Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status Among Agro-Pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania , East

East African Journal of Social and Applied Sciences (EAJ-SAS) Vol.2, No.2 Publication Date: October. 20, 2020 ISSN: (Online) 2714-2051, (Print) 0856-9681 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at: http//www.mocu.ac.tz

Cite this article as: Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B. N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania , East

African Journal of Social and Applied Sciences, 2(2), 297-315.

GENDER AND HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY STATUS AMONG AGRO- PASTORAL COMMUNITIES OF CHAMWINO AND CHEMBA DISTRICTS, TANZANIA

Venance E. Kalumanga PhD-Student –Institute of Development Studies The University of Dodoma Email: [email protected]

Okuli Swai Institute of Development Studies The University of Dodoma Email: [email protected]

Benta N. Matunga Institute of Development Studies The University of Dodoma Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT Food insecurity is progressively making Africa the uppermost region with pervasiveness of malnourishment. Men and women in Africa face different restraints and their food insecurity circumstances vary. This paper analyzed gender and household food insecurity status among agro-pastoral communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts in Tanzania. Cross-sectional survey was used where data were collected from randomly selected 333 households in two districts. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale from Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance was adopted and modified to analyze the households experienced problems to access food for the last 30 days while considering gender issues. 79.8% of the households were food insecure. Categorically, 24.6%-men and 18.3%- women were mildly food insecure; 13.5%-men and 12.9%- women were moderately food insecure and 3.3%-men and 7.2%-women were severely food insecure. Food insecurity status between Chamwino District was 80.6% and that of Chemba District was 78.8%, the differences were not statistically significant (p>0.05). There were high gender disparities on food insecurity in Chamwino District in which 33.3% of men and 67.7% of women were food insecure while in Chemba District, gender disparity was 36.4% of men and 42.4% of women. Generally, in the two districts the differences between gender and food insecurity were statistically significant (p<0.02). Gender roles have created disparities on food insecurities in the study area. Therefore, special attention should be taken to address gender roles and achieving gender equality in all matters pertaining availability, accessibility, utilization and stability of food in the study area and similar areas in Africa.

Key words: Food insecurity, Households, Gender, Agro-pastoral communities Paper type: Research paper Type of Review: Peer Review

1. INTRODUCTION Globally, there is more than enough food in the world to feed everybody (World Food Program (WFP), 2019; World Bank, 2017). However, it is estimated that 820 million people about 12% of the world population still suffer from chronic hunger (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2019). The majority of

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. hungry people live in developing countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern and Eastern Asia (FAO, 2014; WFP, 2016). While many people are affected by food insecurity, there is gender disparity in that phenomenon where women and girls experience more the impacts of food insecurity (WFP, 2017). In developing countries, 70-78% of all food is tendered by women however, they are still reported to make 60 percent of malnourished people (Kabeer, 2012; UN Economic and Social Council, 2007; UNDP, 2014; WFP, 2009). Africa is mentioned to have the largest number of people suffering from high levels of food insecurity, where more than 65% are women and girls (Ecker et al., 2011; European Union, 2013; World Bank and International Food Policy Research Institute, 2012). The Global Hunger Index report (2013) of the International Food Policy Research Institute ranks countries from Sub- Saharan Africa such as Burundi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Tanzania as those with the highest proportion of undernourished people. Food insecurity impacts women and men differently. Women are reported to be highly impacted due to the roles they perform as the product of cultural norms (Kalumanga et al., 2014; Mbwambwo et al., 2013). Addressing food insecurity issues requires understanding of gender particularly norms guiding men and women. This is because gender norms have been reported to show gender inequalities in most of the communities (UNDP, 2014; WFP, 2012).

In Tanzania, women are recognized as main supporters of food security at the household and societal levels because they engage more on food production, preparations and cooking but remain to have poor food security status as compared to men (FAO, 2010). Customarily, subsistence crops grown for personal consumption fall in women's realm, while commercial crops fall into men's domain who also bear command on selling them (European Union, 2013). This situation has been making women to feel inferior and remain powerless in terms of decision making as they lack sense of resource ownership in most of communities in developing countries. Gender norms has been cited as the root causes of traditional amenities, it has also reported to perpetuate different domains existing among men and women in most of the communities especially in developing countries. Women produce more than 70 percent of the food in most of the developing countries including Tanzania (WFP, 2019). Regardless of their high food production rate yet, they are still reported to have high food insecurity as compared to men (WFP, 2014). Different scholars including (Jaka et al., 2018 and Rao et al., 2018) have reported that, in most of the developing countries women are the ones who become the last to eat after all family members at the household. They do that because of the key responsibilities and roles they possess as mothers in making sure that all members eat first. Women remain to be considered as home producers or assistants on the farm, and not as farmers and economic agents on their own value. This is due to gender roles assigned to them which resulting inequalities within most communities in the country (UNACTAD, 2010). Despite the limited access to either local or global markets, women manage their families' nutritional needs. They achieve this despite rooted discernment gender roles raised by cultural norms. The use of women's time in agriculture is often constrained by responsibilities such as household chores including fetching water and wood, preparing meals for their families, cleaning, and attending to children and livestock.

Women in agro-pastoral communities do use most of their energy on load-carrying activities involving transport of fuel-wood, water, and grain for grinding (Kalumanga, 2015; Tsuruta, 2016; Urassa et al., 2019). They work as primary care takers of the livestock including selling of milk and responsible to make sure that all family members who are responsible to look after livestock eat food on time before taking cattle for grassing (WFP, 2016). Thus, their role is important especially in making sure that, they prepare food for all family members and making sure that, all domestic activities are done regardless of being involved more on food production and other livestock’s related activities. Based on the important roles played by women this paper aimed to analyze gender and household food insecurity status among agro-pastoral communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts in Tanzania. The analysis focuses on the status of household food insecurity particularly on occurrence and its frequency gender wise.

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2. METHODOLOGY The study was conducted in Chamwino and Chemba Districts in Dodoma Region. These Districts were selected because their status of chronic food insecurity records for the previous six years (2012-18) respectively, was high (DAICO, Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Personal Communication, (2019). Gender inequalities in both social and economic amenities were also reported to be high in both districts (Galiè et al., 2015; URT, 2015). A cross-sectional research design was employed because it can compare different population groups at a single point in time, it is also cheap, easy, quick to administer and less vulnerable to drop outs of respondents (Kothari, 2009). The study analyzed the relationship between gender and households food insecurity status among agro pastoral communities in Chamwino and Chemba Districts. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used. Quantitative approach was used because it is used to quantify attitudes and opinions and other variables related to gender and food insecurity hence makes generalizations from a large population (Cohen et al., 2007; Punch, 2008). In order to get the realistic number of agro-pastoral household heads from each village the sampling proportion formula was used. The villages from Fufu ward in Chamwino District were Fufu and Suli while in the ward of Makorongo in Chemba District were Makorongo and Khubunko. Nh  n nh  N ……………………………………………………………………….. (1) Where: nh = Proportional sample for each village Nh = Total agro-pastoral households of each village N=Total number of targeted agro-pastorals households n= Calculated total sample size for the study which is 333 Fufu ward: Fufu village nh=595*333/2000 = 99 and Suli village nh=613*333/2000 = 102 Makorongo ward: Mkorongo village nh= 421*333/2000=70 and Khubunko village nh= 371*333/2000 = 61.77  62

The questions from HFIAS were adopted and modified. Qualitative approach employed the focus group discussion (FGD), with the aid of checklist to collect information from selected participants and semi structured interview guide to collect information from key informants. Literature review was used in the collection of secondary data from various sources including both printed and online information. This involved secondary data obtained from other scholars work. Statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) computer software version 20 was used for data analysis where descriptive statistics involving cross tabulation was employed to analyze the relationship between gender and the status of food insecurity in the study area. In order to test for significance of the findings of this study, triangulation of statistical test including Chi-square test as recommended by (Levine et al., 2005) was used. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale was also used to measure food insecurity status, thus Chi-square test was used to analyze the relationship of gender and household food insecurity in the study area.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics This section presents and discusses four socio-demographic components of respondents. These include sex, age, marital status and education as indicated on Table 1. Sex of the respondents as presented in Table 1 shows 54.7% of the respondents were women and 45.3% were men. The findings imply that there are many women who are household heads in the study area compared to men. This is because during food insecurity husbands normally migrate for casual labour and other income-generating activities leaving behind their wives and children at home. Age of the respondents is an important demographic factor in understanding the assessment of a particular study. This provides a picture of the energy levels of the workforce of the respondents. Age in a study picks up the life cycle effect and is a measure of potential

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. labour force experience. Results in Table 1 indicate that 29.4% of the respondents were found to spread in the age category of 36-45 years followed by 23.4% with the range of 46-55. This implies that slightly more than a half 52.8% of the respondents still under the workforce age of food production that can ensure food availability in the study area.

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents Category Total Percent (%) Sex of the respondent Male 151 45.3 Female 182 54.7 Age Group 26-35 32 9.6 36-45 98 29.4 46-55 85 25.5 56-65 78 23.4 66-75 37 11.1 76-85 3 0.9 Marital status of the respondent Single 10 3.0 Married 268 80.5 Widow 36 10.8 Divorced 19 5.7 Education level No Formal Education 65 19.5 Primary Education 231 69.4 Secondary Education 31 9.3 College 6 1.8

Furthermore, findings in Table 1 indicate that the majority 80.5% of the respondents in the study area are married, followed by 10.5% widows. This shows that most of the household’s heads in the study area live with their partners thus, occupy responsibilities to ensure household food security. This is in lines with a study by Galie et al., (2015) that marital status is also the symbol of responsibility assigned under gender roles of a particular community and condition for food security. Findings in Table 1 also show that the majority 69.4% of respondents had primary education level, meaning that they know how to read and write while 19.5% of the respondents had no formal education. This implies that, many household heads have low education profile which cannot help them to transform agriculture activities in their areas, thus ending up being food insecure. The findings are also supported by Sugimura (2016) who studied education and the world of agro-pastoralism and concluded that most of agro-pastoralist in central Tanzania had primary education which cannot make them cope with modern agriculture as it requires high technology.

3.2 Assessment of Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status The analysis of gender and household food insecurity status in the study area was done using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale. The findings analyzed the status of food insecurity in relation to gender at the household level in the study area.

3.2.1 Gender and the Situation of Worry on not Having Enough Food to Eat Results as shown in Figure 1 indicate that 56.2% of the households which reported to worry about having enough food to eat were female and 25.8% were male. The statistical test under Chi-square test revealed that there is a significant association between being a male or female and worry about having not enough food to eat (P<0.01). Results implied that females are more worried that their households would have not enough food to eat as compared to men due to their roles they most perform at their families. Women are responsible to prepare food, and make sure that all household members including children get enough

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. food. Thus if they do not get enough food for their family members especially children they become most worried. On the same vein, some scholars argued that women are family breadwinners and more perceptive during food shortage and majorities of them are responsible for tendering food at household level in most of the Sub-Saharan African countries (Connell & Pearse, 2014). Women have shown high apprehension to food shortage because of being much responsible for searching food at the household.

The analysis of frequency of worries gender wise from Figure 1 shows that female had 43.2% of rarely condition compared to 14.7% of male, while 23.7% of male had sometimes condition of worry compared to 18.3% of females. The statistical test under Chi-squire, showed that, there is a significant relationship between being a male or female and the level of worry about having not enough food to eat (P<0.03). Thus, female has the minimal frequency of worry compared to that of males due to the roles they play at household level. The minimal worries among women are resulted by their different alternatives to find food including engagement on petty business like selling of vegetables and local brews. Similar findings were revealed by (Rao, 2011) who asserted that, even when there is poor crop production, women engage in different off-farm activities like weaving, knitting etc. This enables them to obtain food and run their life. Results also implied that, the higher the frequency of worry among men on having enough food to eat is caused by poor engagement on off farm activities. The situation of failure to find other alternatives has caused some of male to leave their families with an assumption that they go to look for food. Similar findings from the focus group discussion (FGD) at Makorongo village at Chemba District participants revealed that:

“…Women have different ways of searching food; their roles and responsibilities to families make them engage in petty business which enables them to get food. These include selling of firewood, livestock grasses and local brews like Kangala and Udo. Engagement of women in petty business enable them to have minimal frequencies of worry about having not enough food to eat because they have the assurance to earn income which enables them to buy food…”.

The findings from the FGD justifies that women perform diverse activities which enables them to earn income and purchase the basic needs for their families just why they are not more worried about food insecurity when compared to men.

Yes No Rarely Sometimes

56.2 60 43.2 40 25.8 23.7 12.6 14.7 18.3 20 5.4

Percentage (%) 0 Male Female

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes (three to ten) Gender= Midst, Often, =Highest level (More than ten). Fig. 1: Gender distribution according to situation of worry on not having enough food to eat

3.2.2 Gender and the Situation of Inability to Eat the kinds of Foods Preferred On analyzing the situation of food preference gender wise as shown in Figure 2 male showed high rate of 49.2% on eating the foods which they not preferred compared to 22.8% of female. The Chi-square test also showed that, there is significant association (P<0.01) between being male or female and the ability to eat the

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. food preferred. Results implied that most of the food at the surveyed household level is tendered by women in accordance with their preferences. The results were in line with those provided by (Kalumanga, 2018) who argued that, most of the male does not know what exactly to eat at their families, they have commissioned to women all tasks and responsibilities related to searching and identifying the type of food to eat. The findings also corresponded to that provided during the interview by one of the key informants at Suli village (Female 61yrs) who was here to say.

“…I have been living with my family for many years, since then I am responsible to decide the food to eat for my family members as one of my role. My husband does not know the type of food to be eaten at the family, and he normally complains and sometimes refuses to eat with an assumption that I always prepare the food which I most prefer but I take it normal because my responsibility allows me to do so…”

Based on the statement from the key informant, women are the strategic stakeholders in deciding the food to be eaten at the household level among agro-pastoral communities because they are the one who prepare and cook the food in most of the developing countries. On analyzing the frequency of food preferences gender-wise, findings from Figure 2 revealed that female has rarely high frequency of 36.9% on eating food which they do not prefer compared to 30.7% of male. Also male were reported to have high sometimes frequency of 31.67% on eating food which they don’t prefer compared to 18.3% of female. Further statistical test under Chi-squire disclosed that there is a significant relationship between being female or male and the frequency of food preferences (P<0.01). Results implied that because males are not responsible to prepare and cook food thus, they find themselves eating some foods they don’t prefer. Similar findings were also reported by (UNDP, 2011) that women in agro-pastoral communities of the Sub-Saharan Africa are entitled to organize process and cook food for their families as key part of their responsibilities. In that regard, they organize and cook foods which they most prefer.

Yes No Rarely Sometimes

49.2 50 36.9 40 30.7 31.67 30 22.8 17.7 18.33 20 10.2 Percentage (% ) 10

0 Male Female Gender

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest level (More than ten) Figure 2: Gender distribution according to inability to eat the kinds of foods preferred

3.2.3 Gender and the Situation of Limitations of Eating Varieties of Foods On analyzing the relationship between gender and limitations of eating varieties of food, the findings as shown in Figure 3 illustrated that male had 49.8% of limitations on eating varieties of food compared to

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. female 27.3%. However, further results under Chi-test revealed that there is a statistical significant relationship (P<0.01) between being male or female and limitations of eating food varieties. Results implied that male do eat a few varieties of food compared to female due to few household tasks and responsibilities concerned with caring of children, sick people as well as cooking. Results were also supported by FAO and WFP report of (2012) which reported that, in Africa women have a high chance of eating different varieties of food on a daily basis due to the division of labor resulted by their gender responsibilities. Usually women are responsible to cook the food for all family members including special food for children, old and sick people thus they get time to test or eat different varieties of food they prepare whether for children, sick people or old ones.

The analysis of frequency on limitations to eat varieties of food gender wise showed that, female had 16.34% of rarely frequency compared to 24.12% of male. Also male has 33.9% of sometimes frequency of limitations of eating varieties of food compared to 24.9% of female. Further results under Chi-square test showed that, there is a statistically significant relationship of (P<0.04) between being male or female and the level of limitations to eat varieties of food. The results implied that male had high limitations frequency on eating varieties of food in the study area. Thus, it might be the reason for women to have a high frequency of eating different varieties of food is due to their labor division as they are responsible to manage all food processes at household level.

Figure 3: Distribution of respondents according to their limitations of eating varieties of foods and its frequency gender wise

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest level (More than ten)

3.2.4 Gender and the Situation of Eating Foods that are not Preferred The analysis of the relationship between gender and eating the food that are not preferred as depicted on Figure 4 results revealed that, 43.8% of female eat food they don’t want compared to 30.6% of males. Furthermore, Chi-square test shows that, there is a statistical significant association (P<0.03) between being a male and female on eating the food they don’t prefer. This implies that female had a high rate of eating the foods they don’t want when compared to male because of being responsible to prepare the food during food insecurity stress when there is no enough food. Due to food insecurity situation sometimes women

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. prepare food which they don’t prefer. Other scholars including (Patton, 1989; Kalumanga et al., 2014) also argued that, during food insecurity women organize undesirable food for the sake of satisfying the needs of their children and other family members. During interview with one of the key informants at Fufu village (Female, 67) has here to say. “…For sure I have been experiencing hunger at my family every time especially September to March.; I remember two weeks ago I was late from the hospital where I took my grandson who was sick. After arriving at home I found all the family members were waiting for me. They were not able to decide what to eat because there was no food at all that day. My husband was away and I am sure he noticed such situation before and decided to leave the house. Every family member was not happy; they were waiting to see what will be the fate. I went to the farm and collect the local watermelon in Gogo language we call “Mahikwi” which normally we use to feed animals like pigs and rabbits. I prepared and cooked them. I knew my family members including me did not like to eat that food but we had no option…”.

These narratives justifies that women are the main decision makers and deciders on the type of food to be eaten at the household in the study area no matter the type of food is whether preferred or not. Findings in Figure 4 also shows that female have high frequency of 22.8% on eating foods they don’t want once to twice in the past four weeks compared to 18.0% of men. On the same vein, they were also reported to have a high frequency of 33.3% on eating food they don’t want three to ten times compared to 23.4% of men. Results also revealed that both female and male had the same frequency of 0.3% each on eating foods they don’t want more than ten times in the last four weeks. Further results from Chi-square test showed that there is a statistically significant relationship (P<0.03) between being male or female and the level of eating food they don’t want. The findings implied that female had a high chance of eating foods they don’t want because of being most accountable with household affairs particularly food matters. Results were also supported by FAO report of (2011) reported that, women are usually responsible for growing and preparing different kinds of food consumed at home regardless of being socially and culturally accepted.

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest level (More than ten)

Figure 4: Distribution of respondents according to the situation of eating the food that they did not

3.2.5 Gender and the Situation of Eating Smaller Meal than Needed On analyzing the aspect of gender and the situation of eating smaller meals, results on Figure 5 indicate that 49.2% of females eat smaller amounts of food than needed compared to 26.9% of males. The Chi- square statistical test also showed that there is significant association between being a male or female and eating smaller amounts of food (P<0.02). The findings implied that females eat smaller amount of food at

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. the household compared to males because of being the last one to eat after all members of the family have eaten, being the last one they normally ending up eating the smaller portion of the food. The results were also supported by (Kalumanga et al., 2015) who stressed that, in most of the households in developing countries in both situations women have to be the last to eat food, they do that because of cultural norms, particularly in patriarchy societies and most of the agro-pastoral communities. The results were also supported by the Focus Group Discussion conducted at Fufu village in Chamwino District where participants commented that: “…Normally women become the last one to eat after all family members have eaten; they do that because they are most responsible to take care of the children. Thus, they have to leave the children and men eat first. They also do that because they are also responsible to cook some food thus, when the food is not enough they can cook it again…”

The above message signifies that women eat the food left by other family members and there is high possibility for them to miss food and starve quickly than men. The frequency of eating smaller amounts of food gender wise was also assessed and results depicted that, males and females had an almost equal rarely condition frequency of 13% and 12.7%, respectively, on eating smaller amounts of food. The findings also reported 52.3% of female to have sometimes condition frequency compared to 21.7% of males. The statistical description under Chi-square also depicted that there is a significant association (P<0.02) between being male or female and the frequency of eating smaller amounts of food. Results informs that female had a high level of eating smaller amounts of food compared to males due to social responsibilities they bear. They eat smaller amount of food because they have assurance to eat more when they cook next. The findings were also supported by (Ragin et al., 2008) and (Maxwell, 1996) who pinpointed that, in rural areas of Africa, women have high frequency of eating smaller amounts of foods. They find themselves to eat smaller amounts of food because of nursing care they offer to their family members including children, old and sick people who need more food several times than any member of the household.

Yes No Rarely Sometimes

60 52.3 49.2 50

40 26.9 30 21.7 15.7 20 13 12.7 Percentage (%)Percentage 8.2 10

0 Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), SometimesMale = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest levelFemale (More than ten) Figure 5: Distribution of respondents according to eating smaller amount of food than they needed Gender

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3.2.6 Gender and the Situation of Eating Fewer Meals in a Day On analyzing the situation of eating fewer meals gender-wise, results as shown in Figure 6 revealed that 48.9% of males eat fewer meals compared to 25.5% of females. Statistical descriptions under Chi-test also showed that there is significant associations (P<0.01) between gender and eating fewer meals in a day. Results implied that male eat fewer meals in a day compared to the female during food insecurity situations because male spend most of their time outside of their families. The findings were in line with other scholar’s including (Chambers et al., 2000; Espinosa, 2013) who argued that, during food insecurity in most of rural areas in developing countries men do eat one meal as strategy to cope food insecurity while others leave their families for the reasons that they are going to search for food. The situation of being outside of their families makes them eat fewer meals, this happens mostly when they are outside of their families for labor work. The analysis of the frequency of eating fewer meals gender wise shows that both male and female has an almost equal rarely condition frequency of 15.9% and 16.2% on eating fewer meals in a day respectively. Further results depicted that, male have 47.4% of sometimes condition frequency on eating few meals in a day compared to 20.4% of females. The statistical description under Chi- square test also showed that there is significant associations between gender and the level of eating fewer meals (P<0.01). The results implied that males have a high frequency of eating fewer meals when compared to females because of their responsibilities including farm activities and looking for cattle which make them stay outside their families for the long time. The findings correspond to other scholars like (Walker et al., 2007 and Liwenga, 1995) who argued that, most of males in agro-pastoral communities of semi-arid areas have the tendency of eating one meal in a day because of being more responsible for outside family activities including labour work. One of the participants during FGD in Suli village (Male 48yrs) explained that: ….. I have been taking my cattle very far from home for pastures and water and this has been my responsibilities as a father. As such, because of being away for a whole day I usually take one heavy meal in the morning before I leave home normally, I eat wild fruits in the afternoon. Sometimes I came back in the night and sleep without eating anything. To me eating one meal during food insecurity time is not a problem as the head of the household I leave my wife and children to prepare and eat more meals than me. I do that because children need more food in order to grow properly and my wife also needs more food because she is responsible for breastfeeding as well.

The above narration implies that, men eat few meals in a day because of being outside of their families doing labour work for the aim of earning income. They also eat few meals compared to women because they are not responsible to prepare and cook food at home.

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Yes No Rarely Sometimes

48.9 47.4 50 40 25.5 30 20.4 14.4 15.9 16.2 20 11.1

10 Percentage (% ) 0 Male Female Gender

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest level (More than ten) Figure. 6: Distribution of respondents according to the nature of worry on eating fewer meals in a day

3.2.7 Gender and the Situation of Inability to Eat any Food On analyzing the inability to eat any food gender wise, results as shown in Figure 7 depicted that, female had less 7.5% of lacking any kind of food to eat in four past weeks compared to 12.9% of male. The results from the Chi-Square test also showed that there is a statistical association between gender and inability to eat any kind of food at the household level (P<0.04). The results implied that female has a high chance of getting any kind of food to eat compared to male. Results were also similar to the Global Hunger Index Report of (2013) which reported that women have many ways of understanding food especially when there is a food shortage. They have different mechanisms to ensure the availability of any food at their families by using their surrounding environment especially during rainy season where they easier collect common available wild food, vegetables and fruits. The result is confirmed during Focus Group Discussion at Fufu village where participants said that:

“…Regardless of the food insecurity situation, communities have developed their own resilience mechanisms to counter play the situation. Normally, we do eat wild plants where we get food, vegetables and fruits. We have our common wild foods, vegetables and fruits which make us to survive especially during severe food insecurity condition, these foods are found in both rain and dry season. We as Gogo tribe we have our natural wild foods vegetable, and fruits which we eat during the period of food insecurity these wild food are normally searched by women. Some of these foods in Gogo language includes:- Mheleme, Nhumbalu, Fulu, Amamaso, Mbetaji, Nghong'wa, Nhundwe, ukwata, ngwelu, nh'afuta, Ihungo, Tukura, Udawi, Sagulasagula, Ngang'a, Mlonga, Mahikwi, Nh'omwa, Ubuyu, and Nh'umba...”.

These descriptions imply that, men lack different strategies to fight against food insecurity situation as compared to women. Women have different alternatives and plans to perform on mitigating food insecurity situation, those alternatives including collections of wild fruits, vegetables and foods for their families.

On analyzing the results of inability to eat any food in a day gender wise, Figure 7 shows that, 60.4% of the male had no ability to eat any kind of food once to twice times compared to 24.0% of females. The results from Chi-Square test also showed that there is a statistical association (P<0.04) between gender and the level of inability to eat any kind of food during food insecurity situation. The results implied that male

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. has a high chance of failing to eat any kind of food during food insecurity situation because of lacking strategies to get food like engaging on micro small enterprises and doing petty business. The engagement of female on petty business makes them get money which helps them to buy food. The results were supported by other scholars including (Rao, 2011; Gallagher, 2011) who argued that, women in rural areas have high tradition knowledge and soft skills which help them to prepare wild foods for consumption while engage in other off farm-activities like pottery.

Figure 7: Distribution of respondents according to availability of food to eat

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest level (More than ten)

3.2.8 Gender and the Situation of Going to Sleep at Night Hungry On analyzing the situation of going to sleep gender wise, results as shown in Figure 8 depicted that, 24.3% of the male were reported to go to sleep hungry compared to 22.8% of females. The statistical test under Chi-test also revealed that there is no significant associations (P>0.05) between gender and the situation of going to sleep hungry. This is contrary to the expectations, one possible reason being the fact that going to sleep hungry cannot be determined by male or female instead it is determined by the ability of the family to have enough food. Women also do engage in many income generating activities as compared to males like petty trading and micro small enterprise business which ensure them to get income little and be able to purchase foods for their families especially children and not go to sleep hungry. The results are also supported by Connell’s theory which pointed out that, there is the structure of cathexis among gender which determines social attachments like starting up of social institutions. The structure of cathexis has bound women to think psychologically on how they can escape from the wind of food insecurity and decide to start up their institutions like, SACCOS etc. in order to generate income and savings for buying food. According to Ndiege and Kazungu (2020) SACCOS are member-based microfinance institutions (MFIs) which are historically developed to meet financial services to support the lower-income earners become economically active. Thus, women joins in SACCOS teams for the aim of becoming economically active and be able to solve their household food insecurity challenges.

The analysis on the frequency on going to sleep gender-wise, results as depicted on Figure 8 shows that

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. 54.7% of male have high rarely condition frequency compared to 32.6% of women. Also the findings showed that female has high sometimes condition frequency of 28.8% compared to 25.6% of men of going to sleep hungry. The statistical test revealed that there is no significant associations (P>0.05) between gender and the frequency of going to sleep hungry. Results implied that female has a high frequency of going to sleep hungry than male because female assumes to have more responsibilities particularly to children thus difficult to go to sleep without making sure that their children have eaten something else. Sometimes they have to prepare and cook food just for their children.

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest level (More than ten) Figure 8: Distribution of respondents according to the situation of going to sleep hungry

3. 2.9 Gender and the Condition of Going a Whole Day and Night without Eating Anything While analyzing the situation of going to sleep without eating anything gender-wise, results as shown in Figure 9 showed that, 15.5% of men went to sleep without eating anything while women were only 4.8%. Results implied that, male has a high tendency of going to sleep without eating anything during food insecurity season because some of them don’t feel responsible. The findings were also justified by Patton, (1989) who asserted that during food insecurity most of men in rural areas in developing countries spare time outside of their families and come back late to sleep without eating; they do this because they don’t feel to have direct commitments related to food at their families. Gender responsibilities allows men to be free and not committed to their family members especially during food insecurity season although, they are committed to protect to other resources like land and livestock’s.

On analyzing the frequency of going a whole day and night without eating anything gender-wise, results as indicated in Figure 9 shows that, male and female had a respectively rarely condition frequency 42.3% and 42% on going a whole day and night without eating anything. While men have high sometimes condition of 18.6% compared to 14.6% of female on going to sleep without eating anything. Statistical findings under Chi-test revealed that, there is a statistical association (P<0.04) between gender and the level of going a whole day and night without eating anything. The findings implied that women have high frequency of going a whole day and night without eating anything compared to male in the study area. The reason

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. being the fact that, gender responsibilities facing women causing them to be them to be the last one to eat and sometimes they miss food. During interview at Khubunko village one informant (Female 49) reported that: “…I have to make sure every member at my house eat. Sometimes I miss the food because I’m responsible to make sure that my children and other family members eat first..”. The above narrative implies that, women are the important instrument and care takers at the household level.

Levels: Rarely =Lowest (once to twice), Sometimes = Midst (three to ten) = & Often =Highest level (More than ten) Figure. 9: Distribution of respondents according to going a whole day and night without eating

3.3 Categories of Food Insecurity in the Study Area In order to analyze the categories of food insecurity, respondents were asked to enter 1 for rarely, 2 for sometimes, and 3 for often, from the nine questions as guided by HFIAS. Households that scored 0~1 in total were classified as a food secure group, 2~7 a mild food insecure group, 8~14 a moderate food insecure group and 15~27 a severe food insecure group. Hence, the minimum and maximum the score would be 0 and 27, respectively. The result, as shown in Figure 10 revealed that 20.1% of the households in the study area were reported as food secure, and 79.9% were food insecure. The study went further to categorize the food insecure categories and found that, 42.9% of the household in the study area were mildly food insecure, 26.4% of the households were moderately food insecure and 10.5% were severely food insecure. The results for the high food insecurity in the study area is also supported by (Mota et al., 2019) who also reported high food insecurity in Ethiopia to be direct related to poverty at global, regional and national levels. It is from this fact that, majorities of the respondents in the study area apart from other reasons they might also be faced by high poverty just why they are reported to have food insecurity situation.

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secure Midly Food insecure Moderately Food insecue Severely Food insecure

24.6 25

18.3

13.5 12.9 15 12.6

10 7.5 7.2

Percentage (%)Percentage 3.3 5

Figure.10: DistributionMale of the respondents according to food insecurityFemale categories Gender The findings from Figure 10 showed that, the majorities 42.9% of the respondents were mildly food insecure implying that most of the households in the study area worried about not having enough food sometimes or often, and were unable to eat preferred foods. The findings also reported 10.5% of the households in the study area as severely food insecure, experiencing any of the three most severe conditions (running out of food, going to bed hungry, or going a whole day and night without eating), even as infrequently as rarely. The findings were in line with other scholars (Liwenga, 2003; Sakai, 2012 and Matunga, 2016) who argued that for decades the situation of food insecurity in Dodoma region was reported to be poor. Cereals and legumes were reported as a major staple food in the region, but the region produces fewer cereals and legumes when compared with other regions in the country.

On analyzing the categories of food insecurity gender wise, results, as shown in Figure 10 showed that 12.6% of the male were food secure compared to 7.5% of females. Results implied that, due to patriarchy system pervading in the study area female have less food security situation. Further findings also showed that 7.2% of women were severely food insecure compared to 3.3% of men. The findings implied that women have high situation of going a whole day and night without eating when compared to men who have been reported to eat outside their families. Regardless of women to be most worried about food insecurity in the study area and play a big part in food production cultural norms has resulted gender biasness and caused them to have less food security status compared to men. The findings were also supported by different reports including (IFAD, 2010; UNDP, 2014) which reported that only 10 to 20 percent of all land in Africa is owned by women while men own the least part of the land. Land can work as a base for food production and income generation, as collateral for credit and as a means for holding savings for the future. The higher food insecurity among women in the study area can be caused by the limitation of power, decision making, and division of labor, control, and ownership of land which created tenure security among them.

3.4 Gender and Food Insecurity Status by Districts Results as shown from Table 2 indicate that, there is high gender disparity in food security at Chamwino

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. District compared to Chemba District; men are reported to be food secured two times than women, 13.4% and 6.0% respectively. The status of food insecurity has showed gender disparity in Chamwino compared to Chemba District. In Chamwino District, 67.7% of women were food insecure compared to 33.3% of men. Gender disparity on food insecurity in Chemba District was not high as, 36.4% of men and 42.4% of women were respectively reported to be food insecure. The statistical analysis also showed that there is a significant association between gender and food insecurity district wise (p<0.02). The results implied that, there is high patriarchy system in Chamwino Districts practiced by Gogo tribe who are the majorities in the study area. In the same vein, Sandawe tribe who are the majorities in the study of Chemba District has not been reported to practice high patriarchy system compared to Gogo of Chamwino District.

Different literatures including (Rass, 2006; Mwamfupe, 2015) acknowledges that, most of the communities who have experienced agro-pastoral systems like Gogo tribes have high patriarchy systems. These communities have commissioned women all activities related to food searching, preparation and cooking while men play most of their key roles on keeping livestock, land management and have little time on crop production. Results are supported by different scholars like (Pingali, 2006 and Kalumanga 2014) who asserted that gender disparities in food security is attributed to many distinctions including labour divisions and decision making created by cultural norms. During interview with the district cultural and sports officer at Chemba District (Male 47yrs) informed:

“…The level of gender differs in our district, because we have different tribes like Rangi, Gogo, Masaai and Sandawe. I appreciate Sandawe tribe because they have at least maintained gender equality as compared to other tribes. By the way it is difficult to find a Sandawe man married more than one wife, polygamist is not their culture. In Sandawe also if a man (father) wants to sell crops or any asset like land or livestock he has first to ask all family members including children to agree. If majorities do not agree, then he will not sell that asset. This is contrary to other tribes like Gogo or Rangi where a man has power to decide for the whole family. Because of gender equality that is why the incidence of food insecurity in Sandawe communities is low when compared to other tribes in our district…”

The above explanations signify that the communities at Makorongo ward are Sandawe by tribe just why the level of food insecurity is low because of low gender inequality within that community. Table 2: Distribution of food insecurity by districts Districts Chamwino Chemba

Gender FS n (%) P (%) FI n (%) P (%) FS n (%) P (%) FI n (%) P (%) Male 27 (69.2) (13.4) 54 (33.3) (28.9) 16(57.1) (12.1) 48 (46.2) (36.4) Female 12 (30.8) (6.0) 108 (66.7) (53.7) 12 (42.9) (9.1) 56 (53.8) (42.4) Total 39 (100) (19.4) 162 (100) (80.6) 28(100) (21.2) 104(100) (78.8) Note: FS (Food Security), FI (Food Insecurity), P (Probability Percentage)

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Results have shown that women are the strategic and fundamentally assets in the study area. They are recognized as households working instrument in searching and preparations of food. Apart from being key players in tendering food at the household, also they work to fulfill all of the basic domestic needs required for their families including fetching of water, washing of clothes, searching of firewood, caring of the children and sick people. Generally, the contribution of women in assuring food security at the household in the study area is incontestable. Women have greater contribution in terms of food searching,

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Kalumanga, V. E., Swai, O. & Matunga, B.N. (2020). Gender and Household Food Insecurity Status among Agro-pastoral Communities of Chamwino and Chemba Districts, Tanzania. preparations and cooking. Their roles are much special especially in making sure that all family members especially children, old and sick people get food. Although women play gigantic work in all spheres of food security including availability, accessibility, utilization and stability still their food security status is poor than that of men. The reasons for the poor food status to women is due to poor decision making, division of labor, power over resource ownership and inheritance caused by cultural norms of the communities themselves.

The study recommends; eradication of gender discriminating roles originated from cultural norms like ownership and inheritance of important assets including land and livestock’s. It also recommends, women empowerment particularly on decision making and labor division in all vital elements pertaining food production, searching, preparations and other domestic works. Moreover, education and awareness rising on gender equality is most recommended not only to Chamwino inhabitants as they have shown high gender inequalities but to all agro-pastoral communities in the global for the aim of winning stable food security.

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