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Irkutsk State Medical University” of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Irkutsk State Medical University” of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation Department of Public Health and Healthcare I.V. Orlova Irkutsk, 2020 1 УДК 61(091)(075.8)=111 ББК5гя73 О-75 Recommended by the CCMС of FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia as a study guide for foreign students, mastering educational program of higher education by the educational program of the specialty of General Medicine, Dentistry for mastering the discipline “History of Medicine” (Protocol № 1 of 28.10.2020) Author: I.V. Orlova – Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of public health and healthcare, FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia Reviewers: A.V. Zavialov – Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Senior teacher, Department of Clinical, Social Psychology and Humanities, FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia M.I. Vinokurova – Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of Foreign Languages with Latin and "Russian for Foreigners" Programs, FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia Orlova I.V. О-75 History of Medicine: study-guide / I. V. Orlova; FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia, Department of Public Health and Healthcare. – Irkutsk : ISMU, 2020. – 83 p. This textbook covers key concepts and events in the history of medicine, dating back to ancient times. The training material is presented in the form of texts. In order to assimilate the material under study and self-control, test tasks are included in it. There are drawings in the textbook. These pictures are taken from Wikipedia. The manual is intended for foreign students mastering educational programs of higher education in the educational program of the specialty General Medicine, Dentistry for mastering the discipline "History of Medicine". УДК 61(091)(075.8)=111 ББК5гя73 © Orlova I.V., 2020 © FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia, 2020 2 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BCE / BC – Before Christ (Before Common Era) CE / AD – Anno Domini (from Latin – Common Era) UN – United Nations WHO – World Health Organization 3 INTRODUCTION The task of teaching the History of Medicine to foreign students is to give them the opportunity to master theoretical knowledge about the events and processes of the development of medicine. This study-guide covers the period of the formation of medical science from ancient times till nowadays. The study-guide describes the development of individual areas of medical science, as well as the role of famous scientists. The study-guide consists of 9 topics, the topics are accompanied by exercises and tests. At the end of the study guide, there is a list of recommended literature, as well as the appendix "Recommendations for presentation preparation" which provides practical tips for students who want to make meaningful and effective presentations. Before a student starts making reports and presentations for the "Reading Skills Development" block, he / she is advised to study the material in this section and follow the suggested tips. The study-guide meets the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standards of Higher Education, the work program of the discipline "History of Medicine" and is intended for foreign students who master educational programs for specialists. 4 CONTENTS № Topics p. 1. History of medicine as a science. Medicine in early civilizations: Babylonia and Ancient Egypt 6 2. Medicine in early civilizations: Ancient India and Ancient China 14 3. Medicine of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome 29 4. Medieval medicine: the East and Europe 25 5. Medieval medicine: famous European scientists 37 6. European medicine from the second half of the 18th century to the 19th century. 44 Development of Biomedical sciences 7. European medicine from the second half of the 18th century to the 19th century. 52 Development of Medical and Clinical sciences 8. Development of the regional medicine in the middle of the 19th – 20th centuries 63 9. Medical organizations in the 20th century 70 Final test 74 Correct answers 79 Recommended literature 80 Supplement 81 5 TOPIC 1. HISTORY OF MEDICINE AS A SCIENCE. MEDICINE IN EARLY CIVILIZATIONS: BABYLONIA AND ANCIENT EGYPT PLAN 1. History of medicine as a science 2. Prehistoric medicine 3. Medicine in early civilizations 1. History of medicine as a science The subject of history of medicine includes history and medicine studies. This combination makes the discipline more interesting. It is impossible to imagine а world without medicine. The word "medicine" is derived from Latin and means the art of healing. Since the ancient times, medicine has always helped to cure people of dangerous diseases. The main purpose of modern medicine is not only to treat an illness, but give a well- timed diagnosis and try to prevent it. Modern medicine has advanced greatly, so that doctors can foresee health problems of a baby already in the womb. It has become possible due to modern technologies. The development of medicine started in ancient times, when people used to treat themselves with different things, such as animal organs and secretions, minerals and herbs. It was the time of herbal medicine. Today some things seem strange and funny to us. However, some people still follow this way of treatment and find it effective. There are also many kinds of medicines consisting of vegetal components. Whenever we ask how this or that was, we must turn to history. History is a science about the past. Studying the past helps us understand what life was like at a certain period of time. We can also understand different events of the past and special features of previous civilizations by thinking them up. Studying the past we can see what problems existed many years ago, and what the methods of solutions were. We can evaluate situations which happened in the past to make conclusions for the present. History is a conversation between the present and the past. History can be compared with an intricate puzzle. Some pieces of the puzzle have been lost forever. But every generation of historians tries to find the lost. When we talk about history of medicine we should consider medicine as a historical phenomenon, as a part of culture at a certain age or in a certain country. I suggest that we divided history of medicine into the following periods: - Prehistoric medicine; - Medicine in early civilizations; - Medicine in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome; 6 - Medieval medicine: the East and Europe; - European medicine from the second half of the 18th century to the 20th century; - Regional medicine in the middle of the 19th – 20th centuries/ 2. Prehistoric medicine Talking about prehistoric medicine, we should remember and understand the following. 1. At first medicine was not a science. It was only healing. 2. Healing was a collective activity. Women did it because they wanted to take care of children. Men did it because they wanted to help tribesmen in the hunt or battle. What was it like? What methods did prehistoric people use? Australian aborigines used means of flora and fauna for healing. For example, for food poisoning they used urine and clay. Aborigines of America used different methods, such as compresses, massage and intestinal lavage. They were able to make operations, using herbs for anesthesia as well. A healing magic was popular in the prehistoric period, which caused the emergence of rituals. For example, trepanation1. In modern medicine trepanation is a skull perforation operation with the aim to get to the center of a brain malady. Judging about the prehistoric period, historians concluded that prehistoric people were absolutely sure that this manipulation led to the exorcism of the evil spirit. Picture 1. Trepanation on Scientists believe these were unique situations because some trepanation facts were the skull of a primitive man 1 successful. The main evidence of successful operations is calluses on skulls found by archeologists. Trepanation of the skull of the Ancient Incas (modern Peru) Trepanation is the removal of certain parts of the human skull, practiced 12 000 years ago. The Incas had a wide knowledge of human anatomy and were able to apply them in practice. Healers of Inca treated wounds and fractures successfully, using "tire" of the large feathers of birds; performed operations of amputation of the upper and lower extremities, made trepanation of skulls. The Incas used four different techniques of surgery: 1) drilled a hole in the cranial bone, 2) scraped a hole, 3) cut a rectangular bone fragment, 4) cut out a round piece of bone, which, after the operation was completed, could be reinserted into place. The latter method, according to researchers, was used in cases of urgent surgical intervention, if the wound was severe with obvious consequences. Anesthesia, according to historians, was common and was achieved by the use of herbs that have a narcotic effect, juices of cacti and other plants; their juices and infusions operated for several days. 1 Trepanation on the skull of a primitive man [Resource]: ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanation (date: 16.02.2020). 7 3. Medicine in early civilizations Prehistoric times changed with a period of early civilizations. These civilizations appeared in places with warm and mild climate. These were the first states. Usually historians call them states of the ancient East. The territory which we know as the ancient East was stretching from the modern Tunisia to the modern China and from the modern Ethiopia to the Caucasus Mountains. There are many specific features, contributing to the development of medicine in the ancient East: 1) invention of writing and creating of the first texts on medicine; 2) formation of two ways of medical practice: accumulation of experience and preservation of religious beliefs and traditions; 3) training of physicians; 4) creation of the first sanitation and development of hygienic principles; 5) formation of bases of the medical ethics (deontology). Babylonia One of the most famous states of the ancient East was the Babylonian kingdom.
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