but rather only a bunch of andsky meet themselves, the heavenly anddeities meet the face heavenly to face. The deities rituals face of to the face.Then Theare rituals structured of the as Then a journey are structured up into the as a iron or copper chains which are held in the hand and shaken to set the rhythm. sky,journey followed up byinto the the conduct sky, followed of the business by the conduct of the ritual—delivery of the business of of gifts theand ritual—delivery requests to the of highest gifts and The Then include many passages accompanied by dances,heavenlyrequests such deities—andas to the the highestdance afterwards “ch heavenlyầu slay” the deities—and return journey afterw to earth.ards the The return journey journey up into to theearth. sky The is conveyed journey up (“audience with the master teacher”) which is quite beautiful,ininto the with formthe supple sky of narrativeis conveyedmovements, verse. in thewhich The form journey of narrative starts at verse. the location The journey where starts the ritual at the is location being held, where and the the professionals perform during festive gatherings. The Thenprogressesritual are represented is upwards,being held, not with onlyand descriptions inprogresses ritual of theupwards, scenery, with dangers, descriptions and supernatural of the scenery, beings encountereddangers, and but also in festive gatherings. The Pụt songs are above allat in eachsupernatural the stage Tày language, on thebeings upward encounteredbut the journey. Then ,Inat theeach Jinlong stage area,on the where upward Nguy journey.ễn Thị Y Inên the conducted Jinlong fieldwork,area, where alongside Tày, include words in Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese,sheNguy foundễn thatTh sometimesị aYên complete conducted in itinerary complete fieldwork, includes she the found following that stages:a complete35 itinerary includes the following phrases. For example, stages:35 1. Home 家 In my soul I want to fish for a fish… 2. 1. GateHome of the 家 Village 村口 I love to see the moon surrounded by clouds 3. 2. Mouth Gate of the WatersVillage 水村関口口 I can neither forget nor think about my beloved. 4. 3. Rice Mouth Fields of田 the地 Waters 水口 田地 The rear guard is lined up in rows of three 5. 4. TempleRice Fields of the Earth God 土地 5. Temple of the Earth God 土地 The forward guard arranges the horses in front of the 6.officers Turtle Mountain 鼇崖 6. Turtle Mountain 鼇崖 The rear guard with Ngủu Lang drives away the demons.7. Mountain of the Gods 神山 7. Mountain of the Gods 神山

23 (Bế Viết Dằng et al. 1992, pp. 166–167). Actually, the Tạo (daogong31 ) recite This istheir found texts frequently in Southwestern in mehmoed ritual song. See e.g., line 303 ff. in Kjau31 nook55 求花 ‘Praying for 31 31 55 Mandarin, even well to the south of the China–Vietnam border (HolmThis fieldwork,Flowers’. is found Ch frequently ợ Đôn district, in mehmoed Bắcritual Kạn song. See e.g., line 303 ff. in Kjau nook 求花 ‘Praying for Flowers’. 32 (Nguyễn Thị Yên 2010, p. 85). This was true also in Jinlongdong. province, August 2015). 32 (Nguyễn Thị Yên 2010, p. 85). This was true also in Jinlongdong. 33 The shamanic character of Then rituals is well recognised by Vietnamese scholars. See e.g., (Ngô Đức Thịnh 2002, pp. 3–20); 33 24 (Bế Viết Ðằng et al., p. 167). Nguy Theễn Thshamanicị Yên, ‘Y ếcharacteru tố Shaman of Then giáo trong rituals Then’, is well in ( Nguyrecognisedễn Thị Y byên Vietnamese2007, pp. 170–89). scholars. See e.g., (Ngô Đức Thịnh, 34 (Nguy2002,ễn Thpp.ị Y 3–20);ên 2010 Nguy, pp. 94–95).ễn Thị InYên, Vietnamese, ‘Yếu tố Shaman going into giáo trance trong is usuallyThen’, calledin (Nguylên đồễnng Th, whichị Yên means2007, pp. “ascending 170–89). 34[as a](Nguy medium”.ễn Th Here,ị Yên Nguy 2010,ễn pp. Th ị94–95).Yên uses In the Vietnamese, term nhập đồ goingng, “entering into trance [as a] is medium”, usually whichcalled means lên đồ moreng, which or less means the same thing. “ascending [as a] medium”. Here, Nguyễn Thị Yên uses the term nhập đồng, “entering [as a] medium”, which 35 (Nguyễn Thị Yên 2007, p. 792). means more or less the same thing. 35 (Nguyễn Thị Yên 2007, p. 792).

Religions 2019, 10, 64 9 of 22 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

8. Graves of the Ancestors 墳墓祖先 8. Graves of the Ancestors 墳墓祖先 府 9.9. PrefecturalPrefectural Compound Compound 府 虎 10.10. TheThe Tiger Tiger General General 虎將將 11.11. EmperorEmperor of of Middle Middle Emptiness Emptiness 中虚皇中虚皇 12.12. MarketMarket of of Errands Errands 遣行遣行 13.13. CustomsCustoms House House of of Valuables Valuables (storehouse) (storehouse) 貴物関貴物 ((庫庫)) 14.14. BridgeBridge of of Fateful Fateful Numbers Numbers 數橋數橋 15.15. TheThe Southern Southern Officer Officer and and Northern Northern Dipper Dipper 南曹北斗南曹北斗 喜水 小溪 16.16. BabblingBabbling Brook Brook (small (small river) river) 喜水 (小溪) 17. Street of the Hundred Insects 百蟲道 17. Street of the Hundred Insects 百蟲道 18. Cave of the Central Region 中域洞 18. Cave of the Central Region 中域洞 19. Heavenly Thunder 天雷 19. Heavenly Thunder 天雷 20. Great Ultimate One 太乙 20. Great Ultimate One 太乙 21. Waters of the Sea (a calm river) 海水 (漫河) 海水 漫河 22.21. MarketWaters of of the the Three Sea (a Brightnesses calm river) 三光墟( ) 墟 23.22. StreetMarket of the of the King Three of the Brightnesses Country 國王道三光 24.23. MountainStreet of theValley King of of Great the Country Flourishing國王 道太華峒 25.24. ValleyMountain of Distant Valley Fragrances of Great Flourishing 遠芳谷 太華峒 26.25. BuddhaValley ofwho Distant Eats Buffalo Fragrances (a general)遠芳谷 吃水牛佛 (將) 27.26. MotherBuddha who who Collects Eats Buffalo Songs, (a Mother general) of吃 Flowers水牛佛 (積歌母、花母將) 28.27. WatersMother of who Revulsion Collects (big Songs, river) Mother 厭水 of(大江 Flowers) 積歌母、花母 29.28. PrefecturalWaters of RevulsionCompound (big of Bells river) and厭水 Seals(大江 鐘印府) 將府 30.29. PrefecturalPrefectural Compound Compound of of the Bells Generals and Seals 鐘 印府 读敕道 祖母住 31.30. StreetPrefectural for Reading Compound the Commission of the Generals (residence將府 of the Immortal Grandmother) ( 宅) 31. Street for Reading the Commission (residence of the Immortal Grandmother) 读敕道 (祖母住宅) 32. Palace of the 玉皇宫 32. Palace of the Jade Emperor 玉皇宫 These are at least the stations on the upward journey. Not all Then rituals involve the same route up to Thesethe sky are or at the least same the way-stations. stations on the For upward that ma journey.tter, for Not each all ritualThen ritualstype, details involve of the the same itinerary route mayup to vary the skyfrom or theone same place way-stations. to another. ForIn thatthe matter,ritual conducted for each ritual to remove type, details astral of obstructions, the itinerary may as conductedvary from oneby the place Then to another.in Na Rí In district the ritual in the conducted eastern topart remove of Bắ astralc Kạn obstructions, province, the as stages conducted are as by 36 follows:the Then36 in Na Rí district in the eastern part of Bắc Kạn province, the stages are as follows: 11 PathPath to to the the One One Hundred Hundred Birds Birds 22 GoingGoing down down the the Path Path to to the the Dragon Dragon King King and and the the Watery Watery Mansion Mansion 33 TheThe Tribute-Bearing Tribute-Bearing Child Child Emissary Emissary from from the the Northern Northern Kingdom Kingdom 44 ArrivingArriving at at the the Palace Palace and and Inviting Inviting the the Mother Mother Emissary Emissary 55 TheThe Tribute-Bearing Tribute-Bearing Child Child Emissary Emissary Again, Again, an an Expeditious Expeditious Road Road for for Hasty Hasty Missions Missions 66 ConveyingConveying Orders Orders to to the the Rowers Rowers of of the the Boats Boats on on the the Golden Golden Waters Waters 77 EnteringEntering the the Door Door of of the the House House of of the the Worthy Worthy 88 ConveyingConveying the the List List of of Incense, Incense, Flower, Flower, Lamp, Lamp, Tea, Tea, Fruit, Fruit, and and Comestibles Comestibles to to Be Be Offered Offered Up Up 9 Issuing the Mats Again 9 Issuing the Mats Again 10 Setting up the Station for the Crown Prince 10 Setting up the Station for the Crown Prince 11 Welcoming the Generals 11 Welcoming the Generals 12 The Path up the Peak of Su Mi 1312 SettingThe Path up upthe theStation Peak in of the Su South Mi of the City Wall 1413 SettingSetting up up the the Station Station at in the the Gate South of the City Wall 1514 SettingSetting up up the the Station Station at at the the Official Gate Residence 16 Putting on the Vestments 17 Welcoming Su Mi in Front of the King 1836 (Ho Breakingàng Triều OpenÂn 2012 the). I Wine present here an abbreviated version of the itinerary; a full version is given in AppendixA.

36 (Hoàng Triều Ân 2012). I present here an abbreviated version of the itinerary; a full version is given in Appendix A.

Religions 2019, 10, 64 10 of 22

15 Setting up the Station at the Official Residence 16 Putting on the Vestments

17ReligionsWelcoming 2019, 10, x FOR Su PEER Mi in REVIEW Frontof the King 10 of 21 18 Breaking Open the Wine 19 EnteringEntering the the Gate Gate of of the the Jade Jade Emperor Emperor 20 EnteringEntering the the Gate Gate of of the the Generals Generals and and Presenting Presenting Taxes 21 EatingEating a a Repast Repast at at Khau Khau Khác Khác and and Hau Hau Cài Cài

Admittedly many of these names are opaque, and re requirequire explanation. To do this properly even for a singlesingle ThenThen ritualritualis is well well beyond beyond the the scope scope of of this this paper. paper. What What I can I can do do here here is single is single some some of the of theabove above way-station way-station names names out out for comment.for comment.

8. Indigenous and Imported Religious Elements At the highest pointpoint inin thethe heavensheavens is is the the palace palace of of the the Jade Jade Emperor Emperor (stage (stage 32, 32, 19). 19). This This deity, deity, or orat leastat least the the name, name, is is clearly clearly of of Chinese Chinese origin. origin. The The Jade Jade Emperor Emperor may may originallyoriginally bebe aa deity promoted by the Song emperors, incorporated into , bu butt the cult became so widespread as to form a standard fixture fixture in Chinese popular religion. 37 TheThe same is true in Vietnam. Also of Chinese origin, but moremore identifiablyidentifiably Taoist, Taoist, are are the the Three Three Brightnesses Brightnesses (Tam (Tam Quang Quang三光 三光)—the)—the sun, sun, moon, moon, and stars.and stars.Special Special reverence reverence to the to Three the Three Brightnesses Brightnesses is a particular is a particular feature feature of the of Tianxinthe Tianxin zhengfa zhengfa天心 正天心法 正法tradition, tradition, starting starting in the in Song the Song dynasty, dynasty, and theand San the GuangSan Guang continue continue to feature to feature prominently prominently in the in thesouthern southern Taoist Taoist schools schools of later of centuries. later centuries.38 In the38 ThenIn thejourneys Then journeys to the sky, to the the Tam sky, Quang the Tam themselves Quang themselvesdo not put indo annot appearance; put in an appearance; rather, the rather Tam Quang, the Tam Market Quang is theMarket place is wherethe place the whereThen and the theirThen andentourage their entourage purchase purchase the pigs to the be pigs offered to be at offered the court at the of the court Jade of Emperor.the Jade Emperor. Thus, the Thus, extent the to whichextent toChinese-derived which Chinese-derived deities actually deitiesplay actually an active play rolean active in the role ascent in the of theascentThen of—as the opposedThen—as to opposed having totheir having names their appended names appended to particular to stagesparticular in the stag journey—ises in the journey—is a moot point, a moot and onepoint, that and needs one to that be needsinvestigated to be investigated further. further. It is also also noteworthy noteworthy that, in in commo commonn with southern forms of Taoism, Taoism, the Then have a militarised religion, and make the journey up up into into the the sk skyy with a retinue that includes generals generals ( (ttướướngng 将) and spirit troops ( binh m ạ 兵兵馬馬).). InIn the Jinlong area, the domestic altars of high-ranking high-ranking Then practitioners have flags flags of command hanging up in rows behind them, indicating the number of troops and horses the Then has at his or her command. Other figures figures in the sky realm are Buddhist in or origin,igin, such as the Old Buddha, the Old Buddha’s Mother, Avalokitešvara, andand quitequite possiblypossibly aa numbernumber ofof the yakšas. Many elements in Then ritual are based on Buddhist templates, such as the offering offeringss of flowers flowers and lamps, and the general layout of the offerings. Some place-names can also be shown to derive from Chinese sources. Turtle Mountain (Aoyai 鼇崖鼇崖, stage 6) is probably a reference to Aoshan 鼇鼇山山.. AoshanAoshan also appears in the ritual texts of the Zhuang mogong,, and and in Zhuang mythology was was a a mountain mountain so so high high that that it was the last stop before one reached the realm of the immortals. The name comes from classical Chinese literature. The ao 鼇鼇, ,an an enormous enormous turtle turtle that that supported supported a mountain a mountain on itson back, its back, appears appears in the inLiexian the Liexian zhuan 列zhuan仙傳 列仙傳, where, whereit associated it associated with the with mountain the mountain of Penglai of Penglai蓬莱. This 蓬莱 and. This references and references in other earlyin other Chinese early writingsChinese writingsmeant that meant the ao thatcame the to ao be came associated to be withassociated the ascent with to the heaven, ascent success to heaven, in imperial success examinations, in imperial examinations,and elevation toand high elevation office.39 to high office.39 Other place-names, place-names, however, however, indicate indicate the the presence presence of ofwhat what appears appears to be to a be pre-sinitic a pre-sinitic and pre- and pre-VieticVietic geography. geography. The The Peak Peak of Su of SuMi Mi首眉首,眉 found, found at atstage stage 12 12 in in the the Gi Giảải iH Hạạnn ascent ascent to to heaven, is found throughout the Tai-speaking areasareas ofof GuangxiGuangxi andand Guizhou, over a very wide area. The name takes on various forms according to local dialect and local script traditions. In central-western Guangxi, the name Couhmiz 州眉 is mentioned in connection with a narrative about the primordial flood,37 (Lü and Luan is understood 2001, pp. 29–31). to be the name of a high mountain. In a Bouyei version of the flood myth from38 On southern the San Guang Guizhou, in Tianxin the zhengfa, name seeCojmiz especially (written (Li 2011 索密, pp.) 196–227). is explained as the name of an old man who 39 livesFor on further the top detail, of see Bolangshan (Holm 2004a ,播朗山 p. 169). , the only peak high enough to escape inundation during the great flood. Even further north, in west-central Guizhou, a suspiciously similar name (站走煤, tɕiaŋ24 ɬeu53 mei11) is found in funeral texts, and is understood as referring to the primordial homeland of the

37 (Lü and Luan 2001, pp. 29–31) 38 On the San Guang in Tianxin zhengfa, see especially (Li 2011, pp. 196–227). 39 For further detail, see (Holm 2004a, p. 169).

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21 Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21 19 Entering the Gate of the Jade Emperor 19 Entering the Gate of the Jade Emperor 20 Entering the Gate of the Generals and Presenting Taxes 20 Entering the Gate of the Generals and Presenting Taxes 21 Eating a Repast at Khau Khác and Hau Cài 21 Eating a Repast at Khau Khác and Hau Cài Admittedly many of these names are opaque, and require explanation. To do this properly even Admittedly many of these names are opaque, and require explanation. To do this properly even for a single Then ritual is well beyond the scope of this paper. What I can do here is single some of for a single Then ritual is well beyond the scope of this paper. What I can do here is single some of the above way-station names out for comment. the above way-station names out for comment. 8. Indigenous and Imported Religious Elements 8. Indigenous and Imported Religious Elements At the highest point in the heavens is the palace of the Jade Emperor (stage 32, 19). This deity, At the highest point in the heavens is the palace of the Jade Emperor (stage 32, 19). This deity, or at least the name, is clearly of Chinese origin. The Jade Emperor may originally be a deity promoted or at least the name, is clearly of Chinese origin. The Jade Emperor may originally be a deity promoted by the Song emperors, incorporated into Taoism, but the cult became so widespread as to form a by the Song emperors, incorporated into Taoism, but the cult became so widespread as to form a standard fixture in Chinese popular religion.37 The same is true in Vietnam. Also of Chinese origin, standard fixture in Chinese popular religion.37 The same is true in Vietnam. Also of Chinese origin, but more identifiably Taoist, are the Three Brightnesses (Tam Quang 三光)—the sun, moon, and but more identifiably Taoist, are the Three Brightnesses (Tam Quang 三光)—the sun, moon, and stars. Special reverence to the Three Brightnesses is a particular feature of the Tianxin zhengfa 天心 stars. Special reverence to the Three Brightnesses is a particular feature of the Tianxin zhengfa 天心 正法 tradition, starting in the Song dynasty, and the San Guang continue to feature prominently in 正法 tradition, starting in the Song dynasty, and the San Guang continue to feature prominently in the southern Taoist schools of later centuries.38 In the Then journeys to the sky, the Tam Quang the southern Taoist schools of later centuries.38 In the Then journeys to the sky, the Tam Quang themselves do not put in an appearance; rather, the Tam Quang Market is the place where the Then themselves do not put in an appearance; rather, the Tam Quang Market is the place where the Then and their entourage purchase the pigs to be offered at the court of the Jade Emperor. Thus, the extent and their entourage purchase the pigs to be offered at the court of the Jade Emperor. Thus, the extent to which Chinese-derived deities actually play an active role in the ascent of the Then—as opposed to which Chinese-derived deities actually play an active role in the ascent of the Then—as opposed to having their names appended to particular stages in the journey—is a moot point, and one that to having their names appended to particular stages in the journey—is a moot point, and one that needs to be investigated further. needs to be investigated further. It is also noteworthy that, in common with southern forms of Taoism, the Then have a militarised It is also noteworthy that, in common with southern forms of Taoism, the Then have a militarised religion, and make the journey up into the sky with a retinue that includes generals (tướng 将) and religion, and make the journey up into the sky with a retinue that includes generals (tướng 将) and spirit troops (binh mạ 兵馬). In the Jinlong area, the domestic altars of high-ranking Then practitioners spirit troops (binh mạ 兵馬). In the Jinlong area, the domestic altars of high-ranking Then practitioners have flags of command hanging up in rows behind them, indicating the number of troops and horses have flags of command hanging up in rows behind them, indicating the number of troops and horses the Then has at his or her command. the Then has at his or her command. Other figures in the sky realm are Buddhist in origin, such as the Old Buddha, the Old Buddha’s Other figures in the sky realm are Buddhist in origin, such as the Old Buddha, the Old Buddha’s Mother, Avalokitešvara, and quite possibly a number of the yakšas. Many elements in Then ritual are Mother, Avalokitešvara, and quite possibly a number of the yakšas. Many elements in Then ritual are based on Buddhist templates, such as the offerings of flowers and lamps, and the general layout of based on Buddhist templates, such as the offerings of flowers and lamps, and the general layout of the offerings. the offerings. Some place-names can also be shown to derive from Chinese sources. Turtle Mountain (Aoyai Some place-names can also be shown to derive from Chinese sources. Turtle Mountain (Aoyai 鼇崖, stage 6) is probably a reference to Aoshan 鼇山. Aoshan also appears in the ritual texts of the 鼇崖, stage 6) is probably a reference to Aoshan 鼇山. Aoshan also appears in the ritual texts of the Zhuang mogong, and in Zhuang mythology was a mountain so high that it was the last stop before Zhuang mogong, and in Zhuang mythology was a mountain so high that it was the last stop before one reached the realm of the immortals. The name comes from classical Chinese literature. The ao 鼇 one reached the realm of the immortals. The name comes from classical Chinese literature. The ao 鼇 , an enormous turtle that supported a mountain on its back, appears in the Liexian zhuan 列仙傳, , an enormous turtle that supported a mountain on its back, appears in the Liexian zhuan 列仙傳, where it associated with the mountain of Penglai 蓬莱. This and references in other early Chinese where it associated with the mountain of Penglai 蓬莱. This and references in other early Chinese writings meant that the ao came to be associated with the ascent to heaven, success in imperial writings meant that the ao came to be associated with the ascent to heaven, success in imperial examinations, and elevation to high office.39 examinations, and elevation to high office.39 Other place-names, however, indicate the presence of what appears to be a pre-sinitic and pre- Other place-names, however, indicate the presence of what appears to be a pre-sinitic and pre- Vietic geography. The Peak of Su Mi 首眉, found at stage 12 in the Giải Hạn ascent to heaven, is Religions 2019, 10, 64 11 of 22 Vietic geography. The Peak of Su Mi 首眉, found at stage 12 in the Giải Hạn ascent to heaven, is found throughout the Tai-speaking areas of Guangxi and Guizhou, over a very wide area. The name found throughout the Tai-speaking areas of Guangxi and Guizhou, over a very wide area. The name takes on various forms according to local dialect and local script traditions. In central-western takes on varioustakes onforms various according forms according to local todialect local dialectand local and script local script traditions. traditions. In central-western In central-western Guangxi, Guangxi, the name Couhmiz 州眉 is mentioned in connection with a narrative about the primordial Guangxi, thethe name name Couhmiz Couhmiz 州眉州眉 isis mentioned mentioned in in connection connection with with a anarrative narrative about about the the primordial primordial flood, flood, and and is understood to be the name of a high mountain. In a Bouyei version of the flood myth flood, and isis understood understood to to be be the the name ofof aa highhigh mountain.mountain. In In a a Bouyei Bouyei version version of of the the flood flood myth myth from from southern southern Guizhou, the name Cojmiz (written 索密) is explained as the name of an old man who from southernGuizhou, Guizhou, the the name name Cojmiz Cojmiz (written (written索 索密密) is) is explained explained as as the the name name of of an an old old manman whowho liveslives onon thethe top of Bolangshan 播朗山, the only peak high enough to escape inundation during the lives on the toptop ofof BolangshanBolangshan 播播朗山朗山,, thethe onlyonly peakpeak highhigh enoughenough toto escapeescape inundationinundation during the great flood. flood. Even further north, in west-central Guizhou, a suspiciously similar name (站走煤, tɕiaŋ24 great flood. Even further north, in west-central Guizhou, a suspiciously similar name (站站走煤走煤, tɕiaŋ24 ɬeu53 meimei1111)) is found in funeral texts, and is understood as referring to the primordial homeland of the 53 11 40 ɬeu mei ) isis found found in in funeral funeral texts, texts, and and is is understood understood as as referring referring to to the the primordial primordial homeland homeland of ofthe the Bouyei. 40 All of these variations point to a place or a person associated with Tai flood myths and, hence,37 (Lü a place and Luan 2001, pp. 29–31) 37 (Lü and Luanidentified 2001, pp. as the29–31) location from which the earth was re-populated after the great flood—hence,38 also On the the San Guang in Tianxin zhengfa, see especially (Li 2011, pp. 196–227). 41 38 On the Sanequation Guang in with Tianxin primordial zhengfa, homelands. see especially (Li 2011, pp. 196–227). 39 For further detail, see (Holm 2004a, p. 169). 39 For further detail,Another see (Holm name 2004a, which p. 169). connects the Then topography with an indigenous Tai substratum is Hanvueng. The palace of Hanvueng is mentioned in Then texts as one of the stages in the celestial journey.42 Hanvueng—the Goose King—is a sky god. In Guangxi and Guizhou, at least, he was originally the son of a local lord who was murdered by his step-brother. He then flew up into the sky and became a powerful sky god, exacting rent and yearly sacrifices from the domains below on earth. Hanvueng legends are found throughout western Guangxi, Guizhou, and eastern Yunnan.43 My previous research demonstrated the existence of a Tai religious geography and a common poetic rootstock extending across vast distances in Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan, in spite of dialect and local cultural differences.44 Here, we can begin to see that this indigenous Tai substratum extends down into the Tày communities in northern Vietnam, including areas well to the south of the Vietnam–China border. Among the Then, at any rate, this Tai religious geography was re-structured as the landscape of a shamanic journey up into the sky.

9. Comparisons with Other Southeast Asian Traditions The stages in the celestial journey in the Then tradition bear comparison with other shamanic traditions in Southeast Asia and China. For a start, it is clear that the Then journey resembles that of the mehmoed in Jingxi in southwestern Guangxi. Both start the journey from the domestic space, go out through the fields, visit the temple of the Tudigong 土地公, the god of the locality, go past the outer fields and lower hills, and then progress onwards up into the sky.45 Both traditions include Crossing the Seas as a stage in the journey.46 Detailed comparison will have to await a further study. Comparison with other Tai shamanic traditions such as that of the Lao-Tai of northeastern Laos would also be instructive. The practitioners there are also called moed (mae mot). Findly recently published a detailed study of their practices, and discusses the routes of their shamanic journeys in some detail. The particular routes she documented, however, come from funeral rituals, and the purpose of the journey is to conduct the souls of the deceased to the place in the land of the dead which is appropriate for their individual circumstances. Both the journey and its destination are different from the celestial journeys I discuss in this article, although the Then also conduct similar rituals for the dead.47 Shamanic rituals

40 See (Holm 2004a2004a, p. 170). For discussion of the flood myth, primal incest, and the re-population of the earth, see (Holm 20032003, pp. 191–99). 41 Actually, as I have recently shown elsewhere, this mountain is to be identified as the Mount Meru (or Sumeru) of Buddhist cosmology, with names and stories variously re-indigenised. See (Holm 20182018). See esp. pp. 36–38. 42 See, for example, (Triệu Thị Mai and Nguyễn Thiên Tứ 2010, p. 63, line 1216). 43 (Holm and Meng 20152015, pp. 4–18). 44 On the striking parallels in poetic line segments across vast distances, see esp. (Holm 2004b2004b, 49–56). 45 For a description of the stages in the “Returning the Flowers Blooming of Flowers” (Huan hua kai hua 還花開花) ritual of the mehmoed, see (Kao 20022002, pp. 185–205). 46 See (Kao 20022002, pp. 193–94); and (Kao 20112011). 47 (Findly 20162016, pp. 181–200). On the term mae mot, see p. 31. Religions 2019, 10, 64 12 of 22 are also widely found among other ethnic groups in Vietnam.48 Similar practices are found among the Thai groups in northwestern Vietnam and elsewhere. Some details of the ritual procedures of the White Thai Mé Môt and a range of other religious specialists is given in Robert’s ethnography.49 Such practitioners are called either bà Then or Mo Một in the northwest, and they play a principal role in the core ritual business of large-scale communal festivals among the Thai.50

10. Then Texts and Literacy We should not be too surprised about the phenomenon of literate shamanism among the practitioners called Then. As is well known, shamans among the Manchu clans in Jilin and the Manchu-speaking Sibe of Xinjiang kept “for centuries” in their possession “handwritten ceremonial books”.51 These were called shen benzi 神本子 in Chinese.52 Mihály Hoppál’s judgment was that these written texts “almost certainly contributed to the continuous preservation of the Manchu shaman traditions”.53 Texts possessed by Then practitioners include both liturgical texts for recitation during rituals and other narrative texts and song texts performed in non-religious (or non-ritual) contexts. There is no sharp division between these two general categories. Particular segments taken from shamanic journey texts, like the visit to the kingdom of One Hundred Birds, can also be the basis for a longer, more elaborate, and more artistic form that can be sung independently as a performance item in art song. The Then in Jinlong also have a third category of texts, dictionaries of the Tày vernacular script (chữ nôm Tày). The Then conduct a wide range of rituals, including both communal rites and rituals for individuals and families, encompassing regular rituals like life-cycle rites and seasonal rites, and rituals to ward off affliction and disease. In the Jinlong area, the Taoist priests are left in charge of funerals, leaving the Then to cover a wide range of rituals for the living. Small-scale Then rituals may be performed by individual priests or by a small number of priests, while major communal sacrifices like the Cầu Mùa are performed by as many as 8–10 priests. Male Then, at least, have ritual texts written in the Tày vernacular script for these rituals. Many of these texts are of very considerable length, up to two or three thousand lines. The Cầu Mùa (“Praying for the Harvest”) text from Jinlong has some 900 lines, and takes about 3 hours to recite. Recitation of the longer texts takes place over a period of around 24 hours, typically starting in the afternoon of the first day and then continuing throughout the night to either daybreak or mid-morning of the following day. The script (chữ nôm Tày) is a character script based on Chinese, similar to the Old Zhuang script. Like the Zhuang script, the Tày script relies on borrowing either the sound or the meaning of the original character, or, in the case of Han loan words, borrowing both the sound and the meaning, suitably modified to a local form of pronunciation. In the case of Tày, the modified form of pronunciation is often similar to Hán-Việt, the Chinese pronunciation standard current in Vietnam. Then texts themselves are mostly written in a form of seven-syllable verse. with patterns of waist-rhyming very similar to the ritual texts of the Zhuang, Bouyei, and other Tai-speaking peoples. One can tell immediately that the verse forms are not Han Chinese, nor for that matter are they like Vietnamese (Kinh) verse, where alternating lines of six and eight syllables are the most common pattern. The texts also evince what I call pervasive parallelism, wherein the ideas and grammatical

48 For example, in Vietnam, in the volume on shamanism edited by Ngô Đức Thịnh, we find reports on the following ethnic groups and minorities in addition to the Tày and Nùng: Kinh, Chăm, Thái Đen (Black Thai), Thái, Mường, H’mông, Bru, Bana (Bahnar), and Raglai. 49 (Robert 1941). On the Mé Môt, see p. 65 ff. No details are given in this source about the stages in the celestial journey. 50 See, e.g., (Lương Thị Đại 2013). This work contains ritual texts in Thai and in Vietnamese translation. 51 (Hoppál 1999, p. 111). 52 See (Nala and Yong 1992; and Stary 1992). 53 (Hoppál 1999, p. 111). Religions 2019, 10, 64 13 of 22 word classes of one line are echoed in a second line; this phenomenon is also found in Zhuang ritual verse.54 There are some significant differences between the recitations of the Then and the general recitation practices of the Zhuang mogong in western Guangxi. One of the most important of these is that the mogong recitation is based on “performative literacy”, and the mogong may not necessarily be able to “read” their texts in the conventional sense.55 That is, throughout much of the Zhuang-speaking highlands in Guangxi, the act of reading from a ritual text is most often an oral performance, and the specific form and content of the recitation itself is orally transmitted. Vernacular priests typically come from families with priestly traditions, or from villages where there are vernacular priests. Typically, as small children, they accompany older relatives to rituals, and gradually learn to recite a good part of the repertoire from memory. Later, when they apprentice themselves to a master priest, they are given more systematic instruction, but with the form of recitation always based on the performed oral version. Later, at the point of their ordination or just before, they are given ritual texts belonging to the master priest and told to make copies for their own use. They, at this point, went to a village school or had family-based instruction in Chinese, and they copy the texts faithfully, character by character. What this means is that the textual transmission and the transmission of the recitation take place separately, at different stages in a priest’s life, and through different modes of instruction. In performance, priests learn to turn the pages at more or less the right time; however, otherwise the recitation of the text during a ritual takes place without any act of actual reading. Over the generations, various discrepancies arose between the text as recited and the text as written, but these discrepancies are not usually noticed by the priests themselves, unless they happen to have an unusually high level of literacy in Chinese. It frequently happens in our interviews with Zhuang vernacular priests that the priest is unable to comment on the meaning of verses taken from the middle of a passage, or unable to give any more than a general meaning to a line of verse. This is not a sign of backwardness or lack of sophistication, but rather perfectly normal in village society in this part of southern China.56 Among the Then, the recitation is based directly on the act of reading the text. That is to say, the Then reads each line as he recites it. In talking with Then from Jinlong, I discovered that they were actually able to recite lines and pronounce individual characters out of context. Mogong usually cannot do this, and have to start over at the beginning of the text or the beginning of the section. There are two factors that account for this. The first is that the Tày vernacular script is a much more standardised script, with one written form usually corresponding with one spoken word, and vice versa, while, in mogong texts, there may be as many as five or six different ways of writing the same word. The second factor is connected with the first; the Then possess dictionaries of the vernacular Tày script. These dictionaries are pre-modern dictionaries, patterned after the Er Ya 爾雅, and come in two different versions: Tày-Việt-Chinese and Việt-Tày-Chinese.57 How is it that the Jinlong Tày come to have these dictionaries, and how old are they? Do the Tày and the Then in other areas also have them? These are currently still questions to be answered by further investigation.58 One historical circumstance, however, is definitely relevant. That is, until 1927, the local schools in the Jinlong area taught students not in the medium of Chinese, but in Tày, using the local Tày vernacular script. The entire pre-modern primary school curriculum, including the Sanzijing 三字經 (Three Character Classic) and so on, was taught in Tày. In 1927, local officials came from the newly established county administration and forced local people to abandon Tày and adopt Chinese as the

54 (Holm 2017b). 55 This has parallels in the “recitation literacy” of Mesoamerica. See (Houston 1994). 56 On these aspects of performative literacy among the mogong, see (Holm 2013, pp. 61–62). 57 I have a copy of one which is entitled Chu wen jing zi hao zhinan jie yin初文經字號指南解音. 58 A volume entitled Xec Slon cạ Slư Nam (manual for teaching the southern script) dated 1820 was reportedly discovered in Na Rí district in the eastern part of Bắc Kạn province by Cung Khắc Lược. See (Cung Khắc Lược 2006). Professor Nguyễn Tuấn Cường of the Hán Nôm Institute kindly provided this reference. Religions 2019, 10, 64 14 of 22 medium of instruction.59 Was this government action one of the factors that led local people to throw in their lot with the Communist Party? At any rate, it is worth emphasising how unusual this local pre-1927 education in the vernacular language and script was in the Guangxi context. Indeed, I found no trace anywhere else of anything similar; invariably, Chinese was the medium of all pre-modern primary instruction throughout the Zhuang and other minority areas, at least in Guangxi. In all probability, Jinlong was an exception to the general rule because they were migrants from Vietnam. By migrating into the Jinlong area when they did, the Jinlong Tay managed to avoid the consequences of French colonial rule, including the adoption of the romanised Vietnamese script (quốc ngữ, “national language”) in the schools and the abandonmentReligions of teaching2019, 10, x inFOR the PEER Chinese REVIEW script. Of course, it is also worth emphasising that Tày could 6 of 21 serve as a medium of instruction in the schools because it had a relatively standardised script, and because there wereIn this dictionaries. paper, we follow this example and look at the ritual practices of the Then on both sides of the border. 11. Female Practitioners and Literacy 5. The Then: Performance Style and Repertoire Were girls, as well as boys, educated in the Tày vernacular script? Perhaps in some localities they were. JudgingAmong on the the Tày basis in Vietnam, of what Ithere saw, are it is many certainly differen truet kinds that female of religiousThen practitioners.in large-scale The kinds public performancesthat are transmitted do not recite by masters from their who texts, rece whereasived an maleordinationThen certainly certificate do. are Male the Pụt,and ThenThen, Mo, and Tạo. also use ritualOf these, manuscripts the Mo correspond as a basis for totheir the mogong recitations of Guangxi during small-scaleand Guizhou, domestic while ritualsthe Tạoas are well, quite similar at least into the the Jinlong daogong area.. The Documentation Tạo, and in some on Then placesfrom the elsewhere, Mo as well, primarily are the ones Lạng who Sơn conduct province funerals, in and Vietnam, tendsare responsible to suggest for that conducting female Then theconduct soul of ritualsthe deceas anded perform to the aother repertoire world. which As in isother orally areas to the transmitted.north60 However, of the border, at least the in T Jinlong,ạo make oneuse canof texts see pilesprimarily of ritual in Chinese, manuscripts reciting which these female texts Thenin a “southern place on thepronunciation”, mat beside them while during the Mo the use ritual. texts Evidently, in demotic the script. women The possess Pụt, Then their, and own the copies Mo in of most areas ritual texts;concentrate it is just that on theyrituals do for not the open benefit them of and the readliving, from and them recite in texts public in inthe the Tày way language the men along with do. Whatritual I infer songs from of this offering is that which the female they Thenlearnin by the heart. Jinlong23 Both area the may Pụtwell and bethe able Then to perform read ritual rituals which texts, andinvolve are not illiterate.shamanic Perhaps journeys one into could the sky. say, turning this around, that their ritual performance is that of an oralIt is culture significant on the that surface the names level, P butụt and that Then this orality are both is performativeusually written in with nature. the Insame other character in words, whiletheir the texts, male 仸 vernacular, which is priestsa vernacular suchas variantmogong foroften 佛 fo evince “buddha”. a kind The of performative Late Han and literacy, Middle Chinese acting outpronunciation the process of recitingof 佛 fo from was a/but/. ritual With manuscript, the designation female Then “Thenin”, this the locality character evince 仸 was a form re-interpreted, of performativeso that orality. 天 tian “heaven” on the right-hand side is understood as indicating the pronunciation. Moreover,However, for both it is more male comp and femalelicatedThen than apprentices,this, for “Then the” is way also in the which general ritual designation knowledge in the is Tai-Thai transmittedlanguages and received in Southeast is highly Asia reliant for onsky ritual gods. texts Moreover, in any case.sky gods, Throughout in turn, therepresent northern a particularly part of well- Vietnam anddeveloped also in Jinlongdong, and powerful both sector male of and the femaleTai pantheon apprentice, beingThen closelyare required connected to have not oneonly male with harvests and one femaleand general master prosperity, teacher. We but know also that with the politicalmehmoed powerin Jingxi and and chieftaincy other localities in the in Tai southwestern domains. Guangxi also becomeOn the the differences disciples in of bothperformance an elderly style female between master Pụ andt and a Taoist Then, priest;both shamanic there, however, practitioners of it seems thatTày the ethnicity, master–disciple Bế Viết D orằng teacher–student has the following relationship pertinent does observations: not entail the24 female apprentice 61 mehmoed masteringAs far any as partthe melodies of the Taoist [of liturgy,ritual music] recited are in concerned, Chinese. Withthe Then the Thenhave, different the situation songs in is different. different places, but, in each place, the melody is uniform from beginning to end, with very Key informationfew variations about the in actualthe melody, mode while, of transmission by contrast, isprovided the songs by of thetheVietnamese Pụt are much scholar more rich Vi Hồng, whoand reports varied. on theSongs situation such as in “Crossing Hòa An districtthe Sea”, in “The the central Lady in part the Moon”, of Cao B andằng. “Hand-to-hand Vi Hồng himself came fromCombat a family with with Lady a Da long Dun” tradition are tr ofulyThen beautifulpractice pieces over of many music. generations: his paternal grandmother was a high-ranking Then priestess well known throughout the central part of Cao Bằng, and one of his auntsAs for was musical also aninstruments ordained Thenamongpractitioner. the Then, Onone theuses way a lute in which tính with ritual one, knowledge two, or three is transmitted,strings he reports to accompany that each Then andhas direct one the “mother singing, teacher” and a bunch (slay m ofẹ) andhand-bells one “father may be teacher” carried on (slay cha). The “motherthe foot and teacher” shaken is usuallyslowly. Among a senior the practitioner Pụt, the tính with is longnot used, years but of experiencerather only ina bunch the of iron or copper chains which are held in the hand and shaken to set the rhythm. The Then include many passages accompanied by dances, such as the dance “chầu slay” 59 (Nong and Tan(“audience 2015, pp. 77–78). with the master teacher”) which is quite beautiful, with supple movements, which 60 (La Cong Y 2003the); andprofessionals (Đoàn Thị Tuy performến 2012). during festive gatherings. The Then are represented not only in ritual 61 (Kao 2002). but also in festive gatherings. The Pụt songs are above all in the Tày language, but the Then, alongside Tày, include words in Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese, sometimes in complete phrases. For example, In my soul I want to fish for a fish… I love to see the moon surrounded by clouds I can neither forget nor think about my beloved. The rear guard is lined up in rows of three The forward guard arranges the horses in front of the officers The rear guard with Ngủu Lang drives away the demons.

23 (Bế Viết Dằng et al. 1992, pp. 166–167). Actually, the Tạo (daogong) recite their texts in Southwestern Mandarin, even well to the south of the China–Vietnam border (Holm fieldwork, Chợ Đôn district, Bắc Kạn province, August 2015). 24 (Bế Viết Ðằng et al., p. 167).

Religions 2019, 10, 64 15 of 22

art of the Then: a bà or bà Then.62 The “father teacher” is a senior male Taoist priest. The way the “mother teacher” imparted ritual knowledge to her “children” was through oral instruction, since in this area girls traditionally did not go to school and could not read. The “father teacher” taught the “children” the entire set of lyrics and formulae as written in the ritual handbooks. That is to say, the girl apprentice Then received from her male “father teacher” a direct transmission of the contents of all the ritual texts needed for the recitation of texts during Then performances. To put this another way, female Then did not receive their ritual knowledge by means of a canonical oral transmission, by word of mouth from one generation to the next, but received the text-based knowledge necessary for the performance of Then rituals directly from the recitation of their “father teacher”, based on his direct Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW reading from the texts, which they then committed to6 memory. of 21 63 Female Then in this area received the transmission of ritual knowledge orally, but this orality was, as it were, only one generation deep. In this paper, we follow this example and look at the ritual practices of the Then on both sides of Just how widespread this particular practice was in the Tày-speaking regions of northern Vietnam is, the border. again, something that is yet to be investigated in detail. We know that in any case there were wide regional disparities in the numbers of male and female Then practitioners; in Hạ Lang district, just 5. The Then: Performance Style and Repertoire across the border from Jinlongdong, the Then tradition was predominantly or exclusively in the hands Among the Tày in Vietnam, there areof many males. differen64 t kinds of religious practitioners. The kinds that are transmitted by masters who received Wean ordination know in any certificate case that are female the Pụt,elsewhere Then, Mo, inand Vietnam Tạo. are often literate in written Vietnamese Of these, the Mo correspond to the mogongand of are Guangxi able to and consult Guizhou, almanacs while and the otherTạo are written quite similar sources. I have seen P t in Cao Bằng conduct to the daogong. The Tạo, and in some placesday-long the Mo consultancy as well, are sessions, the ones solving who conduct problems funerals, for awide and range of clients. The primary reference are responsible for conducting the soul workof the wasdeceas a traditionaled to the other almanac, world. or As rather in other a Vietnamese-language areas to the version of one. If the problem north of the border, the Tạo make use of textswas aprimarily sick family in Chinese, member, reciting the clothes these of texts the in sick a “southern person were brought to the healing session, and, pronunciation”, while the Mo use texts afterin demotic discussion script. of The the P circumstances,ụt, Then, and the the MoP int would most areas briefly flick into a trance state, consult the concentrate on rituals for the benefit of almanac,the living, and and then recite provide texts ain written the Tày script language for her along clients, with based on the particular astral impediment ritual songs of offering which they learn thatby heart. she had23 Both discovered. the Pụt and Of course,the Then most perform of the rituals clients which were also women, and they could also read involve shamanic journeys into the sky. their prescriptions. It is significant that the names Pụt and Then are both usually written with the same character in their texts, 仸, which is a vernacular variant12. Literacy for 佛 fo North “buddha”. and South The Late of the Han Border and Middle Chinese 佛 仸 pronunciation of fo was /but/. With the designationHow is it that“Then there”, the comes character to be such was a re-interpreted, different pattern on both sides of the China–Vietnam 天 so that tian “heaven” on the right-handborder? side After is unde all, therstood languages, as indicating peoples, the and pronunciation. general social and cultural patterns are either the same However, it is more complicated than this,or veryfor “Then similar,” is andalso there the general was plenty designation of cross-border in the Tai-Thai movement in both directions for centuries if not languages in Southeast Asia for sky gods.millennia. Moreover, Iwill sky trygods, to answerin turn, briefly.represent a particularly well- developed and powerful sector of the Tai pantheonFirstly,,in being Guangxi, closely the connected small scale not of culturalonly with and harvests linguistic variation is partly a function of Chinese and general prosperity, but also with politicalstate-sponsored power andoperations chieftaincy over in the many Tai domains. centuries, including military campaigns, as I demonstrated On the differences in performance stylein some between detail P elsewhere.ụt and Then65, bothThe westernshamanic part practitioners of Guangxi of is indeed an archetypal shatter zone.66 24 Tày ethnicity, Bế Viết Dằng has the followingThe Nong pertinent Zhigao observations: rebellion in the mid-11th century was followed by the establishment of a congeries of As far as the melodies [of ritual music]very smallare concerned, chiefly domains the Then inthe have southwestern different songs part ofin the province, all closely tied to the court and different places, but, in each place, thetoo melody small to is pose uniform a security from beginning threat. Political to end, fragmentation with very led to cultural localisation, because most of few variations in the melody, while,the by population contrast, the were songs tied of tothe the Pụ landt are asmuch serfs, more and rich were not normally free to move. Furthermore, and varied. Songs such as “Crossingconsistently, the Sea”, “The in responseLady in the to variousMoon”, rebellions,and “Hand-to-hand subsequent dynasties employed detachments of native Combat with Lady Da Dun” are trulytroops beautiful from elsewherepieces of music. in the province to put down rebellions. These garrison communities were often left in place after the threat passed. Natural disasters also led to populations fleeing many areas and As for musical instruments among the Then, one uses a lute tính with one, two, or three re-locating elsewhere, either in Guangxi or Vietnam. Finally, Chinese pre-modern schooling was in strings to accompany and direct the singing, and a bunch of hand-bells may be carried on Chinese only, and any use of vernacular scripts took place without official approval or acquiescence. the foot and shaken slowly. Among the Pụt, the tính is not used, but rather only a bunch of iron or copper chains which are held in the hand and shaken to set the rhythm.

The Then include many passages 62accompaniedThe word bà byis Vietnamese,dances, such meaning as the “paternal dance grandmother”“chầu slay” and, by extension, women of one’s paternal (“audience with the master teacher”) whichgrandmother’s is quite generation. beautiful, with supple movements, which 63 (Vi Hồng 1993, p. 3). the professionals perform during festive64 (Nguy gatherings.ễn Thị Yên The2010 ,Then p. 85). are represented not only in ritual but also in festive gatherings. The 65Pụt( Holmsongs 2010 are). above all in the Tày language, but the Then, 66 alongside Tày, include words in VietnameseSee (Scott 2009 and, pp. Sino-Vietnamese, 7–8). sometimes in complete phrases. For example, In my soul I want to fish for a fish… I love to see the moon surrounded by clouds I can neither forget nor think about my beloved. The rear guard is lined up in rows of three The forward guard arranges the horses in front of the officers The rear guard with Ngủu Lang drives away the demons.

23 (Bế Viết Dằng et al. 1992, pp. 166–167). Actually, the Tạo (daogong) recite their texts in Southwestern Mandarin, even well to the south of the China–Vietnam border (Holm fieldwork, Chợ Đôn district, Bắc Kạn province, August 2015). 24 (Bế Viết Ðằng et al., p. 167).

Religions 2019, 10, 64 16 of 22

Characteristically, also, in many Zhuang areas, access to schooling was confined to “official families” and to boys, which meant that village culture for ordinary people in most places could not be anything other than orally transmitted.67 In Vietnam, there were the same natural geographic conditions, but a political situation that, by accident as it were, created a relatively uniform regional culture. Everything indicates that this took shape after the Mạc dynasty lords were defeated in their civil war with the Lê and Trính. The Mạc had their capital in the northern province of Cao Bằng for some 70 years, from 1601 to 1677, and the final remnants of the Mạc were defeated in the first decades of the Qing dynasty, after an abortive attempt to link up with Wu Sangui and the Three Feudatories.68 The Mạc while in power promoted schools and civil service examinations in the Việt Bắc (Northern Vietnam) area and, conscious of the strategic weakness of their position vis-à-vis their southern enemies, adopted a policy of allying themselves with the local Tày. When the Lê and Trính were finally successful in taking over in the north, they replaced native chieftaincy with rotating officials, and moved a substantial number of ethnic Vietnamese families—officials and generals—into the area, where they gradually became part of the local population—that is, they became Tày. Quite a number of the prominent Tày intellectuals in the Cao Bằng area come from families that moved to the area around that time from much further south. The fact that Then texts include Vietnamese loan-words and sometimes phrases or entire lines in Vietnamese is a testament to the mixed nature of Tày ethnicity in this area. Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW The vernacular script (chữ nôm Tày) is, therefore, in its present6 of form, 21 not likely to be very old. If in fact it turns out that teaching in pre-modern village schools was in chữ nôm Tày, as well as chữ nôm In this paper, we follow this example and look at the ritual practices of the Then on both sides of Việt and Chinese, this would account for the observable pattern on the ground. It would also explain the border. why chữ nôm Tày is, by comparison with the Zhuang vernacular script, a mature script that can be read without much trouble across a wide geographic area, and basically has a more-or-less one-on-one 5. The Then: Performance Style and Repertoire correspondence between word and graph. There was in fact a vibrant traditional literature in the area; Among the Tày in Vietnam,Tà ythere scholars are many in Cao differen Bằng discoveredt kinds of religious as many aspractitioners. 85 titles of literary The kinds works in circulation in the region.69 that are transmitted by masters whoAlso, received in circulation an ordination among certificate the Then areand the Pụt, wereThen, liturgicalMo, and T textsạo. in great numbers. There are Of these, the Mo correspond totexts the mogong available of forGuangxi all the and major Guizhou, shamanic while “roads” the Tạ thato are the quite Jingxi similarmehmoed travel, and even texts for to the daogong. The Tạo, and inthe some mid-autumn places the shamanicMo as well, journeying are the ones to the who moon conduct (Cingj funerals, nangzhai and). In Guangxi, there are no texts for are responsible for conducting anythe ofsoul these of the journeys deceas toed the to sky.the other Now, world. admittedly, As in we other have areas yet toto subject the these oral mehmoed songs of north of the border, the Tạo makeJingxi use toof atexts detailed primarily comparison in Chinese, with therecitingThen theseand P textst textual in a “southern versions. However, even so, the question pronunciation”, while the Mo useimmediately texts in demotic arises: howscript. might The theyPụt, beThen related?, and the There Mo arein most a number areas of possibilities. One possibility concentrate on rituals for the benefitis that theof the oral living, songs and of the recitemehmoed texts inare the the Tày originals, language and along the Then withand P t wrote them down. Or, ritual songs of offering which theyperhaps, learn theby Thenheart.and23 BothP t thealso P originallyụt and the had Then an perform orally transmitted rituals which repertoire, which they converted involve shamanic journeys intointo the writtensky. form. Yet another possibility is that the Then and P t textual versions are the originals, It is significant that the namesand thePụt mehmoedand Thencommitted are both usually them towritten memory with and the then same transmitted character in them orally. Of course, we must their texts, 仸, which is a vernacularremember variant that for the 佛mehmoed fo “buddha”.among The the ZhuangLate Han are and predominantly Middle Chinese female, while Then and P t among pronunciation of 佛 fo was /but/.the With Tàyare the both designation male and “Then female.”, the Thus, character the pre-conditions 仸 was re-interpreted, necessary for very similar sets of religious so that 天 tian “heaven” on thepractices right-hand to be committedside is unde to writingrstood as were indicating present inthe northern pronunciation. Vietnam, but absent in Guangxi. However, it is more complicated than this, for “Then” is also the general designation in the Tai-Thai languages in Southeast Asia for13. sky Conclusions gods. Moreover, sky gods, in turn, represent a particularly well- developed and powerful sector of theAll Tai this pantheon points to, abeing broad closely cultural connected dispensation not only among with the harvests Tày which is radically different from and general prosperity, but alsothat with of political the Zhuang. power In Vietnam,and chieftaincy there is in evidently the Tai domains. quite a different relationship between Tày traditional On the differences in performanceculture and style metropolitan between P politicalụt and Then power,, both and shamanic this different practitioners relationship of is one that encompasses, rather 24 Tày ethnicity, Bế Viết Dằng hasthan the following rejects, traditional pertinent religious observations: practices, including shamanic and mediumistic practices. As far as the melodies [of ritual music] are concerned, the Then have different songs in different places, but, in each place, the melody is uniform from beginning to end, with very few variations in the melody,67 See while, (Holm by 2013 contrast,, p. 783) forthe discussion songs of on the this P point.ụt are “Official much families”more rich refers to the family of the native chieftain and and varied. Songs such as “Crossinghis lineage. the Sea”, “The Lady in the Moon”, and “Hand-to-hand 68 See especially (Lịch sử Tỉnh Cao Bằng 2009, pp. 274–87), Chapter IV Part III ‘Nhà Mạc ở Cao Bằng’. Combat with Lady Da Dun”69 areThese truly were beautiful mostly traditional pieces novels of music. in verse. See (Cung Văn Lược 1993). As for musical instruments among the Then, one uses a lute tính with one, two, or three strings to accompany and direct the singing, and a bunch of hand-bells may be carried on the foot and shaken slowly. Among the Pụt, the tính is not used, but rather only a bunch of iron or copper chains which are held in the hand and shaken to set the rhythm. The Then include many passages accompanied by dances, such as the dance “chầu slay” (“audience with the master teacher”) which is quite beautiful, with supple movements, which the professionals perform during festive gatherings. The Then are represented not only in ritual but also in festive gatherings. The Pụt songs are above all in the Tày language, but the Then, alongside Tày, include words in Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese, sometimes in complete phrases. For example, In my soul I want to fish for a fish… I love to see the moon surrounded by clouds I can neither forget nor think about my beloved. The rear guard is lined up in rows of three The forward guard arranges the horses in front of the officers The rear guard with Ngủu Lang drives away the demons.

23 (Bế Viết Dằng et al. 1992, pp. 166–167). Actually, the Tạo (daogong) recite their texts in Southwestern Mandarin, even well to the south of the China–Vietnam border (Holm fieldwork, Chợ Đôn district, Bắc Kạn province, August 2015). 24 (Bế Viết Ðằng et al., p. 167).

Religions 2019, 10, 64 17 of 22

The vernacular textual traditions also evince widely contrasting patterns. North of the border, the scripts of the mogong, song kings, and ritual masters vary considerably from one place to another; and, in many areas, at least in recent times, the wider village society transmitted its traditional cultural knowledge and corpus of songs orally. Women in particular operate exclusively (or almost exclusively) in an oral medium. South of the border, almost all of this varied cultural content (seasonal and courting songs, ceremonial songs, shamanic journeys, art-song, and long narrative songs) is found in written form. Moreover, much of this broad cultural repertoire circulated quite widely, across many of the provinces in which Tày communities were found. Rather than fragmentation, what one finds is broad regional integration. This fundamental difference is quite startling. One would have expected something different. Among the Tai-speaking peoples, there was backwards and forwards migration between Annam and Guangxi for many centuries; indeed, the northern part of Vietnam used to be part of the Chinese empire until the end of the Tang. One would have expected that the broad pattern of culture evident in the Guangxi area—of small domains ruled over by hereditary chieftains and consequent variation from one place to another—would be found also in the Tày and Nùng communities south of the border. In terms of cultural geography and ethnohistory, we would expect a comparable level of local-level variation in language, scripts, and vernacular religious practice to extend down as far as the hills on the northern flank of the Red River plain. However, this turns out to be not the case. The implications of this discovery for our understanding of the cultural and religious history of the Zhuang and other Tai-speaking groups in China are quite profound. For if what we have on the southern side of the border is a coherent, highly developed region-wide culture, literate and integrated, rather than just a southern variant of the fragmentation found on the northern side of the border, then at the very least we have to think of the “total constellation of forces” operating in this broader Tai-speaking borderland region in a fundamentally different way. We are used to thinking of the borderland of Guangxi and northern Vietnam as a peripheral area. On both sides of the border, in Vietnam as well as in China, the mountains are high and the emperors are far away. Naturally enough, we would expect these places to have a low level of culture in metropolitan terms. However, to continue with the notions of centre and periphery, it seems as if the culture of the Tày has many characteristics of a culture of the centre: it is highly unified, strong, with a resilient mode of transmission of complex cultural knowledge from one generation to the next, and it has many of the characteristics of a higher civilisation. For the shamanic traditions of this region, it seems as if we should look for their epicentre not within the borders of China, but in northern Vietnam.

Funding: This research was funded by the National Science Council, Ministry of Science and Technology, from 2011 to 2017, grant numbers 102-2410-H-004-055-, 103-2410-H-004-111- and 104-2410-H-004-162-. Acknowledgments: The original draft of this paper was delivered at the International Conference on ‘The Many Faces of Contemporary Shamanism’ held at the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, on 2–4 November 2016. A Chinese-language version of this paper is being published in their forthcoming conference volume (Hu and Liu forthcoming). I am grateful to the Institute for permission to publish an English-language version separately. In China fieldwork was conducted in collaboration with Meng Yuanyao 蒙元耀 of the Guangxi University for Nationalities in Nanning. Research in Vietnam was conducted in collaboration with Trần Trí Dõi of the National University for Humanities and Social Sciences Hanoi. I am also grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A Giải Hạn Text Subheadings The first line is a transliteration of the Tày subheading, the second line is the Việtnamese translation, the third line is the subheading in the original manuscript, and the fourth line is the English translation. Page numbers serve to give some indication of relative length. Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21 local-level variation in language, scripts, and vernacular religious practice to extend down as far as the hills on the northern flank of the Red River plain. However, this turns out to be not the case. local-level variation in language, scripts, and vernacular religious practice to extend down as far as The implications of this discovery for our understanding of the cultural and religious history of the hills on the northern flank of the Red River plain. However, this turns out to be not the case. the Zhuang and other Tai-speaking groups in China are quite profound. For if what we have on the The implications of this discovery for our understanding of the cultural and religious history of southern side of the border is a coherent, highly developed region-wide culture, literate and the Zhuang and other Tai-speaking groups in China are quite profound. For if what we have on the integrated, rather than just a southern variant of the fragmentation found on the northern side of the southern side of the border is a coherent, highly developed region-wide culture, literate and border, then at the very least we have to think of the “total constellation of forces” operating in this integrated, rather than just a southern variant of the fragmentation found on the northern side of the broader Tai-speaking borderland region in a fundamentally different way. We are used to thinking border, then at the very least we have to think of the “total constellation of forces” operating in this of the borderland of Guangxi and northern Vietnam as a peripheral area. On both sides of the border, broader Tai-speaking borderland region in a fundamentally different way. We are used to thinking in Vietnam as well as in China, the mountains are high and the emperors are far away. Naturally of the borderland of Guangxi and northern Vietnam as a peripheral area. On both sides of the border, enough, we would expect these places to have a low level of culture in metropolitan terms. However, in Vietnam as well as in China, the mountains are high and the emperors are far away. Naturally to continue with the notions of centre and periphery, it seems as if the culture of the Tày has many enough, we would expect these places to have a low level of culture in metropolitan terms. However, characteristics of a culture of the centre: it is highly unified, strong, with a resilient mode of to continue with the notions of centre and periphery, it seems as if the culture of the Tày has many transmission of complex cultural knowledge from one generation to the next, and it has many of the characteristics of a culture of the centre: it is highly unified, strong, with a resilient mode of characteristics of a higher civilisation. For the shamanic traditions of this region, it seems as if we transmission of complex cultural knowledge from one generation to the next, and it has many of the should look for their epicentre not within the borders of China, but in northern Vietnam. characteristics of a higher civilisation. For the shamanic traditions of this region, it seems as if we should look for their epicentre not within the borders of China, but in northern Vietnam. Funding: This research was funded by the National Science Council, Ministry of Science and Technology, from 2011 to 2017, grant numbers 102-2410-H-004-055-, 103-2410-H-004-111- and 104-2410-H-004-162-. Funding: This research was funded by the National Science Council, Ministry of Science and Technology, from 2011Acknowledgments: to 2017, grant numbers The original 102-2410-H-004-055-, draft of this paper 103-2410-H-004-111- was delivered at the and International 104-2410-H-004-162-. Conference on ‘The Many Faces of Contemporary Shamanism’ held at the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, on 2–4 November 2016. Acknowledgments: The original draft of this paper was delivered at the International Conference on ‘The Many A Chinese-language version of this paper is being published in their forthcoming conference volume (Hu and Faces of Contemporary Shamanism’ held at the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, on 2–4 November 2016. Liu forthcoming). I am grateful to the Institute for permission to publish an English-language version separately. A Chinese-language version of this paper is being published in their forthcoming conference volume (Hu and In China fieldwork was conducted in collaboration with Professor Meng Yuanyao 蒙元耀 of the Guangxi Liu forthcoming). I am grateful to the Institute for permission to publish an English-language version separately. University for Nationalities in Nanning. Research in Vietnam was conducted in collaboration with Professor In China fieldwork was conducted in collaboration with Professor Meng Yuanyao 蒙元耀 of the Guangxi Trần Trí Dõi of the National University for Humanities and Social Sciences Hanoi. I am also grateful to the two University for Nationalities in Nanning. Research in Vietnam was conducted in collaboration with Professor anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions. Trần Trí Dõi of the National University for Humanities and Social Sciences Hanoi. I am also grateful to the two anonymousConflicts of reviewersInterest: The for thauthoreir helpful declares suggestions. no conflicts of interest.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest. Appendix A. Giải Hạn Text Subheadings AppendixThe first A. Gi lineải Hisạ na Texttransliteration Subheadings of the Tày subheading, the second line is the Việtnamese translation, the third line is the subheading in the original manuscript, and the fourth line is the The first line is a transliteration of the Tày subheading, the second line is the Việtnamese English translation. Page numbers serve to give some indication of relative length. Religionstranslation,2019, 10the, 64 third line is the subheading in the original manuscript, and the fourth line 18is ofthe 22 English1 Kha translation. tàng Bách ĐPageiểu numbers serve to give some indication 25–34 of relative length. f Con đường Bách Điểu 183–191 11 KhaKha tàng tàng Bách Bách Điiểu 25–34 25–34 軻 f 百鳥 338–347 ConCon đườđường Bách Bách Điểu 183–191 183–191 Path to the One Hundred Birds 軻軻 f 百百鳥鳥 338–347 338–347 2 PathLPathổng to tàng the LongOne HundredVương th Birds ủy ph ủ 34–43 Xuống đường Long Vương thủy phủ 191–200 2L Lổổngng tàng tàng Long V ương th ủy ph ủ 34–43 34–43 下路龍王水府章 347–356 Xuống đường Long V ương thủy phủ 191–200 191–200 Going下路龍 down王水府 the章 Path to the Dragon King and the Watery Mansion 下路龍王水府章 347–356 347–356 Going down the Path to the Dragon King and the Watery Mansion 3 GoingCống s downứ lục engthe Pathní bưở tong the hác Dragon King and the Watery 43–67 Mansion 3 C Cống s ứ tìmluc enghổn ntríẻb ưởtrốngn bên hác hác 200–224 43–67 3 CCốốngng s ứ ltụìmc eng hổn ní tr ẻbưởtrốngn b hácên hác 43–67 200–224 貢使小兒北國章 356–380 C貢ố使ng小 sứ兒 tìm北國 h章ổn trẻ trốn bên hác 200–224 356–380 The Tribute-Bearing Child Emissary from the Northern Kingdom 貢使小兒北國章The Tribute-Bearing Child Emissary from the Northern 356–380 Kingdom 4 4Religions TheThângTh 2019â ngTribute-Bearing, cung 10, x FOR m ớ PEERi mẻ REVIEWsChildứ Emissary from the Northern 67–71 Kingdom 67–71 18 of 21 Đến cung mời mẹ sứ 224–228 4 ThângĐến cung cung m ờmiớ mi ẹmsẻứ sứ 67–71 224–228 Religions到宫請使母Công到 2019請 s, 使ứ10 ,con母 x FOR tr ẻ PEER (bài REVIEW II) 380–383228–230 18 of 21 ReligionsReligionsĐế 2019n 2019 cung, ,10 10, ,x mx FOR FORời m PEER PEERẹ sứ REVIEW REVIEW 224–228 380–383 1818 ofof 2121 Religions 貢使小兒又零章、急使用路邁、折 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 383–386 18 of 21 到宫請使母 Arriving at the Palace and Inviting the Mother Emissary Công sứ con tr ẻ (bài II) 380–383228–230 5 C TheCôngCôngống Tribute-Bearing ssứứ l conconủc đé trtrẻchẻ (bài(bài (bà Child II)iII) II) Emissary Again, an Expeditious 228–230228–230 Road for 71–74Hasty Missions 5 Công ArrivingC貢使小兒又零章、急使用路邁、折ống ssứứ conlatủc the đtréchẻ Palace (bài (bài II) andII) Inviting the Mother Emissary 228–230 383–386 71–74 C貢使小兒又零章、急使用路邁、折貢使小兒又零章、急使用路邁、折ông sứ con trẻ (bài II) 383–386383–386 228–230 6 貢使小兒又零章、急使用路邁、折Truyền suông tọn lừa Nặm Kim 383–386 74–81 5 C The貢ố使ng Tribute-Bearing小 sứ兒 l又ủc零 đ章éch、 (bài急 使Child II)用 路 Emissary邁 、折 Again, an Expeditious 71–74 Road for Hasty Missions Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW Truy The The10 Tribute-Bearing ềTribute-Bearingofn suông21 dọn thuy ChildChildền N EmissaryEmissaryặm Kim Again,Again, anan Expeditious Expeditious230–237 Road Road forfor383–386 HastyHasty MissionsMissions The Tribute-Bearing Child Emissary Again, an Expeditious Road for Hasty Missions 6 TruyThe傳宗屯 Tribute-Bearingền hsuông淰金章 tọn lừ Childa Nặm Emissary Kim Again, an Expeditious 74–81 Road for Hasty Missions 66 TruyTruyềềnn suôngsuông ttọọn n l lừừaa NN ặặmm KimKim 386–392 74–8174–81 19 Entering the Gate of the Jade Emperor 6 TruyTruyềềnn suông susuôngông t dọọnn l ừthuya N ềặnm N Kim ặm Kim 230–237 74–81 74–81 ConveyingTruyTruyềềnn suôngsuông Orders ddọọnn to thuythuy theềề nRowersn NNặặmm KimKim of the Boats on the 230–237Golden230–237 Waters 20 Entering the Gate of the Generals and Presenting Taxes Truy傳宗屯Truyền hsuông su淰金章ông d ọ n thuy ề n N ặ m Kim 230–237386–392 230–237 7 Kh傳宗屯傳宗屯ảu tuhh rườ淰金章淰金章n công 386–392386–392 81–89 21 Eating a Repast at Khau Khác and Hau Cài 傳宗屯 Conveying傳宗屯h淰淰金章 Orders金章 to the Rowers of the Boats on the386–392 Golden Waters386–392 Conveying Conveying OrdersOrders toto thethe RowersRowers ofof thethe BoatsBoats onon thethe GoldenGolden WatersWaters ConveyingVào cửa nhà Orders công to the Rowers of the Boats on the 237–245Golden Waters Admittedly many of these names are opaque, and require explanation. To do this properlyConveying even Orders to the Rowers of the Boats on the Golden Waters 7 Kh須ảu tu 公章rườn công 81–89 7 77 μKhKhảảuu s tutu rrườườnn ccôngcôngông 392–400 81–8981–89 81–89 for a single Then ritual is well beyond the scope of this paper. What I can do here is 7 single KhVào someảu c ửtua of rnhàườ n công công 237–245 81–89 EnteringVàoVào ccửửaa nhàthenhà Door côngcông of the House of the Worthy 237–245237–245 the above way-station names out for comment. VàoVào c cửửaa nhà nhà côngcông 237–245 237–245 µ 須須s 公章公章 392–400 8 Truyμμ 須須ềsns m公公章ụ章c la a hươ ng hoa, đă ng trà qu ả th ực, ph ụng392–400392–400 hiến 89–92392–400 μ Entering須 s 公章 the Door of the House of the Worthy 392–400 8. Indigenous and Imported Religious Elements Entering Entering thethe DoorDoor ofof thethe HouseHouse ofof thethe WorthyWorthy EnteringTruyEnteringền m the theục Doorla Door ma of ofa hthe theươ Houseng House hoa, of ofđă the theng Worthy Worthytrà quả thực, phụng hiến 245–248 8 Truy傳目羅摩軻香花、燈茶果食，奉献ền mục la a hương hoa, đăng trà quả thực, phụng hiến 89–92 At the highest point in the heavens is the palace of the Jade Emperor (stage 32, 819). 88 ThisTruyTruy deity,ềềềnnn muc mm ụụcc la lala a aa h hhươươươngngng hoa, hoa,hoa, đă đăđăngngng tr tràtràà qu ququảảả th th thựựực,c,c,phung phphụụng ng hi hihiế ếnếnn 400–403 89–92 89–92 89–92 8 TruyTruyềềnn mmụụcc lala ama hươ a hngươ hoa,ng hoa, đăng đă tràng qu tràả quthựả c,th phực,ụ phng ụhingến hi ế n 89–92245–248 or at least the name, is clearly of Chinese origin. The Jade Emperor may originally be a deity promotedTruy ConveyingTruyềềềnnn muc mm ụụ cthec la lala ma maListma a aaof h hhươ ươIncense,ươngngng hoa, hoa,hoa, Flower, đă đăđăngngng tr tràtràLampà qu ququảả,ả thTea, ththựựực,c,c, Fruit, phung phphụụng ngand hi hihiế ếComestiblesnếnn 245–248245–248245–248 to Be Offered Truy傳目羅摩軻香花、燈茶果食，奉献傳目ề羅n摩 m軻ục香 la花 ma、 燈a h茶ươ果ng食 ，hoa,奉 đăng trà quả thực, phụng hiến 245–248 by the Song emperors, incorporated into Taoism, but the cult became so widespread as 傳目羅摩軻香花、燈茶果食，奉献to傳目羅摩軻香花、燈茶果食，奉献 form a 400–403400–403400–403 9 傳目羅摩軻香花、燈茶果食，奉献Tẻo phát lộ 92–102 400–403 37 Conveying the List of Incense, Flower, Lamp,Lamp , Tea,Tea, Fruit,Fruit, and and ComestiblesComestibles 400–403 toto BeBe OfferedOffered standard fixture in Chinese popular religion. The same is true in Vietnam. Also of Chinese L Conveying Conveyingại origin,phát c ỗ thethe ListList ofof Incense,Incense, Flower,Flower, LampLamp ,, Tea,Tea, Fruit,Fruit,248–258 andand ComestiblesComestibles toto BeBe OfferedOffered but more identifiably Taoist, are the Three Brightnesses (Tam Quang 三光)—the sun,9 T moon, Conveyingẻo ph andát l ộ the List of Incense, Flower, Lamp, Tea, Fruit, and Comestibles92–102 to Be Offered 9 T又發具章ẻo phát l ộ 403–413 92–10292–102 stars. Special reverence to the Three Brightnesses is a particular feature of the Tianxin 9zhengfa LTạẻio ph phát天心át c ỗlộ 92–102 248–258 9 TL Issuingẻạoi phátphát the clộỗ Mats Again 248–25892–102 又LLạạ發ii phátphát ccỗỗ 248–258248–258 正法 tradition, starting in the Song dynasty, and the San Guang continue to feature prominently Lại phát具章 in cỗ 248–258 403–413 又發具章 403–413 the southern Taoist schools of later centuries.38 In the Then journeys to the sky, the10 TamLIssuing又發具章ậ pQuang trạm the Thái Mats t ứ Again 102–110403–413403–413 又發具章 Issuing the Mats Again 403–413 Issuing Issuing thethe MatsMats AgainAgain themselves do not put in an appearance; rather, the Tam Quang Market is the place where10 IssuingL ậthep tr Thenạ mthe Thái Th Matsái tứ Again 258–265 102–110 10 L立暫太子章ập trạm Thái tứ 102–110 and their entourage purchase the pigs to be offered at the court of the Jade Emperor. Thus, 1010 theLLậập pextent trtrạạmm ThTháiThái ái ttứứ 413–421102–110102–110 258–265 to which Chinese-derived deities actually play an active role in the ascent of the Then10 —as LL立 ậopposedập暫p trtr太ạạ子mm 章 TháiThái ttứứ 102–110258–265 SettingLLậậpp trtrạạ mupm Thái Tháithe Station ttứứ for the Crown Prince 258–265258–265 413–421 L立暫太子章ập trạm Thái tứ 258–265 to having their names appended to particular stages in the journey—is a moot point, andSetting立暫太子章立暫太子章 one that up the Station for the Crown Prince 413–421413–421 11 立暫太子章Tỏn tướng 110–112413–421 needs to be investigated further. 11 SettingTỏn tướ upng the Station for the Crown Prince 413–421 110–112 Đ Setting Settingón tướ upupng thethe StationStation forfor thethe CrownCrown PrincePrince 265–267 It is also noteworthy that, in common with southern forms of Taoism, the Then have a militarised SettingĐón tướ upng the Station for the Crown Prince 265–267 11 T屯将章ỏn tướ ng 110–112421–423 religion, and make the journey up into the sky with a retinue that includes generals (11t11ướ ng屯TT ỏỏ将nn 章)ttướ ướandngng 110–112110–112 421–423 11 TĐ Welcomingỏónn t tướướngng the Generals 110–112265–267 spirit troops (binh mạ 兵馬). In the Jinlong area, the domestic altars of high-ranking Then practitionersĐĐónón ttướướngng 265–267265–267 ĐWelcomingón tướng the Generals 265–267 屯将章 421–423 have flags of command hanging up in rows behind them, indicating the number of troops1212 andTàngT屯将章àng horses phya Su Mi 112–119421–423421–423 112–119 屯将章 Welcoming the Generals 421–423 the Then has at his or her command. Welcoming Welcoming thethe GeneralsGenerals WelcomingDựng núi núi Su the Mi Generals 267–274 267–274 Other figures in the sky realm are Buddhist in origin, such as the Old Buddha, the12 Old Tàng上層首Buddha’s phyag 章 Su Mi 112–119 1212 上TàngTàng層首 phyaphya’ 章 SuSu MiMi 423–431112–119112–119 423–431 Mother, Avalokitešvara, and quite possibly a number of the yakšas. Many elements in12 Then TàngD ritualựng phya núiare Su Su Mi Mi 112–119267–274 The DDựựng ng Path núinúi up SuSu the MiMi Peak of Su Mi 267–274267–274 based on Buddhist templates, such as the offerings of flowers and lamps, and the general D上層首 layoutựng núi’ gof章 Su Mi 267–274423–431 13 L上層首上層首ập trạ’m’gg Thành章章 Nam 119–123423–431423–431 the offerings. 上層首 The Path’g up章 the Peak of Su Mi 423–431 The The PathPath upup thethe PeakPeak ofof SuSu MiMi Some place-names can also be shown to derive from Chinese sources. Turtle Mountain TheLậ p(Aoyai Pathtrạm up Thành the Peak Nam of Su Mi 274–278 13 L立暫城南章ập trạm Thành Nam 119–123 鼇崖, stage 6) is probably a reference to Aoshan 鼇山. Aoshan also appears in the ritual 1313 textsLLậậpp of trtr ạạthemm ThànhThành NamNam 431–435119–123119–123 13 LLậậpp trtrạạmm ThànhThành NamNam 119–123274–278 Zhuang mogong, and in Zhuang mythology was a mountain so high that it was the last stop SettingLLậập pbefore trtrạạ mupm Thành Thànhthe Station NamNam in the South of the City Wall 274–278274–278 L立暫城南章ập trạm Thành Nam 274–278 one reached the realm of the immortals. The name comes from classical Chinese literature. 立暫城南章The立暫城南章 ao 鼇 431–435431–435 14 立暫城南章Lập trạm Môn 123–132431–435 Setting列仙傳 up the Station in the South of the City Wall 431–435 , an enormous turtle that supported a mountain on its back, appears in the Liexian zhuanL Setting Settingậ p trạ m upup ,Môn thethe StationStation inin thethe SouthSouth ofof thethe CityCity WallWall 278–287 where it associated with the mountain of Penglai 蓬莱. This and references in other early Setting Chinese up the Station in the South of the City Wall 14 L立暫门章ập trạm Môn 123–132435–445 writings meant that the ao came to be associated with the ascent to heaven, success14 in Limperialập trạm Môn 123–132 14 LL Settingậậpp trtrạạm mup MônMôn the Station at the Gate 123–132278–287 39 LLậậpp trtrạạmm MônMôn 278–287278–287 examinations, and elevation to high office. Lập trạm Môn 278–287 立暫门章 435–445 Other place-names, however, indicate the presence of what appears to be a pre-sinitic15 L立暫门章 andập tr pre-ạm Ph ủ 132–144435–445435–445 立暫门章 Setting up the Station at the Gate 435–445 Setting Setting upup thethe StationStation atat thethe GateGate Vietic geography. The Peak of Su Mi 首眉, found at stage 12 in the Giải Hạn ascent to heaven, SettingLập trạ upm is Ph theủ Station at the Gate 287–298 15 L立暫府章ập trạm Phủ 132–144 found throughout the Tai-speaking areas of Guangxi and Guizhou, over a very wide area. 1515 TheLLậậpp name trtrạạmm PhPhủủ 445–457132–144132–144 takes on various forms according to local dialect and local script traditions. In central-western15 LLậậpp trtrạạmm PhPh ủủ 132–144287–298 SettingLLậậpp trtrạạ mupm Ph Phtheủủ Station at the Official Residence 287–298287–298 Guangxi, the name Couhmiz 州眉 is mentioned in connection with a narrative about the primordialL立暫府章ập trạm Ph ủ 287–298445–457 16 N立暫府章立暫府章ủng sửa 144–150445–457445–457 flood, and is understood to be the name of a high mountain. In a Bouyei version of the flood立暫府章 Setting myth up the Station at the Official Residence 445–457 M Setting Settingặc áo upup thethe StationStation atat thethe Official Official ResidenceResidence 298–304 from southern Guizhou, the name Cojmiz (written 索密) is explained as the name of an old Setting man who up the Station at the Official Residence 16 N儂ủlng 青气顏章sửa 144–150457–461 lives on the top of Bolangshan 播朗山, the only peak high enough to escape inundation1616 duringNNủủngng sthesửửaa 144–150144–150 16 NMủặngc áo sử a 144–150298–304 great flood. Even further north, in west-central Guizhou, a suspiciously similar name ( 站走煤 MMặ,ặ ctcɕ áoiaáoŋ 24 298–304298–304 M儂ặlc 青气顏章áo 457–461298–304 ɬeu53 mei11) is found in funeral texts, and is understood as referring to the primordial homeland 儂儂ll of青气顏章 青气顏章the 457–461457–461 儂 l 青气顏章 457–461

37 (Lü and Luan 2001, pp. 29–31) 38 On the San Guang in Tianxin zhengfa, see especially (Li 2011, pp. 196–227). 39 For further detail, see (Holm 2004a, p. 169).

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21

Công sứ con trẻ (bài II) 228–230 貢使小兒又零章、急使用路邁、折 383–386 The Tribute-Bearing Child Emissary Again, an Expeditious Road for Hasty Missions 6 Truyền suông tọn lừa Nặm Kim 74–81 Truyền suông dọn thuyền Nặm Kim 230–237 傳宗屯 h 淰金章 386–392 Conveying Orders to the Rowers of the Boats on the Golden Waters 7 Khảu tu rườn công 81–89 Vào cửa nhà công 237–245 μ 須 s 公章 392–400 Entering the Door of the House of the Worthy 8 Truyền mục la a hương hoa, đăng trà quả thực, phụng hiến 89–92 Truyền mục la ma a hương hoa, đăng trà quả thực, phụng hiến 245–248 傳目羅摩軻香花、燈茶果食，奉献 400–403 Conveying the List of Incense, Flower, Lamp, Tea, Fruit, and Comestibles to Be Offered 9 Tẻo phát lộ 92–102 Lại phát cỗ 248–258 又發具章 403–413 Issuing the Mats Again 10 Lập trạm Thái tứ 102–110 Lập trạm Thái tứ 258–265 立暫太子章 413–421 Setting up the Station for the Crown Prince 11 Tỏn tướng 110–112 Đón tướng 265–267 屯将章 421–423 Welcoming the Generals 12 Tàng phya Su Mi 112–119 Dựng núi Su Mi 267–274 上層首’g 章 423–431 The Path up the Peak of Su Mi Religions 2019, 10, 64 19 of 22 13 Lập trạm Thành Nam 119–123 Lập trạm Thành Nam 274–278 13 Lập trạm Thành Nam 119–123 立暫城南章 431–435 Lập trạm Thành Nam 274–278 Setting up the Station in the South of the City Wall 立暫城南章 431–435 14 LSettingập trạm up Môn the Station in the South of the City Wall 123–132 14 LLậậpp tr trạạmm Môn Môn 278–287 123–132 立暫门章Lập trạm Môn 435–445 278–287 Setting立暫门 章up the Station at the Gate 435–445 Setting up the Station at the Gate 15 Lập trạm Phủ 132–144 15 Lập trạm Phủ 132–144 Lập trạm Phủ 287–298 Lập trạm Phủ 287–298 立暫府章 445–457 立暫府章 445–457 Setting up the Station at the Official Residence ReligionsSetting 2019, 10 up, x theFOR StationPEER REVIEW at the Official Residence 19 of 21 16 NNủủngng s sửửaa 144–150 144–150 Religions M PuttingMặ 2019ặcc áoá,o 10 on, x FORthe VestmentsPEER REVIEW 298–304 298–304 19 of 21 儂 l 青气顏章 17 R儂ước 青Su气 Mi顏 章nả vua 457–461150–154 457–461 Putting on the Vestments RPuttingước Su onMi the trướ Vestmentsc mặt vua 304–308 17 R禄首眉那Rướướcc Su Su Mi Mim n章 nảả vuavua 150–154461–467 150–154 R WelcomingRướướcc Su Su Mi Mi Sutr trướướ Micc m minặ Fronttt vua vua of the King 304–308 304–308 禄首眉那禄首眉那m 章 461–467 461–467 18 Giải lẩu 154–156 WelcomingWelcoming Su Mi in Front of the King Giã rượu 308–310 18 Giải lẩu 154–156 18 Gi解陋章ải lẩu 154–156467–469 Giã rượu 308–310 Giã Breaking rượu Open the Wine 308–310 解陋章 解陋章 467–469 467–469 19 Khảu tu Ngọc Hoàng 156–165 BreakingBreaking Open Open the the Wine Wine 19 VàoKhả ucử tua Ng Ngọọcc Hoàng Hoàng 310–318 156–165 19 Kh八玉皇门章Vàảou c ửtua Ng Ng ọọcc Hoàng Hoà ng 156–165469–477 310–318 Vào Entering八玉 c皇ửa门 Ng the章ọ Gatec Hoàng of the Jade Emperor 310–318 469–477 八玉皇门章Entering the Gate of the Jade Emperor 469–477 20 Khảu tu tướng tiến thuế 165–168 20 EnteringKhảu tu ttheướ ngGate tiế nofthu theế Jade Emperor 165–168 Vào cửa tướng tiến thuế 318–322 Vào cửa tướng tiến thuế 318–322 20 Kh入门将進税章ảu tu tướng tiến thuế 165–168477–480 入门将進税章 477–480 Vào Entering cửa t theướng Gate tiế nof thu theế Generals and Presenting Taxes318–322 入门将進税章Entering the Gate of the Generals and Presenting Taxes477–480 21 Kin lèng Khau Khác Khau Cài 168–182 21 EnteringKin lèng the Khau Gate Kh ofác the Khau Generals Cài and Presenting Taxes 168–182 ĂĂnn b bữữaa ph phuụ (Lèng) (Lèng) ởở Khau Khác Khác Hau Cài Cài 322–336 322–336 21 Kin lèng Khau Khác Khau Cài 168–182 坚坚q 丘丘格章格章 480–497 480–497 Ă EatingEatingn bữa a aph Repast Repastụ (Lèng) at at Khau Khau ở Khau Khác Kh Khácác and and Hau Hau Cài Cài Cà i 322–336 坚 q 丘格章 480–497 References Eating a Repast at Khau Khác and Hau Cài Works compiled by institutes, committees, and other collective bodies are listed by title. All other entries are Basilov,References V. N. 1999. Cosmos as Everyday Reality in Shamanism. In Shamanic Cosmos: from India to the North Pole Star. Editedlisted by by name Romano of author. Mastromattei and Antonio Rigopoulos. Venice and New Delhi: Venetian Academy of WorksIndian compiled Studies by andinstitutes, D.K. Printworld, committees, pp. and 17–39. other collective bodies are listed by title. All other entries are B(Basilovế Viếlistedt, D1999)ằ ng,by nameBasilov, Luc V ofăn V.author. Pả N.,o, and 1999. Phan Cosmos Ngọ c.as 1992. EverydayPut T Realityày: chant in cultuel Shamanism. de l’ethnie In Shamanic Tày du Vi Cosmos:ệt Nam. Hanoi:from India Nh toà xutheấ tNorth bản KhoaPole Star học. X Editedã hội. by Romano Mastromattei and Antonio Rigopoulos. Venice and New Delhi: C(Basilovác DVenetianân t1999)ộc ở B Basilov, ắAcademyc Kạn [The V. ofN., Ethnic Indian 1999. Groups CosmosStud ofies B andắasc KEveryday ạD.K.n]. 2003. 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Xã hộ Ed.i, pp. Tỉ 315–21.nh Ủy và Ủy (CungB ảKhn Nhânắc Lượ Dânc 2006) Tỉnh Cung Bắc KKhạnắ c[Provincial Lược. 2006. Party Về m Committeeột tư liệu thú and v People’sị Sách dạ yCommittee bảo chữ Nôm of ctheủa Provincengười Tày of so Bạắnc Kđểạ n].dạ yHanoi: con cháu Nhà trong xuất bgiaản Thđình,ế gi cáchời. nay 184 năm [An interesting document of the Tày people, Precious (CungPrimer Khắc forLượ Chc ữ2006) Nôm Cung, for teaching Khắc Lượ sonsc. 2006. and Vgrandsonsề một tư liatệu home, thú v ịdating Sách d ạfromy bảo 184 chữ years Nôm cago].ủa ng Inườ Nghiêni Tày so Cứạnu đểCh ữd ạNômy con [Research cháu trong on Chgiaữ đ Nôm].ình, cách Edited nay by184 Vi nệănm Nghiên [An interesting Cứu Hán documentNôm Việt ofNam. the Hanoi:Tày people, Nhà xuPreciousất bản PrimerKhoa h forọc XãCh ữh ộNômi, pp., for 315–21. teaching sons and grandsons at home, dating from 184 years ago]. 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