The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz
Social Sciences Master Dissertations
2013 Commmunity responsibilities in supporting orphans in Chamwino district, Mvumi misheni ward: a case of Mvumi misheni village
Msangi, Zaina T.
The University of Dodoma
Msangi, Z. T. (2013). Commmunity responsibilities in supporting orphans in Chamwino district, Mvumi misheni ward: a case of Mvumi misheni village. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/1186 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. COMMMUNITY RESPONSIBILITIES IN SUPPORTING ORPHANS
IN CHAMWINO DISTRICT, MVUMI MISHENI WARD: A CASE OF
MVUMI MISHENI VILLAGE
By
Zaina T. Msangi
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Award of Degree of
Master of Arts in Development Studies of the University of Dodoma,
The University of Dodoma
October, 2013
CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certify that she has read and hereby recommend for the acceptances by the University of Dodoma a dissertation entitled “Community Responsibilities in
Supporting Orphans in Chamwino District, Mvumi Misheni Ward: A case of Mvumi
Misheni village” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of
Arts in Development Studies of the University of Dodoma.
………………………………………
Dr Rehema G. Kilonzo
(Supervisor)
Date…………………………………
iii DECLARATION
AND
COPYRIGHT
I Zaina Msangi, declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented to any other University for similar or any other degree awarded
Signature…………………………….
No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma.
iv
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of this work is a result of efforts from various people; In fact, I am deeply concerned with their supports and contributions. Although, it is not possible to mention and enumerate all of them, I would like to take this opportunity to thank all of them for their contributions they made.
The first and the foremost esteemed thanks should be extended to my supervisor Dr,
Rehema Kilonzo who kindly utilized used her limited time to read and comment. Her constructive comments resulted to the improvement of this report. It is also worthwhile to extend my appreciations to the lectures in the department of development studies at the
University of Dodoma, who put a stepping stone through the course work, and opened my mind towards better improvement to this research.
I would like also to extend my appreciations and thinks to the head of community development department of Chamwino District Council, who granted me permission for studying this masters program. Sincere thanks should go to the Ward Community
Development Officer (WCDO), Village Executive Officer (VEO), Village Chair Person
(VCP and all respondents who provided maximum collaboration during data collection.
Other special thanks should go to my classmates (MADS – evening programmer 2010-
2013) for their support and encouragement during the whole period of this study. I would like to take this opportunity to thank all who were in one way or another sacrificed their time and energy for the contribution provided during the study.
My sincere and appreciations should be offered to my parents who supported and encouraged me by providing material, moral and financial assistance during the whole period of my study.
v Last but not least may i take this opportunity to acknowledge the patience and tolerance from my lovely children, Nasma and Nasri Msangi who missed me a lot during the preparation of this assignment.
It should also noted that any shortcoming on this study are entirely belong to me
vi DEDICATION
The dissertation is dedicated to my beloved parents, Mr Kissumo Hassani Msangi and
Mrs Asha Kissumo Msangi.
vii ABSTRACT
The study on community responsibilities in supporting orphans was conducted at
Chamwino District Mvumi misheni village. The study „s aim generally was to assess the community responsibilities in supporting orphans. It intended specifically to examine the systems used by the community to support orphans, and determine types of support provided to orphans by the community as well as identify the roles of the community in supporting them. It has also used a sample of 90 respondents to represent a total population of 3,527 people. The study used both qualitative and quantitative approach.
Moreover, observations and interviews methods were used in data collection. Both
Probability and Non probability sampling techniques were used in selecting the study sample. Under probability sampling, simple random and stratified sampling was employed, while under non probability, sampling purposive sampling technique was used.
The collected data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science Research
(SPSS) programme. The findings from the study have indicated that Village Most
Vulnerable Children Committee (VMVCC) was the mechanism used to manage the orphans in the study area. However, the government tools were used to identify and record information of the orphans. Moreover, communities were not involved in the process of developing any action plans concerning OVC. Furthermore social protection service was offered more by the community members. Female genital mutilation, abandonment, child labor, and early/forced marriage are the dominant violations existed in the study area. It is recommended that government should apply public private partnership to work together (efficiently and effectively) so as to avoid duplication in serving orphans.
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ...... i
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT ...... iv
DEDICATION ...... vii
LIST OF TABLE ...... xiii
LIST OF FUGURES...... xiv
LIST OF ABREVIATIONS ...... xv
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1
INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.0 Introduction ...... 1
1.1 Background to the problem ...... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 5
1.3 Objective of the Study ...... 6
1.3.1 General Objective...... 6
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ...... 6
1.4 Research Question ...... 6
1.5 Significance of the study ...... 6
1.6 Scope of the study ...... 7
1.7 Limitation of the study ...... 7
CHAPTER TWO ...... 8
LITERATURE REVIEWS ...... 8
2.0 Introduction ...... 8
2.1 Definition of key terms and concepts ...... 8
2.1.1 Orphan ...... 8
2.1.2 Orphan vulnerable children ...... 8
2.1.3 Responsibilities ...... 9 2.1.4 Stigmatization ...... 9
2.1.5 Social protection ...... 9
2.1.6: Community-based care ...... 9
2.1.7 Vulnerability ...... 10
2.1.8 Marginalization ...... 10
2.2 Theoretical reviews ...... 10
2.3.1 Vicious circle theory of poverty...... 10
ix 2.3.2 Orphan and HIV/AIDS ...... 14
2.3.3 Modernization theory ...... 18
2.4 Empirical review of related literature ...... 21
2.4. 1. Global experiences ...... 21
2.4.2 African experiences ...... 22
2.4.3 Tanzania Experience ...... 24
2.5 Policies and legislation existing to care children ...... 25
2.5.1 Global policies and legislations related to children ...... 25
2.5.2 Tanzania government policies and legislation existing to care children ...... 25
2.6 Knowledge Gap ...... 26
2.7 Conceptual Framework ...... 27
2.8 Summary ...... 30
CHAPTER THREE ...... 31
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 31
3.0 Introduction ...... 31
3.1 Study area ...... 31
3.2 Location of the Area ...... 31
3.3 Research design ...... 32
3.4 Sampling Design ...... 32
3.4.1 Sampling Frame...... 33
3.4.2 Sample size ...... 33
3.5.1 Primary Data ...... 35
3.5.1.1 Interviews ...... 35
3.5.1.2 Observation ...... 35
3.6 Secondary data ...... 36
3.7 Data processing and analysis ...... 36
3.7.1 Data processing...... 36
3.7.2 Data analysis ...... 37
3.7.3 Data presentation ...... 37
3.8 Validity and Reliability ...... 37
3.8.1Validity ...... 37
3.8.2 Reliability...... 38
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 39
x DATA PRESENTATION ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDING ...... 39
4.0 Introduction ...... 39
4.1 Respondents Profile ...... 39
4.1.1: Age of the respondent ...... 39
4.1.2. Sex of the respondents ...... 40
4.1.3 Marital status of respondents ...... 41 4.2 Understanding the community responsibilities in supporting orphans in the study area ...... 42 4.2.1 The community systems responsible for supporting orphans ...... 42
4.2.2 The knowledge of the community on who are the orphans ...... 43
4.2.3: Mechanism used to manage orphans vulnerable children at community level ...... 44
4.2.4: Initiator of the mechanism used to manage orphans ...... 44
4.2.5: Tools used by community to identify orphans ...... 46
4.2.6: Methods in identifying orphans ...... 46
4.2.7: Timeframe for updating OVC information ...... 47 4.2.8: Action plan for supporting Orphans ...... 48
4.3 Type of services offered by community to support Orphans ...... 50
4.3.1: Services offered by community to support orphans ...... 50
4.3.2: Timeframe set by community to deliver services to orphans ...... 51
4.3.4 Strategy used by community to ensure efficiency for services delivered ...... 52
4.2.6: Services offered by government ...... 53
4.3.5: Stakeholder existing to support orphans ...... 54
4.3.6: Services offered by stakeholders to support orphans ...... 55
4.4: Roles of community to protect orphans ...... 56
4.4.1: Existence of Violation against orphans ...... 56
4.4.2: Measures taken by community to overcome violation against orphans ...... 57
4.4.3: Existence of regulation to protect orphans ...... 58
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 60
SUMMARY, CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 60
5.0 Summary ...... 60
5.1 introductions ...... 60
5.2 summary of the major finding ...... 60
5.2.1 Systems used to support orphans ...... 60
5.2.2 Services delivery ...... 61
xi 5.2.3 Roles of community to support orphans ...... 61
5.3 Recommendations from the findings ...... 61
5.4 Policy Recommendations...... 63
5.4.1 Child policy ...... 63
5.4.2 Education policy ...... 63
5.5 Conclusion ...... 64
5.6 Knowledge contributions ...... 64
5.67 Limitation of the study ...... 65
5.8 Area for further study ...... 65
REFERENCES ...... 66
APPENDICES ...... 72
xii LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Distribution of the respondent ...... 34 Table 2: Age group of respondents ...... 40 Table 3: Sex of the respondents ...... 41 Table 4: Marital status of respondents ...... 41 Table 5: Community knowledge on who is an orphan ...... 43 Table 6: Mechanism used to manage orphans ...... 44 Table 7: The initiator of the mechanism used to manage Orphans ...... 45 Table 8: Tools used to identify orphans ...... 46 Table 9: Methods used to identify orphans ...... 47 Table 10: Strategies used by community to ensure efficiency for services delivered ...... 53 Table 11: Existence of violation Against Children ...... 57 Table 12: measures taken by community to overcome violation against orphans ...... 58
xiii LIST OF FUGURES
Figure 1: Conceptual frame work ...... 29 Figure 2: Timeframe for updating OVC information ...... 48 Figure 3: Action Plan for Supporting Orphans ...... 49 Figure 4: services offered by the community ...... 51 Figure 5: Timeframe set by community to deliver services to orphans ...... 52 Figure 6: services offered by government ...... 54 Figure 7: Stakeholder existing to support orphans ...... 55 Figure 8: services offered by stake holders ...... 56 Figure 9: Existence of regulations to protect orphans ...... 59
xiv LIST OF ABREVIATIONS
OVC Orphan Vulnerable Children
MVC Most Vulnerable Children
VCM Village Committee Members
VMVCC Village Most Vulnerable Children Committee
NGOs Non Governmental Organization
CBOs Community Based Organizations
FBOs Faith Based Organizations
PSWs Para - social worker
AFRICARE African Care
DCT Diocese of Central Tanganyika
xv CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
The study on community responsibilities in supporting orphans was conducted at
Chamwino District, Mvumi Misheni village. The study is generally focused on the assessment of community responsibilities in supporting orphans. Specifically, it intended to examine the system used by the community in supporting orphans; to determine type of supporting services and to identify the roles of community in supporting them.
The problems of orphans in many communities have brought the government of Tanzania and public in general, to appreciate the magnitude of the issue and acknowledge the fact that it was no longer a problem that dealt with at family and community levels. The major reasons of children to become orphans are the death of one or both parents by natural death or due to diseases such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, accidents, morbidity and mortality
(URT 2009). Other factors include gender inequality and traditional cultural practices like early marriage and unexpected pregnancies, breaking of marriage, family disputes, disintegration, alcoholism, drug abuse and harsh living conditions (White, 2003).
1.1 Background to the problem
There are more than 145 million orphaned children throughout the world (UNICEF,
UNAIDS, USAID, 2004). The majority of orphaned children under age of 18 years are found in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. In countries where HIV/AIDS have hit hardest, the number of orphans continues to rise. Death from AIDS is more likely to create double orphans than any other cause of death (ibid).
According to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), approximately 15 million children worldwide have lost one or both parents from HIV/AIDS; other causes are road
1 accidents, high mortality rate and ethno-religion conflict, others include: poverty, gender inequality, conflicts, family disputes disintegration and negative cultural practices.
(Community -Based Support Project, 2010). Nearly 12 million of these children live in sub-Saharan Africa. However, in 2005 the number shows that more than 46 million of children were orphaned in Africa as a single orphan, maternally or paternally or double orphan (Garcia, Pence and Evans, 2008). In worldwide, millions of children have been orphaned and continue to become orphaned because of HIV/AIDS (Levine, 2001). The number of HIV/ AIDS orphans estimated to be 35 millions in 2010. However, it is said that higher numbers of orphans is due to conflicts and accidents (Subbarao, Mattimore, and Plangemann 2001).
Many more children have been made vulnerable because of family illness and the widespread impact of HIV/AIDS in their communities. Orphan vulnerable children
(OVC) populations would continue to grow as HIV/AIDS incidence rates increase. In general the orphans depend on their families and benefit very little from community surrounding them (external support) and have less access to education (UNICEF, 2008).
However, 34 millions orphaned children in Africa resulted from HIV/ AIDS (UNICEF,
2005). In Africa it is estimated that 95% of orphaned children are cared for other family members or neighbors. Many families caring for orphan vulnerable children (OVC) are already improvised, and over extended children within these households are facing great risk of malnutrition, diseases, and limited to access education, health care and social protection (safety net) and psychological effect (MOHSW, 2008). Although the vast majority of orphan vulnerable children (OVC) can be found in family, some OVC live in institutions, and others are found in the streets. The epidemic has decimated populations of teachers, healthcare workers, police, and other service providers that help to create strong networks of support for children and adolescents. As a result, orphan vulnerable
2 children (OVC) are more vulnerable to abuse and exploitations, and are also more likely to engage in unsafe behaviors, increasing the risk of HIV/AIDS infection, Orphans and other vulnerable children are the major issues in almost all countries of the world, especially, the developing countries in Africa and southern America (ibid). Although children have been viewed as central to society but orphans have nobody to care and protect their interests which are particularly vulnerable to the so-called „property grabbing‟ and exploitation from close paternal relatives, it is also observed that, many families are finding difficulties to protect their children because of limited access to resources. Hence, their protection has been rendered an issue of particular concern to the whole community relatives (Mushunje, 2006).
In the East African Countries many children who are orphaned are forced by the situation to live in streets or under exploitation conditions of labor, sexual abuse, prostitution and other form of abuse; many live in child headed house hold where they have to find for themselves and support their young siblings. Some of them children are infected by
HIV/AIDS through mother to child transmission or through ruining, for example in
Uganda, since the pandemic started, the country has lost about one million people and this contribute significantly to the estimated 2.3 million orphan (Republic of Uganda, 2004)
In Tanzania orphans are facing many hardship situations including psychological effects, child labour, abuse and most of them are engaging in sex trading (URT 2008). However, the increasing number of orphans increases insufficient of the community to cope with it, due to less labour intensive. The situation becomes worse due to the fact that families particularly those households headed by women are selling household properties like land, houses and furniture to meet family needs which make unsuitable (URT, 2002).
Majority of orphans and vulnerable children were all taken care of by neighbors and relatives, but recently the number of orphans and other vulnerable children at the
3 households level have increased, which causes to meet basic needs like food and nutrition, shelters and care, protections psychological supports education and economic support remain as a challenge in Tanzania. They also face difficulties related to child rearing, individual child security and protections (URT, 2008)
In the past communities have absorbed orphans and other vulnerable children into extended families and many continue to do so. Communities provide their own basic needs but as the number of orphans and vulnerable increases traditional copping systems are declining hence communities are severely strained ( Masuma et al, 2009). Recently the numbers of orphans and other vulnerable have grown beyond the capacity of community to handle, therefore meeting the basic needs and livelihood of orphans and other vulnerable children at the household level, like food and nutrition, shelters and care, protections psychological supports, education and economic supports remain as a challenge in Tanzania (URT 2010).
Moreover, the number of OVC grows the demand of great knowledge about the family and caregivers for the lives and needs of OVC are increased. The rise number of orphans leads to the breakdown of protective social network and an inadequate resource to support them. However, the number of orphans increasing whiles the expenses of responding to orphaning as social problem is limited (UTR, 2008). The children who have lost both parents are less likely to be in school than non orphan do (Subarrao, Mattimore and plangemann, 2001). However, orphans are particularly vulnerable to food insecurity and malnutrition because of loss of income during illness and following the death and adopted to an economically unsuitable households like women, headed by household as well as by elders (Myrdal, 1964)
The increased rate of orphans and vulnerable children is a result of customs, norms, value and traditions which are being practiced in Chamwino district, which includes the practice
4 of “ndajile” and “ng‟ombolela” (in gogo language) which means the tradition of exchanging married men and women for sex leisure among married couples, this resulted in an increased number of HIV/AIDS deaths which has resulted in the increased rate of orphans from 9,630 in 2007 to 11,722 in 2009. Other causes are conflicts among parents and maternal mortality rate (CDC, 2009). The number of OVC is worsening due to an increased expense, of basic needs services such as education, health and food services
(ibid).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite the existence of many legislations and policies to address the problem of orphans which include: Child Development Policy, (2008), Child law, (2009), social protection programs for orphans and national guideline for improving quality of care, support and protection for Most Vulnerable Children (2009) that established by the government but the problem still arising. These legislations and policies emphasize the community to protect children against exploitations, child abuse, abandoned, gender abuse bad practices and cruelty (like female gender mutilation), oppression and neglect, forced early marriage and drug abuse but in Chamwino district the number of OVC has increase and reached
11,722 children while in Mvumi village there are 500 children. Their livelihood is uncertain, they are forced by the situation to live on streets or under exploitative conditions of labor, sexual abuse, forced prostitution, food insecurity, inaccessibility to education and health services, lack of parent guidance and stigmatization, early pregnancies and many live in child headed household where they have to fend for themselves and support their young siblings. Therefore the research intends to assess the community responsibilities towards supporting and improving wellbeing of the orphans in
Chamwino District
5 1.3 Objective of the Study
1.3.1 General Objective
The main objective of the study was to assess the community responsibilities in supporting orphans in Chamwino District Mvumi misheni village.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
i. To examine community systems responsible for supporting orphans in the study
area
ii. To find out the types of support provided to orphans by community in the study
area
iii. To identify the roles of community to protect orphan in the study area
1.4 Research Question
The research was guided by the following questions
i. What are the systems used by community in supporting orphans in the study area?
ii. How does the community support orphans in the study area?
iii. What are the roles of community to protect orphans in the study area?
1.5 Significance of the study
In general this studying will benefit different groups of people, organizations, institutions and national government. The recommendations from the study will shed light to policy makers, development actors, NGOs, voluntary organizations and individual groups to develop policies and action plans that help to support and improve wellbeing of orphans and other vulnerable children, in the country.
6 1.6 Scope of the study
This study attempts to asses community responsibilities in supporting orphans in
Chamwino. However due to time and resource constraints, the research will be limited only to one village in Chamwino district, Mvumi Misheni village.
1.7 Limitation of the study
Financial constraints were the limitation that hindered the study and thus the researcher could not cover large area, therefore one village was selected randomly. Moreover the researcher experience scarcity of time from the respondents. The researcher overcomes this by making appointment with respondents.
7 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEWS
2.0 Introduction
This chapter critically reviews and analyzes the existing literature on community responsibilities and development of OVC in relation to their developments. The study is formed by two development theories: vicious circle of poverty and modernization theory. At the beginning this chapter will define the key terms that used in the study. It would also provide theoretical and empirical review on what others have done on the subject matter and finally, a summary which shows the lesson learned from literature reviewed
2.1 Definition of key terms and concepts
2.1.1 Orphan
An orphan is a child who has lost one or both parents through death, but this definition has been extended to desertion or inability to provide care. (Skinner et al, 2006).
Furthermore an orphan is defined as a child who either lost one parent or both parents or has been abandoned or neglected by biological parents. It defines as a child below the age of 18 years with one or both parents dead (URT, 2008).
Therefore, according to this study an orphan means a child who either lost one parent or both parents or has been abandoned or neglected by biological parent and living in vulnerable situations which deprive him/her in accessing the day to day basic needs.
2.1.2 Orphan vulnerable children
According to this study Orphan vulnerable children refers to those children with increased vulnerabilities because of HIV/AIDS or all vulnerable children, regardless of the cause of their vulnerability (e.g. chronic poverty, armed conflict, famine) (URT,2010)
8 2.1.3 Responsibilities
Responsibilities are social the forces that binds one‟ obligations that result in a specific and individualized action (Republic of Uganda, 2004). It also refers to accountability or tasks, decisions or reactions. On the other hand it is the characteristics of someone that demonstrates efficiency when taking care of a certain things (KNASP, 2009)
2.1.4 Stigmatization
This is a wide spread behavior of societal attitude that render a person or group of people feel of action (Gandure, 2009). It is a wide spread behavior of societal attitude that renders a person or a group of people who feel worthless or helpless as a result of an ailment disability or inferior social status (KNASP, 2009).
2.1.5 Social protection
Social protection can broadly be defined as the protection that a society provides to its vulnerable members. This protection can be in form of laws, policies and programmes.
Social protection is founded on three pillars of social security, income security and social safety nets (Gandure, 2009). Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler (2004) defined social protection as all public and private initiatives that provide income or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihood risks, and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalized. However, in this study, social protection refers to the protection that a society provides to its vulnerable orphans.
2.1.6: Community-based care
Community – based care refers to local, community-driven care arrangements carried out with different levels or degrees of community ownership and participation (Ansell and
Young 2004)
9 2.1.7 Vulnerability
Vulnerability refers to the risk of adverse outcome, such as impoverishment, ill health and social exclusion. It reflects not only likelihood an event occurs but also the capacity to cope with it. Vulnerability also refers to children living in household where an adult bear is affected by HIV/AIDS. Is the state of being or likely to be in a risky situation, where a person is likely to suffer significant physical, emotional or mental harm that may result in their human rights not being (Gandure, 2009).
2.1.8 Marginalization
This is a term used to refer to a person in the society who is deprived of opportunities for living a respectable and reasonable life, which is regarded as normal by the community to which they belong (Devereux and Wheeler, 2004)
2.2 Theoretical reviews
The study was guided by two theories of development; vicious circle of poverty and modernization theory. Vicious circle of poverty theory states that society is poor because it is poor, due to the low level of production, low level of saving, low level of investments and low technology (Ragnar and Nurkse,1959). Modernization theory states that, a society was poor because of their traditions, culture, altitude, and value that hinder economic development (J. Matunhu, 2011). This study has used these theories of development, due to community culture, traditions, norms and value abuse the the child rights which are entitled and affect the child development
2.3.1 Vicious circle theory of poverty.
According to vicious circle theory of poverty, society has little ability or incentive to save, low savings could lead to low investment and deficiency of a capital. However,
10 Poor nutrition, poor health and limited schooling to children can lead to a „vicious cycle‟ of poverty. Therefore to break vicious circle of poverty the society should increase investments, as well as savings and to expand marketing (Ragner and Nurkse, 1959).
According to this theory, communities are unable to support vulnerable group like orphans, because they are poor and they are facing various problems like lack of health services, skills, and lack of confidence or supporting mechanism, likewise lack of physical asset and capital to establish programs (Myrdal, 1964). Poverty jeopardizes economic and human development prospects in a community; therefore the situation leads to breakdown of families and hence increases child labour and malnourishment (Guest,
2003). Many analyst have realized that the growing number of orphaned are increasing the rootless uneducated, under nurtured and traumatized making them ripe for the recruitment of crime and military. Furthermore, communities are unwilling to invest in human capital because of poverty. Therefore, orphans are less likely to be employed in different professionals as they have a lower chance of completing basic and secondary education. Poverty makes inability of one‟s to meet basic needs including shelter, food, education and health services, therefore large number of orphaned find themselves in a home that cannot afford to pay school expenses, and a drop out to work in the households, fields, or on the street and are employed by doing peripheral works such as shoe shining, begging for money in the streets, bar attendants, selling food, and most often in the case of girls are becoming domestic workers (Salaam ,2005). Marginalized orphans have been increased on the streets, which resulted to an increased crime rate, prostitution and drug abuse (Webb 1995). Orphan and vulnerable children may be exposed to a greater risk of sex abuse and exploitation particularly girls, who might be forced to sex trade for the exchange for food and clothes due to the lack of an adult or family guidance to protect them (URT, 2008). It is also recognized that pervasive poverty, coupled with limited
11 internal and external resources available to the community, dictate the life of an orphan.
At the end of the day orphaned are more likely for full deeper to the cycle of poverty and engage in high risk behavior which perpetuates the circle of HIV/ AIDS transmission
(Salaam, 2005).
The traditional family structure is seen as being either overstretched or as having collapsed for it is no longer considered capable of coping with the burden of caring orphans, as a result orphans are well cared by extended families and communities, and that even in the context of poverty the existence of support networks has an enormous impact on an orphan‟s well-being (Urasa et al, 1997). However, poverty prevents families from being able to take care for children needs; therefore communities are often providing little or no support to individual household. Many community do not have enough resources to provide economic support to the ever – increasing number of orphaned affected household (Hunter 2001). However, the community is not willing to volunteer to care for orphans in their area, and many community members do not have the resources to spare (ibid). Communities may stigmatize orphans or consider them to be delinquent.
Some orphans feel rejected by their communities, further adding to their pariah status.
(Thurman et al. 2006). Many children are forced to rely on the distance relatives who may be in unknown or left with their grandmothers, or women who often have little legal power, although a grandmother and caretaker form groups where they rotate to supervision of these children, but due to poverty in many areas, many caregivers send their children to the orphanages. However, children who rose to an orphanage have a hard time of being self sufficient because they do not learn life skills from the community connections; therefore they do find themselves in difficult position for adapting life outside the orphanage (Matshalanga, 2000). Orphan children also experience
12 discrimination and exploitation within their new household and forced to work more and receive less food and denied school fees (Okuonzi, 2004).
Organizations do offer support to the community for improving care and support to orphans like stipends, financial assistances, or emergence support, pay school fees and food aid for families, who care for orphans but some caretakers do give the orphans substandard care. Breakdown of family tie have emerged when adults have expressed reluctance to care for orphans and fearing. However, community structures or individual community members offer support to caregivers, but generally these caregivers go unnoticed (URT, 2009). Other scholars argue that extended family provided the basic care for the orphans and the institutional response was only supplementary, while the grandparents were found our to provide much services to the orphan (Guest, 2003).
There is no organizational structure, networking depends on available resources. Support to indigenous caregivers is sometimes bolstering by donations, monetary and/or goods.
This form of care is very common in rural areas where access to services, government and non-government, is more difficult than in urban areas (Williamson 2000). Furthermore the government policy does not target orphans especially when designing their policy to protect them. Lack of plans, expertise, ability and equipments to cater for children in difficult circumstances, parents and guardian also have been left to cope with upgrading and interest of children without considering their economic situation (Subbarao and
Coury, 2004). Inadequate protection and condones are a variety of arrangements that are inconsistent with the needs and interests of orphan children. A set of practices reviewed by which innovation in orphan care inconsistent with child protection functions as well as the underutilization of available community resources (Evans and Judith 1994).
13 It is true that poverty is among factors which lead the community not to be able to support orphans as the vicious circle states, but it fails to state the real cause of poverty, hence letting no solution on what should be done so as to increase the capacity of the community in supporting the orphans. For example in recent days a poor country like
Tanzania has increased investment (by inviting investors inside and outside the countries), expand marketing, increased production and saving but poverty remain as a challenge within the community, hence lack of support to orphans.
However the theory ignores the contribution of non markets in relation to the production of livelihood which are fundamentally important to the wellbeing of vulnerable groups.
Other factors like social disempowerment, psychological disempowerment and political disempowerment, posed by international institution lead to increases poverty developing countries. Liberalization cut subsidies from basic food and shifted agriculture policy to promote export crops to detriment of home grown subsistence production. The result increases poverty particularly less developing countries. The ability of individual, society and countries to adopt the process of globalization has been unequal, it is creating new risk environment to those who are less able to adopt especially vulnerable groups.
Moreover, there are internal systematic problems such as corruption, gender violence, powerless, ethno- religion conflict and insecure livelihood is the main limitation for poor community to overcome the obstacles that hinder to improve wellbeing of orphans. For these reasons vulnerable group particularly orphans remain to suffer from poor health and education services, food insecure, shelter and social protection.
2.3.2 Orphan and HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is the challenges facing enormous families, communities, in supporting the orphan children (Nyangara, 2003). However, there is growing recognition that the HIV/
14 AIDS epidemic jeopardizes these existing systems of child care. HIV/AIDS are accelerating the breakdown of families, particularly in Africa, but increasingly in Latin
America, Asia and Eastern Europe. They are often stigmatized at school and in the community, and they may receive fewer of the material resources and educational opportunities that children in an extended- or foster-family setting receive. The
HIV/AIDS orphans are jeopardizing economic growth, development prospects and political stability, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Loss of family and identity, psychological distress, malnutrition, loss of health care, fewer opportunity for schooling, loss of inheritance, migration and homelessness, (ibid). There are several possible reasons: some adult members of a kinship group may have died or may require care because of HIV/ AIDS; high levels of fertility may imply that, surviving households have to care for several orphans; urbanization and migration from rural communities may weaken the traditional kinship networks; and HIV/AIDS may also limit income generating abilities of households receiving fostered children (Madhavan, 2004).
The potential impact on orphans includes loss of family and identity, loss of assets and their inheritance, depression, homelessness, migration, decline in health status and health care, declining nutritional status, increase demands on them for labor and care giving and loss of educational opportunities (Richter, Manegold and Pather, 2004). Traditional patterns of orphan care are not sufficient to cope with the HIV/AIDS epidemic, as surviving family members are either too old/young, or too ill to care for the orphans. In addition, the level of care that orphans receive with extended family members depends on the gender and age of their caregiver. The high number of orphans has overwhelmed the traditional mechanisms for care and support orphan (Barnett and Blaikie, 1992). Beyond the effect of HIV/AIDS, extended family is under severe strain as a result of migration,
15 demographic changes and a trend towards the nuclear family (Levine, 1995). The impact of the HIV/AIDS orphan crisis appears to be well beyond the resources of many communities.
There is a vast amount of evidence that extended family and community supports are not adequate to meet the needs of orphans or to protect them from exploitation, much less perform an actual parenting role. Reliance on grandmothers and poor relatives, and the overstretching of traditional and community resources frequently leads to burnout, which may potentially destroy community support for orphans. HIV/AIDS orphan limit resources and capacity of older people who are caring orphans and other vulnerable children as well as scarcity of information on prevention and protection, limit the ability to protect themselves and their families. However, older people are faced with difficult circumstances, like inability to care orphans, limitation of health care, information on livelihood security and financial burden which sometimes forced them to sell their assets in order to cope with the situation (Help Age international, 2003) Therefore many orphans are not successful because their households are governed by the elderly who are not mentally or physically able to care for them, they live in dehumanizing conditions and are exposed to neglect, exploitation, abuse, and deprivation of basic human rights and needs. They are at a significant disadvantage, and are likely to have lower school enrollment rates, have poorer health and nutritional status, lack of love and affection, experience higher rates of stigma and discrimination, and suffer from emotional problems
(Ntozi and Kakayiwa, 1999). The economic and social effects of HIV/AIDS infections on children include malnutrition, migration, and homelessness and reduced access to education and health care. Denied of basic closeness of family life, lack of family love, removal from school to help farm and household chores or pressures to pay necessities for
16 their house hold can no longer afforded. (Jackson, 2000). Death of a father deprives children of male authority, but the death of a mother further deprives the children of crucial emotional and mental security as well. Orphans have also increased vulnerability to exploitation, abuse, neglect or discrimination and many orphans face the danger of losing inherited properties at the hands of callous relatives and friends (Ayieko, 1997).
Despite the access of information to the prevention and protection of HIV/AIDS and the establishment of different programmes like prevention mother to children transmission
(PMCT), condom, ARV campaign and counseling to reduce deaths but the number of orphans are still increasing. Civil unrest and post political conflicts situations, displacements of children and their parents who end up living in an environment characterized of raping and other related causes of the disease have also resulted to an increased HIV/AIDS orphans. Moreover, there are no policies and strategies responding to these challenges formulated in many developing countries. Variations in cultural systems, legal institutions and government policies have also resulted to an increased
HIV/ AIDS orphans in developing countries.
However, there should be emphasis on prevention rather than care and support, resilience of community initiatives to deal with the impact of HIV/AIDS on children, inadequate or non-existent public services, the low priority given to areas that are primarily social, rather than medical and the limited ability of children to be heard, have increased the problem. Furthermore, the exact nature of the problem was difficult to determine and lack of any proven model of orphan support might also accelerate the increasing the effect of
HIV/AIDS orphan. Large amounts of money were made available to deal with the newly perceived problem, recruited staff and sought to build up expertise (UNDP, 1993).
Communities were responding to the impact of HIV/AIDS with innovative support
17 systems but they were doing this largely in the absence of any external assistance, relying on their own resources Mutangadura, G.B. (2000).
2.3.3 Modernization theory
According to this theory, a community could fail to support orphans due to poverty which results from outdated values and attitude. The theory states that societies are poor because their traditions culture, attitudes, and value hinder economic development, therefore in order for economic development to occur traditional values would need to be replaced by modern ones. Education plays a key role in this development and viewed as a key to create modern individual. The premise encourages the foreign powers to prescribe the development of poor society (Matunhu, 2011). Bass, (2004) argues that economic and political transformations affect the lives of orphans; they vary and are very complex.
These include debt, corruption, war, geo-political conflicts, epidemics, and unfair trade, structural adjustment programs (SAP), inappropriate policies and ineffective legislation.
On the other hand the macro-economic policy changes imposed by International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) that forced poor countries to open up their economies in response to the „Washington Consensus‟ are seen as having devastating impacts on the lives of orphan children even in remote villages (Abebe and
Kjorholt 2009).
In practice, modernization theory seems to margnalideze the poor community who can not cope with the moderninty system hence creating a dependency syndrome to poor community. Moreover, that results in to inequality between rich and the poor which seems to be increasing among community members hence resulting to negative effect to orphans livelhood due to marginalisation. However, the rich community achieved self- sustaining economic growth, while the poor community grew only as a reflection of
18 changes in the dominating economy, therefore affect the life of orphans. For instance, in the 1980s structural adjustment policies mechanism for basic education and health services as well as cut off agriculture subsides reduced the willingness of community to care orphans (Foster at el ,1997). Orphans are cared by extended family but due to modernization changes such as labor migration, the generalization of a cash economy, demographic change, formal education and urbanization, Structural adjustment policies that involve the imposition of cost recovery mechanisms for basic education and health services, have also reduced the willingness of relatives and community to care for orphans (Foster, 2002). The defense for orphan vulnerable children is formed by uncles, aunts, grandparents and other related relatives. But as this customary practices of orphan inheritance had been weakened. Other argue that extended family support may not be relevant in urban settings, individualism, urbanization, migration to cities, and modernity itself have changed the role of communities and traditional arrangements (Goody, 1969).
However, a challenge of macro-economic ideology within Sub – Saharan African, which dictates those orphans cared by individual, families and communities. (Ntozi and
Kakayiwa 1999).
Moreover, community have already debts or are borrowing money that may not be able to pay back, financial institution that offer loans are usually not consider to provide credit to grandparents, sick or adolescents (International HIV/AIDS Alliance, 2003). Unfavorable micro-economic credit trend, population growth, and the low return of subsistence farming due to unreliable rainfall were the major factors contributing to community in ensuring adequate supports (Lundberg and Over, 2000). Extended family is a strong, supportive traditional system in caring orphans; it can be the most important source of moral guidance, emotional support and material sustenance in a child‟s life. Families are
19 not only taking responsibility for feeding, clothing and educating children, they also provide children with a sense of identity and self-esteem. Families and communities also play a vital role in helping children to acquire the cultural understanding, practical knowledge and skills they need to live full and healthy adult lives (Ainsworth and Semali,
2000). Many communities create income generation activities for caregivers and offering microcredit loans and small business training to the orphan headed households.
Microfinance services are also promising a way of enabling communities/families that care for orphans to support themselves. Orphans face an uncertain future regarding their custody and financial benefits (Evans, 2005). Moreover, copping mechanism of extended family becomes increasingly weakened as more households in a community are affected and communal support network are less and less to cope (Barrnet and Whiteside, 2002).
The orphan vulnerable children were all taken care of, supported and protected by their community (close relatives and neighbors). These strong community safety nets such as extended family to absorb these children are fading with time due to rampart household income poverty, effects of globalization and socio-economic changes (URT, 2009).
Orphans will be forced to drop out of school or will never enroll, either because their guardians cannot afford the costs of schooling; children are is needed for income- generating or other economic activities, or the guardians simply have less interest in the welfare of them who are not their own (Williamson, 2000).
The perspective of this theory did not solve the problems of poverty because of the introduction of SAPs such as devaluation of currency, free market, open economies, privatization of public enterprises and retrenchment removing agriculture subsides, and introduction of cost-sharing to public services (education and health) increases inequality
20 and extremely poverty to the poor society hence reduce the ability of community to support vulnerable group orphans in particular.
Modernization theory fails to consider the poor as the centerpiece of poverty reduction initiatives, as it ignore the involvement and participation of the target community, modernity achieves the marginalization of their commitment, creativity and support of the intervention strategies. The intervention strategy becomes an imposed strategy and such a strategy fails to construct adequate notions of both the causal powers of social structures, and the role of human agency in shaping social relations in general. Modernization and rapid development has eroded the custom and norms of community among community members, and modernity itself have changed the role of community‟s traditional arrangements as it discourages extended families, whereby relatives are concentrating with their own matters and putting the orphans aside. Therefore orphans remain as a challenge in a community.
2.4 Empirical review of related literature
2.4. 1. Global experiences
Families and communities provide the majority of the care and support to orphans.
Support for orphans and vulnerable children has primarily focused on addressing their material needs and secondly it has focused to address the needs for skill transfer and education for orphan children, and sometimes addressing the medical, social welfare and psychological needs of orphan children affected by HIV/AIDS. The majority of families and communities trying to care for affected children do not receive adequate external assistance (UNICEF, USAID and UNAIDS, 2004). In Cambodia 84% of orphaned indicated that they had not received assistance from any agency, neither private nor governmental. In Latin America and beyond, with over 30 countries, including
21 Bangladesh, Indonesia and Turkey improving orphan livelihood through human capital investment (conditional cash transfer‟ ) which help to break the intergenerational persistence of poverty of poor household particularly those headed by children (Armando
B, Miguel, N, Z, 2011). Some countries, such as Malawi, have established a policy framework specifically to protect orphans, guide the way services are provided for them and define respective government and NGO areas of responsibility. Other countries, including Uganda, Thailand and Senegal, have shown that open, committed leadership and political will can make a difference (UNAIDS, 1999).
Moreover, the government should strengthens the capacity of families and communities to continuous providing care protect and assist them in meeting their needs as well as empowering the community to monitor the care and support provided to minimize instance of exploitation. In additional school feeding programs and community cooperative have been found to be effective strategies to supplement the care and minimize the likelihood of abuse, keep their homes and property grabbing (UNICEF,
2003). Although a lot of efforts have been made to ensure OVC are supported with essential services there is a lack of guidelines for organizations which are offering services to children and low level of awareness, shared definitions of quality in offering such services, have created opportunities for wide variations in the content and quality of
OVC services Families and community capacity to provide a supportive environment to orphans are strain (White, 2003)
2.4.2 African experiences
Before the advent of HIV/AIDS, orphans were usually absorbed within the extended family network, but the extended family as the traditional social security system in many
African countries has been weakened because parents, aunts and uncles are dying of the
22 disease. The increases of orphans lead to reluctance of relatives to foster orphan, lack of contact of relatives with children, death or sick of relatives, presences of adolescent or older children able to care for young children, children‟s preference to live in child headed household and the inheritance of residence by surviving children (foster et al,
1997). Historically, children in sub-Saharan Africa have often been cared for by extended family members including grandparents, uncles and other relatives. In Uganda 42% of guardians were aunts/uncles, 45% were grandparents, and 5%, siblings. This tradition of child fostering has become an essential coping mechanism in the face of increased adult mortality due to HIV/AIDS. It is also a solution to the “orphan crisis” that is locally and culturally acceptable. (Madhavan, 2004).
Recent history has also seen the breakdown of traditional marriage, customarily marriage in Sub Saharan Africa involved the bringing together of a man and a woman with a bride price, which the husband‟s family paid to the wife‟s family (Freeman and Knomo, 2006)
Marriage represented the unification of two families, rather than two individuals. Other argues that extended family act as a social agent to social insurance and provides for and supports the individual psychology and financial by means of direct contributions while payment of bride wealth guaranteed children right to resources within the community
(Evans, 1994). For this reason, the concept of “social orphans” did not exist, because children whose parents died were absorbed into the care of their extended relatives. The extended family system that used to take care of orphans were disintegrating and orphans are to care for their own sibling (UNICEF, 2003). In Ethiopia nontraditional organizations and institutions have in fact already displaced traditional arrangements. It is a wide supportive measure such as microcredit schemes to support entrepreneurship, succession planning, and provide for inheritance of resources. These organization do not have accountability measures to assure that adequate care is provided and do not focus on the
23 interests of the children in need of care (Lundberg and Over, 2000). In Rwanda, it is estimated that one-third of the street children were orphans, and 60,000–85,000 households were headed by children, three-quarters of whom were girls. Moreover 95 percent of these households, the children had no access to health care or education, were frequently exploited and abused sexually, and were often denied inheritance rights of land and houses (World Vision 1998).
2.4.3 Tanzania Experience
Before and after independence, Tanzanian orphans and other vulnerable children were taken care of and supported by their close relatives and neighbors through extended families. When the number of orphans increased beyond the capacity of the community to handle, some of these children were taken to orphanages, while others were taken by step parents and others were adopted. Grandparents are, however, often a last resort and agree to take in orphans because other relatives refuse (URT, 2009). Grandparents are looking after 48% of orphans but the role of older people as a councilor and educator have been insufficient and not recognize in the community and at national level. Furthermore, the information of orphans and vulnerable children is not clearly visible because they are dispersed across many regions, where extended families and communities are shouldering the strain largely without public assistance (UNICEF, 2005). Orphans lack money, inadequate parental care and some mistreatment by the caregivers, and exposed to rape, drug abuse, child labor, including prostitution, making them to contracting HIV/AIDS.
24 2.5 Policies and legislation existing to care children
2.5.1 Global policies and legislations related to children
According to Article 6, of the convection on right of child (CRC) assures every child with the inherent right to life and the state has obligation to assure this child‟s survival and development. It reflects with the basic needs of children. On the other hand the article 5, of the African Charter on the Rights and welfare of the child is concerned with children survival protection and development and insist the right to life and right to be protected by laws. Moreover, the African Charter insist the right to education, right to health services (right to enjoy the best attainable state of physical, mental and spiritual health) and to ensure meaningful participation of nongovernmental organization, local community and the beneficiary population in the planning and management of a basic services programme for children (UNICEF, 2006)
2.5.2 Tanzania government policies and legislation existing to care children
The education policy of Tanzania (URT, 1995), lays social cultural foundations which ethically and moral characterize the Tanzanian citizen and nation. Furthermore, it enable child to acquire basic learning tools of literacy communication numeracy and problem solving as well as basic learning context of integrated relevant knowledge, skills, and attitude needed for survival and development to full capacity. The policy in one of its statements spells that “The government shall promote and ensure equitable distribution of education institutions”. On top of that, the government has abolished school fees and primary education shall be universal and compulsory to all children at the age of 7.
The Tanzania child development policy (2008), states that the basic needs of children including survival rights, development rights, protection rights, participation rights and the right not to be discriminated against.
25 The Tanzania child law number 21 (2009) state that, It shall be the duty of a parent, guardian or any other person having custody of a child to maintain that child in particular that duty gives the child the right to food, shelter, clothing ,protection, medical care including immunization, education and guidance, liberty, and right to play and leisure. A person shall not deprive a child access to education, immunization, food, clothing, shelter, health and medical care or any other thing required for his development. In section 9 (1,
2, 3) state that A person shall not deny a child medical care by reason of religious or other beliefs. Moreover, A person shall not deprive a child the right to participate in sports, or in positive cultural and artistic activities or other leisure activities unless in the opinion of the parent, guardian or relative such participation of activity is not in the best interest of the child. Where biological parents of a child are deceased, parental responsibility may be passed on to a relative of either parent or a custodian by way of court order or any traditional arrangement.
2.6 Knowledge Gap
Scanty studies have been conducted concerning social protections in relation to improving wellbeing of orphans (Longo 2006, and Selengu 2007), but none of these studies that have assessed community responsibilities in supporting orphans in Chamwino district. All these studies indicate that there are government efforts towards the well being of the orphan children. Vicious circle theory of poverty state that in order to develop poor society should increases investment, increases saving and expand marketing, while modernization theory state that in order for economic development to occur traditional values will need to replace for modern ones. Both theories fail to address the problem of poverty. However, communities are unable to support vulnerable group because they remain poor and they are facing different problems like lack of health services, lack of skills, lack of physical assets, and lack of capital to establish the programs (Myrdal,
26 1964). Furthermore, the strong community net work such as extended family was fading with time due to modernity that change the role of community in supporting orphans
(Good, 1969)
On the other hand lack of plans, guidelines, protection, procedure and lack of awareness concerning child rights, shortcomings in the administration laws which protect children at the community level that exposed orphans to a greater risk of sex abuse, (forced into sex trade for exchange for foods and clothes, prostitution, rape, forced marriage, drug abuse,) child labor, malnutrition, food insecure and un accessibility of education and health services. Furthermore, the government does not put much consideration of integrating orphan problems when developing policy and plans.
Therefore to fill this gap the researcher intends to assess community responsibilities to support orphans in chamwino District.
2.7 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework is a set of broad ideas and principle taken from relevant fields of inquire and used to structure the sequent presentation (Reichel and Romney, 1987).
The conceptual frame work gives summarized understanding of variable under the study.
(Smyth, 2004)
Basing on the body of literature, conceptually in this study has improved the wellbeing of orphans as a function of local community responsibilities which is determined by the local community roles, in supporting orphans guided by local regulations, traditions and village by laws. Of which in turn influence the community systems of supporting orphans which includes: The mechanism of managing orphans, initiators of the mechanism to save orphans, existence of action plans to save orphans, strategy used by community for efficiency service delivery to orphans, community knowledge on orphans, tools used to
27 identify and record orphans, mode of identifying orphans, modality of supporting orphans and number of days the service offered to orphans. All of these would shape the type of services to be rendered to orphans which can be either be health, education, food, shelter, clothes and social protection which affects the wellbeing of the orphans (figure 1).
28 Figure 1: Conceptual frame work
Intermediate Dependent Independent variables variable variable
Community system for supporting orphans -Mechanism for managing orphans - Initiator for the mechanism to save orphans -Existences of action plan in support orphans -Timeframe for updating OVC information -Strategies used by community for efficiency services delivery to orphans -Community knowledge of orphans Improved
Community -Tools used to identify and record orphans wellbeing responsibilities -Mode of identifying orphans of -Modality of supporting orphans -Number of days the Orphans services offered to orphans
Types of support provided to orphans by community -Services offered by the community (food, shelter and clothes -Timeframe set by the community -Strategy for efficiency services delivery -
Local community Roles in Supporting orphans -Regulation -Traditional -Village laws
29 2.8 Summary
The chapter deals with literature reviews both theoretical and empirical review, policy reviews and conceptual frame work. It shows that the main course of orphans are extreme poverty, diseases like HIV/AIDS, change, of economic, political transformation and inappropriate policies like SAPS that breakdown or weakened the supportive network of orphans in the community.
30 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter shows the procedure on how the study was conducted. It includes methods and techniques that were employed in the selection of the study area, selection of research strategy (design), sampling procedure, data collection methods, processing, analysis and presentation.
3.1 Study area
The study was conducted in Dodoma region in Chamwinio District Mvumi Misheni village. Dodoma region was selected because it is among the regions that was affected by a big number of OVC/MVC. Moreover Mvumi Misheni village has been selected due to the fact that it is the main areas where by most parents were dead due the HIV/AIDS and therefore it has accelerated a big number of orphans in Chamwino district. The selected area has provided the researcher with an adequate sample for selection. It has provided the researcher access to an in-depth and rich source of information. Due to time and other constraints including operational costs, the researcher believed that Mvumi Misheni village could provide sufficient information for this study within a timeframe and an estimated cost.
3.2 Location of the Area
Mvumi Misheni ward is located in Chamwino district, 45 kilometers from Dodoma
Munispal. The village borders with Mvumi Makulu village in the Western, Idifu in the
East, Muungano in the North and in North West is bordered with Handali, in the South
31 Iringa Mvumi and South West is bordered with Makang‟wa village. The village has the total population of 17,062 with 3,527 households.
3.3 Research design
The research was non experimental, where by cross sectional research design was employed to determine the relationship between variables. In this cross sectional study, data were collected at one point in time from a sample frame, to describe some large population at the time. Research design refers to the plan that shows the approach and strategy of investigation aim at obtaining relevant data which fulfill the research objectives and answers to the questions (Kothari, 1990), or a research design can be regarded as an arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance with the research purpose (Kombo and Tromp, 2006).
Research design also spells out what type of methods to be used. It shows where and how the study is going to be done. Research designs are decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or research study constitute a research design (Kothari, 2004). The reason for using this research strategy was to allow the researcher to use various methods of data collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data at a time so as to ensure the validity of the data.
3.4 Sampling Design
Sampling design is the plan that specifies how study respondents are to be selected for observation (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). In this study both probability and non-probability sampling design was engaged. In probability sampling techniques, stratified sampling was used to get a cohort of men and women from a sample frame; stratified sampling was used to avoid sex biasness during data collection. Simple random sampling was used to obtain respondents from the stratified cohort of community members (households) this
32 technique was selected due to the fact that it gave all respondents equal opportunity of being selected. This is necessary in order to avoid the problem of sample selection bias
(Kodhari, 1990). Purposive sampling procedure was used to select the District
Community Development Office, District Social Welfare Officer, Ward Development
Officer, Village Executive officer.
3.4.1 Sampling Frame
The sampling frame constituted a list of all households of Mvumi Misheni village. The reason of using household list as a sample frame is based on the fact that households are basic organs of care and supporting orphans.
3.4.2 Sample size
The sample size was obtained by using Yamane Formulae (1967), given that n = N/1+N
(e) 2 where: n = sample size estimate, N =sample frame, e = error of sample estimate.
Therefore
3527/1+3527/0.01)2 = 90
The sample size of 90 respondents was used; this was included respondent form household, 1 ward community development officer, 1 village executive officer and 1 village chair person, 2 district officials (1 district social welfare, 1 district community development officer). Purposive sampling was used to select village leaders and district official leaders. Stratified sampling was used to get a cohort of men, and women while simple random sampling is used to obtained respondents from the stratified cohort of community members. Babbie, (1992) argues that the large the sample the better the representation of the population will be. Since the sample could help to get a general impression of the population of interest, and sampling might help to obtain the estimates
33 on certain characteristics of the population as well as time, cost and resources saving. In addition the research will be able to capture an adequate information from the respondent.
Table 1: Distribution of the respondent
No Category Respondents The sample size Methods of of all categories gathering information 1 District District Community 2 Interview Official Development leaders Officer and District Social Welfare Officer 2 Ward leaders Village executive 3 Interview officer, ward community development officer and village chair person 3 Households Headed house holds 85 Interview and observation an Total 90 Sources researcher constructs 2003
3.5 Methods of data collection
Both primary and secondary data were gathered from respondents. The primary data were those which were collected afresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in the character. Under primary data, interviews and observations methods were used. On the other hand secondary data were those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already passed through the statistical process (Kothari, 2004). Under this method different documents were reviewed to collect secondary data. Both primary
34 and secondary data were employed to increase the reliability of data collected. Therefore the researcher has used the following methods of data collection.
3.5.1 Primary Data
3.5.1.1 Interviews
Kothari (2004) argues that an interview is a set of questions to collect information through oral or verbal communication in a face to face contact, between the researcher and the respondent. This technique was used to collect fresh data and information basing on interaction between the researcher and the respondents. Interview method was guided by the questionnaire tool. In most cases the interviews were guided by a set of closed and semi closed ended questionnaires. Interviews were conducted at the individual households and involved face to face contact to respondents by asking questions. The researcher obtained the detail informations concerning system used by the community to support orphans, services provided and community roles to protect orphans from the violations against children
3.5.1.2 Observation
Observation technique is a method by which an individual or individuals gather first hand data on programs, processes, or behaviors being studied (Kothari, 2004). It gives an opportunity to the researcher to collect data on a wide range of behaviors, to capture a great variety of interactions, and to openly explore the research topic. Thus researcher used this method to observe the availability of tools, methods, and strategies used by community to identify orphans.
35 3.6 Secondary data
In secondary data, both local and global relevant literatures were reviewed, with an aim of getting various informations, views and perception of community responsibilities to support orphans. Secondary data were collected from records; reports published and unpublished documents on the community in addressing the OVC problems. The researcher also read various published and unpublished materials. Paper-based sources, books, journals, research reports, conference papers, annual reports, newspapers and magazines, electronic sources, internet, videos and broadcasts were also used as source of secondary data. The researcher has used both primary and secondary data in order to gather valid and reliable of data which were relevant to the research questions and objectives. Moreover it was help to reduce the biasness from the respondents and increases accuracy, validity and reliability of the research.
3.7 Data processing and analysis
After collection data were processed and analyzed in the following manner:
3.7.1 Data processing
The data were processed by editing, coding, classifications and tabulations as the need arises, so to enabled the researcher to analyze. However, editing of the data helped the researcher to detect omission and correct errors. This was done through careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires to assure the accuracy and consistent. The coding process involved assigning numeral or symbol to answers while classifications involved the arrangements of data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
36 3.7.2 Data analysis
Data analysis refers to the computation of a certain measure along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data groups, the coded date were entered into
Statistical Package for Social Science Research (SPSS) programme. Data were also analyzed by employing descriptive statistics (frequency and percentages). The analyzed data were translated to give a meaning. It is from the results of such analysis that researcher was able to make sense of data of the translated data (Kothari, 2004). Other argues that data analysis as a systematic process involving working with data, organizing them and dividing them in to small manageable parts. Data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics (Frequencies and percentages) and multiple responses.
3.7.3 Data presentation
The research results on the community responsibilities to support orphans were presented by using charts, tables, figures and graphs or combination of these depends on the research findings.
3.8 Validity and Reliability
3.8.1Validity
Researcher‟s bias or subjective judgment in data collection process may affect a study conclusion (Yin, 1994). To avoid the bias, the utilization of multiple sources of data and evidence ensured that the information obtained would confirm the view of the majority.
In additional to that the use of multiple sources like household interviews, key informant interviews and physical observation added much to the validity of the data and information obtained.
37 3.8.2 Reliability
Reliability refers to a measure of the degree of consistency with which different researcher would arrive at the same result (Yin, 1994). For the purpose of minimizing error and bias to enhance the reliability, 90 sample selection was done from the households in the community of Mvumi Misheni village. Data and information were collected by interviewing different groups of people in the community, including village
Executive Officer, village chair person and ward community development officer and the comparison of data and information from each group were done to check reliability.
38 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDING
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis and discussion of the findings concerning the community responsibilities to support orphans in Mvumi Misheni village. It begins with data presentation, analysis and discussion of the major findings of the study was carried out in line with the developed specific objectives. Data were generated from responses of
90 respondents who were interviewed for collection of the required data.
The general objective of the study was to assess the community responsibilities in supporting orphans at Mvumi misheni village in Chamwino District. The specific objectives were to examine the community systems responsible for supporting orphans in the study area, and to determine the types of support provided to orphans by community as well as to identify the roles of the community to protect orphan in the study area.
4.1 Respondents Profile
The respondents profile were characterized by age, sex and marital status.
4.1.1: Age of the respondent
The age of a respondent was an important factor to be noted in this study since the major responsibility of protecting and caring orphans belongs to adult people. About 10.0% of respondents who were involved in the study ranged between 18 and 29 years, about
16.7% of of them ranged to the age of 30 to 35 years, 22.2% ranged 36 to 42 years, 26.7% ranged 43 to 49 years, and 14.4% ranged to the age of 50 and above. The results reveal that, majority of respondents involved in the study were in the category of middle aged population (Table 2). It is believed that these are the people who provide care and support
39 the orphans in the study area. However, older people are limited with difficult circumstances like inability to care orphans, limitation of health care, information of livelihood security and financial burden (Help age international 2003).
Table 2: Age group of respondents
Age group Frequencies percent 18 – 22 9 10.0 23 – 29 9 10.0 30 -35 15 16.7 36 – 42 20 22.2 43 – 49 24 26.7 50+ 13 14.4 Total 90 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013
4.1.2. Sex of the respondents
Sex of respondents is very important in understanding gender responsibilities at a household level with respect to the community responsibilities in taking care of the orphans in the study area. The result shows that half (50.0%) of respondents who were involved in this study were males and half (50.0%) of them were females (Table 3). It means that, both males and females were playing major roles in supporting orphans.
However, the level of care that orphans receive within community depends on the gender and age of the caregivers (Barnett and Blaikie, 1992)
40 Table 3: Sex of the respondents
Sex of respondents frequencies percent Male 45 50 Female 45 50 Total 90 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013
4.1.3 Marital status of respondents
Marital status of respondents were among of the feature to be considered during the study, this was important in determining which category of marital status was highly involved in care givers to orphans. It was revealed that 48.9% of the respondents were married, 18.9
% widows, 14.4% single, 4.4% divorced and followed by1.1% lived together. The results indicate that, most of the respondents who were involved in the study were married couples (Table 4). There was possibility that the married couples were likely to provide more support rather than other categories.
Table 4: Marital status of respondents
Variable Frequencies percent Married 44 48.9 Single 13 14.4 divorced 4 4.4 separation 11 12.2 widow 17 18.9 live together 1 1.2 Total 90 100 Source: field survey, 2013
41 4.2 Understanding the community responsibilities in supporting orphans in the study area
In assessing the community responsibilities in supporting orphans in the study there are three specific objectives which were used, these are: to examine community systems responsible for supporting orphans, to determine the types of support provided to orphans by the community and to identify the roles of community to protect orphans. In responding to these specific objectives several variables were involved in data collection and the analysis which was included: the knowledge of the community on who are the orphans, the mechanism used to manage orphans at the community level, initiator of the mechanism which was used to manage orphans a, tools which were used by the community to identify orphans, the methods of identifying orphans, time frame for updating OVC information, action plans for supporting orphans, services offered by the community to support orphans, time frame set by the it to deliver services to orphans, strategy used by community to ensure efficiency for services delivered, services offered by government and other stakeholders existing to support orphans, services offered by stakeholders to support orphans, the existences of violation against them, measures taken by the community to overcome violations against orphans and the existences of regulation to protect them
4.2.1 The community systems responsible for supporting orphans
According to the National Coasted Plan of Action for most Vulnerable Children (2010),
Active involvement of people at the community level is as an important factor for the success of efforts to scale-up orphans (Most Vulnerable Children) responses. Social mobilization, advocacy, and enhancement of the community participation are important elements of Most Vulnerable Children responses programming.These include establishment of a response system that links councils with their communities. The
42 community system responsible in supporting orphans will foster working arrangements between key community agencies, including civil society organizations, nongovernmental organizations, community-based organizations, and faith-based organizations. In examining the community systems responsible for supporting orphans in the study are the following variables which were analyzed.
4.2.2 The knowledge of the community on who are the orphans
Community understanding on who is an orphan is a basic predetermined phenomena in caring orphans, under this variable the researcher was interested to determine whether the community have a common understanding on who is an orphan. Community members were asked to explain the meaning of orphan in order to determine their awareness on the magnitude of the problem in the study area.
It was revealed that 74.1%s of respondents said that an orphan is a child without both parents or lost one parent, while 22.4% narrates that an orphan was a child without both parents, and 3.5% of them said that an orphan was a child who has lost one of the parents
(Table 5) . This implies that majority of respondents interviewed were aware on the meaning of an orphan. This may be due to the existences of many Non governmental
Organisations such as AFRICARE and an availability of Faith Based Organisations such as Diocese of Central Tanganyika (DCT), Compassion Tanzania which support orphans who have created awareness to the community.
Table 5: Community knowledge on who is an orphan
Definition Frequencies percent Child without both parents 19 22.4 Child lost one parent 3 3.5 All the above are correct 68 74.1 Total 90 100 Sources field survey 2013
43 4.2.3: Mechanism used to manage orphans vulnerable children at community level
Management of orphans and vulnerable children startartis at the community level.
Through community based care, MVC committees are formed at the community level, community MVC welfare funds are established, and community justice facilitators/paralegals are trained. These paralegals would handle simple legal and non- legal issues that affect MVC at the local level (URT,2010). Moreover, coordination mechanisms have been established to help implementing partners who work together effectively and realize integration and linkages of OVC responses. The researcher‟s interest was to determine whether there was an existence of mechanism to care and manage orphans at the community level. From the study, it was observed that 91.1% of respondents reported that the village had a legal mechanism called Village Most
Vulnerable Children Committee (VMVCC) which was responsible in managing orphans.
In contrary about 8.9 % of them argued that issues related to orphans are managed by village leaders (Table 6). This implies that the village had established strong legal management system to manage and control orphans
Table 6: Mechanism used to manage orphans
Mechanism Frequencies Percent Village most vulnerable children committee 82 91.1 Village leaders 8 8.9 Total 90 100 Sources: field Survey, 2013
4.2.4: Initiator of the mechanism used to manage orphans
The livelihood of OVC could improve if it incorporates the community, government and private sectors, Non Governmental Organisations, Faith Based Organisations and
44 Community Based Organisations (URT, 2010). Voluntary organizations responsible for human right should educate the public on the right and participate fully in different right and interest of a child, religion institution should also be involved in developing spiritual values of the children in the action while parents, guardian and communities in general should give their children a proper moral upgrading with special regard to the interests of child law (URT. 2009).
In responding to who was the initiator of the mechanism to be used to manage orphans,
72.2% of respondents declared that the mechanism was initiated by government in collaboration with nongovernmental organizations, 15.4% of them reported that it was the government which initiated the mechanism, 8.0% was initiated by Non Governmental
Organization and 2.2% said that faith base organization and 2.2% was initiated by the community members, (Table 7). Here it indicates that mechanism which was used to support orphans “VMVCC” was highly initiated by the government in collaborations with
Non Governmental Organizations. This implies that the government has involved stakeholders to enhance improvement of quality and quantity of delivering social services to OVC.
Table 7: The initiator of the mechanism used to manage Orphans
Initiator Frequencies percent The community 2 2.2 Government 13 15.4 FBOs 2 2.2 NGOs 8 8.0 Government in collaboration with NGOs 65 72.2 Total 90 100 Sources, field survey 2013
45 4.2.5: Tools used by community to identify orphans
It is the role of the government to develop tools for identifying orphans. The government should participate in the care, support, and protection of MVC, developing coordination tools for identifying MVC at the district level. (URT, 2008). The researcher was interested to know whether at community level there was existence of legal tools for identifying, recording, supporting and protecting orphans. It was observed that 85.6% of respondents agreed that they used the government tools to identify orphans and other vulnerable children while 11.1% of them declared that they used tools established by
NGOs to identify orphans and 3.3% of group argued that they use local tools established by the community to identify orphans (Table 8). This indicates that the government tools are the dominant tools used by the community to identify OVC/MVC although Non
Governmental Organizations have also established their own tools of identifying orphans used during interventions in supporting orphans but in most cases they conform to the government guidelines.
Table 8: Tools used to identify orphans
Tools Frequencies Percent Government tools 77 85.6 Nongovernmental Organization tools 10 11.1 Community based tools 3 3.3 Total 90 100 Sources field survey 2013
4.2.6: Methods in identifying orphans
The way in which orphans are identified is fundermental aspect of making sure that the care, support and protection services are directed to the targeted group. According to the
National Guidelines for Improving Quality of Care, Support, and Protection for Most
46 Vulnerable Children in Tanzania, The Village Most Vulnerable Children Committee
(VMVCC) incorporating with Village MVC Chairperson and Secretary have the responsibilities of managing and coordinating the issues of orphans and other vulnerable children at the village level (URT, 2009). The most reliable criteria for the identification of MVC was derived from the community based participatory definition process. The criteria for identifying OVC/MVC in a particular village or street are set by community members at a public village/street meeting.
In responding to this variable 51.7% of respondents said that orphans are identified by
VMVCC, while 30.0% identified by VCM and 13.3% are identified by Service Corps
Volunteer or Para Social Workers (Table, 9). This implies that to large extent the
VMVCC were responsible for identifying OVC/MVC at village level as obliged in government‟s guideline.
Table 9: Methods used to identify orphans
Method Frequencies Percent Through MVCC 51 56.7 Through VC 27 30.0 Through SCV/PSW 12 13.3 Total 90 100 Sources field survey 2013
4.2.7: Timeframe for updating OVC information
According to the national guideline the information of OVC/MVC should be updated twice per annum in order to accommodate necessary population variables of the increased number of OVC/MVC, to remove the list of the adult orphans who have lost legal power of being served under orphans criteria (URT, 2010). In responding to this it was revealed
47 that about 71% of respondent used to update the OVC information two times per year, where by 28.9% responded that that the OVC information was updated once per year
(Figure 2). This implies that although to large extent the OVC information was updated according to the required regulations however, it seems that the VMVCC members are not visiting some village areas to collect relevant information for updating the OVC information system.
Once per year Two times per year
29%
71%
Figure 2: Timeframe for updating OVC information
Source: field survey 2013
4.2.8: Action plan for supporting Orphans
The community is required to develop care action plans, in order to work together with other service providers to map services that are relevant to child wellbeing, monitoring and evaluating the work of the most vulnerable children committees. Also promoting sustainability of service provision, and addressing concerns of the OVC as they arise (URT, 2009).
OVC/MVC services will also include efforts to prevent more children from becoming
48 vulnerable by creating linkages and collaboration with prevention partners, as well as integrating prevention activities in OVC/MVC programs. During the interview it was observed that 92.2% of respondents reported that there had never seen or got involved in the process of developing any action plans concerning OVC while 7.8% of them reported that there was an action plan to support orphans at the community level. This implies that although the village has developed action plan to deal with OVC but it seems most of the community members were not part of the process which is contrary to the Tanzania
National Coasted Plan of Action for Most Vulnerable Children, which obliges the community members at local level to be an integral part in the process of developing the
OVC action plan. This is complying with the study conducted by Subbarao and Coury
(2004), who noted that government do not target orphans specifically when design their policy to protect children. Lack of plans, expertise, ability and equipment are some of difficult circumstances hindering the community to support orphans.
Yes,7, 8%
No,83, 92%
Figure 3: Action Plan for Supporting Orphans
Source: field survey 2013
49 4.3 Type of services offered by community to support Orphans
Type of services offered by the community will always determine the future livelihood of orphans. The community has the role of providing the basic needs to orphans which include food, shelter and clothes. In analyzing the type of services offered by the community to orphans the following variables guided the research questions which were:
Services offered by community to support orphans, timeframe set by the community in delivering services to orphans, strategy used by the community to ensure efficiency service delivery, service offered by the government, stakeholders existence to support orphans and the services offered.
4.3.1: Services offered by community to support orphans
Communities can serve as watchdogs and counselors on children‟s behalf where urgent needs such as neglect, exploitation, or abuse are rampant. The community also provides direct support such as clothing, food, and health care to vulnerable children when households cannot, due to sickness or economic problems. Key interventions include community fundraising, income-generating activities, and promoting linkages with existing civil service and faith-based organizations in the district or at national level. In determining the types of services offered by the community, the findings have shows that
73.3% of the respondents offer social protection, 13.3% offer food services, 10.1% education services and 3.3% offer health service (figure 4). This implies most of the community members base much on providing social protection rather than providing other basic needs of food and health services.
The findings are complying with (Hunter, 2001) who argues that the communities are often providing little or no support to individual household. He insists that Community are not willing to volunteer to care for orphans in the area, because community members
50 do not have the resources to spare for feeding, clothing and educating children, they only provide children with a sense of identity and self-esteem.
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Education Health services Food supporting Social protection services Frequency 9 3 12 66 percentage 10.1 3.3 13.3 73.3
Figure 4: services offered by the community
Sources field survey 2013
4.3.2: Timeframe set by community to deliver services to orphans
The community should ensure that orphans receive love, and emotional support and opportunity to express their feelings without fear of stigma and discrimination; this should be provided regularly as an orphan grows (URT, 2010) In determining the timeframe set by the community in delivering services to orphans it was noted that 81.1% of the respondents said that social protection services were delivered daily, 6.7% delivered quarterly, while 4.4% delivered monthly also 4.4% said that social protection services delivered once per year and the rest 3.3% it was delivered two times (figure 5).
This implies that social protection was offered daily due to the nature and kind of the services or it may because of the modality of delivering those services, either the services offered in informal way or no recording was done and it was an abstract.
51 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Two times Once per Daily Monthly Quarterly per years years Frequencies 73 4 6 3 4 percentage 81.1 4.4 6.7 3.3 4.4
Figure 5: Timeframe set by community to deliver services to orphans
Sources field survey 2013
4.3.4 Strategy used by community to ensure efficiency for services delivered
Community should mobilized access of food for orphans including establish of gardens, home visited advocating, fundraising, income-generating activities, and promoting linkages with existing civil service and faith-based organizations in the district or at the national level and make referral to children for health services as appropriate. (URT,
2009). Moreover, it should link the children to partnership and counseling, children are to remain in their homes or community origin and identifying their basic needs.
The nature of community strategy used to support orphans will determine effectiveness of service delivery, in determining the strategy of service delivery used by the community to deliver services, it was revealed that 91.1% of respondents said that the dominant strategy used was the community willingness for contribution strategy while 8.9% of respondents agreed that village leader‟s assistance strategy as the strategy used by community to support orphan (Table 12). It depicts that community contribution seems to be more strategy used in supporting orphans. Moreover, the community was an organ which
52 showed the efforts in helping orphans than other organs, because orphans are found within the community and many of them are their relatives and siblings.
Table 10: Strategies used by community to ensure efficiency for services delivered
Strategy Frequencies percent Community contribution 82 91.1 Village leaders 8 8.9 Total 90 100 Sources field survey, 2013
4.2.6: Services offered by government
The government and other stakeholders have the responsibility of creating conducive environment of protecting children through providing policies, laws, regulations and guidelines. (URT, 2010). The researcher was interested to determine the extent to which the government is effective in providing services to orphans in the study area. It was revealed that 64.7%, of the respondents said that government offered education services,
27.3% health services and 7.9%, said that the government offered food (Figure 6). It implies that relatively the government provided more education services to orphans than other services. This implies with the education policy (1996) which state that “The government shall promote and ensure equitable distribution of education institutions”, that is the reason of why government has abolished school fees in primary schools since primary school is universal and compulsory to all children at the age of 7 years.
53 90 90 80 65 70 60 50 38 40 27 30 20 11 8 10 0 Education Health Food
responses N Percentage
Figure 6: services offered by government
Sources field survey, 2013
4.3.5: Stakeholder existing to support orphans
Article 5 of the African Charter insists to ensure meaningful participation of
Nongovernmental organization, local community and the beneficiary population in planning and management of basic services programmers for children (UNICEF, 2006).
In identifying the stakeholders existing to support orphans the findings indicate that
66.2% of the respondents reported that NGOs, are the main stakeholders existed to support orphans in the study area, 14.7%, reported that FBOs, 12.5% reported that CBOs existed to support orphans in the study area and only 6.6% of them reported that influential people (Political leaders) are among the stakeholders existed to support orphans (figure 7). This indicates that NGO‟s provide more support than other stakeholders. This might be due to the fact that the coverage of NGOs in service delivery is more than the CBOs.
54 Responces Percent
90
66.2
20 17 14.7 12.5 9 6.6
NGOs FBOs CBOs Influential people
Figure 7: Stakeholder existing to support orphans
Sources, field survey 2013
4.3.6: Services offered by stakeholders to support orphans
The government plan, develop and implement safety net systems that deliver multifaceted care for and support orphans at the household level. It specifies stakeholder‟s responsibilities and providing a clear framework for the continuation, improvement, and scaling up of OVC interventions (URT, 2010). In identifying the services offered by respondents in the study area it was revealed that 67.7% of the respondents said that education is the services offered by stakeholders to large extent, 18.5% of them said health services and only 13.8% of stood for food services (figure 8). It implies that to large extent stakeholders provide education services than the government does, compared to others services.
55 88 90 80 68 70 60 50 40 24 30 19 14 14 20 10 0 Education Health food
Responses percent
Figure 8: services offered by stake holders
Sources field survey 2013
4.4: Roles of community to protect orphans
The community should be fully involved in issues of child protection by abandoning norms, and values which endanger the life of the children, strengthen the positive values, participating in communal up bring and providing services to children in difficult circumstances. Community should rebuke and denounce, rape, defilement and exploitation of children, child policy (2008). In analyzing the role of community to protect orphans the following variables guided by the research question which including: the existences of violation against children, measures taken by community to overcome violations against children and existences of regulation to protect them.
4.4.1: Existence of Violation against orphans
Violation against children has been due to the lack of community awareness concerning these rights and lack of procedure and efforts to mobilize and educate community about them (URT, 2008). The researcher determined that 61.1% of the respondents said that
56 orphan children abandonment is a serious phenomenon practiced in the study area, 11.1% responded that forced/early marriage existed and 22.2% of respondents said child labor existed, 5.6% said genital mutilation existed as a violation of children (Table 13). This implies that abandonment is more serious problem affecting orphan in the study area, this may be caused by irresponsibility of most of community members.
Table 11: Existence of violation Against Children
Violation Frequencies Percent Female gentile mutilation 5 5.6 Forced/early marriage 10 11.1 Child labor 20 22.2 Abandoned 55 61.1 Total 90 100 Sources: field survey, 2013
4.4.2: Measures taken by community to overcome violation against orphans
The government should take measures to ensure child protection through educating and mobilizing parents and caregivers to understand and prioritize the implementation of child right and child policy. Protecting children from abuse and neglects is a wide community responsibility (URT, 2008). In determining measures taken by community to overcome violations against orphans the researcher found ones that 81.1% of the respondents said that they used caregivers in overcoming violation and apply discussions between two sides (kids and caregivers) and 18.9% said that they sue the offenders to village leaders
(Table 14). It implies that most of community members use caregivers to protect and advocacy children‟s protection. However, the discussion between two sides may lead to abuse children due to the interest of the parents/caregivers.
57 Table 12: measures taken by community to overcome violation against orphans
Measures Frequencies percent Through using offenders 17 18.9 Caregivers guidance 73 81.1 Total 90 100 Sources: field survey, 2013
4.4.3: Existence of regulation to protect orphans
In addressing the rights of children the government has taken different ways in the provision of care, support and protection of children, through establish different regulations such as child policy (2008) and child law (2009) that address child development. Therefore in determining the existences of regulation to protect children in the study area the researcher has found ones that 78% of the respondents use village by laws to protect children, and 22% use government guideline (figure 9). It implies that most community members in the study area are not aware on government regulation to protect children. Although the Village formulated its by- laws but sometimes it can be imperfectly implemented or not sustain the rights the children or it can abuse child rights due to the in sibling within the community, although it depend on the level of understanding on the magnitude of the problems and the effects to the children.
58 Government guidelines 19, 22%
Village by laws,67, 78%
Figure 9: Existence of regulations to protect orphans
Sources: field Survey 2013
59 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Summary
5.1 introductions
This chapter presents the summary of the work which derived from the study finding, recommendations, policy recommendations and conclusion. On the basis of the finding policy recommendations cover specific issues need to be addressed. The chapter also provides recommendations on the areas necessary for future improvement wellbeing of orphans
The study attempted to answer three questions, namely what are the system used by community in supporting orphans in the study area?, How does the community support orphans in the study area? and what are the roles of community to protect orphans in the study area?
5.2 summary of the major finding
Generally major findings of this study are based on the specific objectives that focused on systems used to support orphans, services delivery by the community and the roles of community in supporting orphans.
5.2.1 Systems used to support orphans
The finding has shown that most of community members are aware on the meaning of orphans in the study area. However, the results show that the mechanisms used to support orphans were formulated by the government in collaboration with Nongovernmental
Organizations. Communities were not involved in the process of developing any action plans concerning OVC in the study area. Furthermore, the tools which were used to
60 identify orphans were designed by the government as regulations requirement and submitted twice per annum. The timeframe for delivering services were designed by the community which was on daily basis and the mode of delivering was done through caregivers and guidance.
5.2.2 Services delivery
It was observed that the community has based more on delivering social protections while the government and Nongovernmental Organization based only in supporting education services and very little in health and food supporting. Other services like shelters, clothes were not considered on both sides by the community and the government. In addition
NGOs, FBOs, CBOs and influential people were among of the stakeholders existing to support orphans in the study area.
5.2.3 Roles of community to support orphans
It was also observed that violations against children have been more practiced in the study area, especially abandonment and child labor. Moreover, the community has used caregivers in overcoming the problems of orphans by sitting together and makes discussions between caregivers and the kids, as well as to educate them on the problems that might happen, if such kinds of violations against children persist. However, the community applied village by law, to protect violations against children at the community level.
5.3 Recommendations from the findings
The improvement of social wellbeing of orphans and other vulnerable children requires involvement of different stakeholders.
61 In order to improve social wellbeing of orphans the government should apply public private partnership to work together (efficiently and effectively) to avoid duplication in serving orphans. the government in additional should make sure that all stakeholders should be registered to the area where they deliver services, submit their budgets, action plans and the timeframe to facilitate the monitoring as well as evaluations of orphan‟s service delivery projects by the government officials.
Government should form specific mechanism and establish strong systems and mechanisms that would encourage community members to deal with orphan vulnerable children within the community, because orphans need special care particularly those affected by HIV/AIDS.
Government should incorporate and participate fully in the community planning process, implementations and evaluations process to gather by establishing opportunities in solving the orphan problems.
Community members should take orphans and other vulnerable children as a serious issue, which they were responsible to provide support, rather than blaming the government and nongovernmental organizations.
There should be a proper coordination and managing orphan issues, from the national, district, village and community level. However the community should also be educated on child laws, child policies and other guidelines related to children, to enable them to guide and support OVC/MVC in a proper way.
Orphans should be provided with psychosocial support to reduce trauma and stigmatization among them. On the other hand the community should be empowered in terms capacity building, finance and skills to understand the issue of orphans, and how to care them, in order to escape the issues of rape, commercial sex, prostitutions, theft,
62 robbery, beggars, house maids, child labor, and early marriage, for the sustainability of new and future generation. The government should support orphans through provision of basic needs as stipulated in the indicated in the child policy (2008). Furthermore the government should design policies and guidelines that are targeting to solve the orphan problems instead of including the children in totality.
5.4 Policy Recommendations
5.4.1 Child policy
The government should take measures to ensure child protection through educating and mobilizing parents and caregivers to understand and prioritize the implementation of child rights and policies. On the other hand protecting children from abuse and neglects is a wide community responsibility (URT, 2008). However, the policy fails to provide mechanisms that force community to be accountable in supporting OVC/MVC.
Therefore, the government should find mechanisms that could encourage the community members to supporting OVC/OVC instead of blaming the government to provide everything to orphans.
5.4.2 Education policy
Education policy (1995), states that the government has abolished school fees and that primary education shall be universal and compulsory to all children at the age of 7. But the policy fails to specify who were responsible other school contributions for the livelihood of orphans. Therefore in order to improve the livelihood of OVC/MVC, the government should put much considerations and integrating orphan vulnerable children issues when designing policies and plans
63 5.5 Conclusion
Although there are different guidelines for child right like child policy (2008) and child right (2009), National Guidelines for improving Quality of Care, Support and Protection for Most Vulnerable Children (2009) and the National Plan of Action for Most vulnerable children (2010) it seems that the community awareness is very low. Therefore, in order to have a strong future generation for the national development, the government should established/formulate mechanisms would encourage the community to support orphans and to facilitate the community to initiate income generations activities for the child development and the community at large.
5.6 Knowledge contributions
The findings of this study might lead the government and its institutions, religion institutions, civil society organization, and the community as whole, to understanding and solve the problems of orphan vulnerable children. Moreover, it could help the community to realize the importance of supporting orphans and suggest measures of improving the well being of orphan vulnerable children, as well as most vulnerable children. it will also give feedback to the policy makers especially those in the Ministry of Community
Development, Gender and Children, Ministry of Health and Social Welfares, and the community workers to deal with the related problems to the welfares of the orphans and other vulnerable children.
On the other hand, theoretically the findings have reviled that communities were not involved in the process of developing any action plans for supporting OVC/MVC. This was due to the shortcoming of administrators in following the principles of good governance in the study area. Moreover, violations against children have been more
64 practiced in the study area, specifically abandonment, child labor, forced/early marriage and female genital mutilation. This was due to the lack of the community awareness, skills and irresponsibility of community members in caring and protection of the orphans.
5.67 Limitation of the study
During the study there were some limitations which affected smooth undertaken of the exercises, these were: shortage of time and financial constraints. In addressing these limiting factors the researcher reduce the coverage of the study where one village was randomly selected from seventy seven villages.
5.8 Area for further study
At the community level it was found that there were existences of different mechanisms that were used to manage orphans issues and existences of NGOs that offered services, but orphans are rapid increasing without positive responses from the community.
Therefore, more study needed to be conducted for the effectiveness of those mechanisms and the mode of intervention used by the stakeholders to support orphans.
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69 Skinner D, Tsheko N, Mtero-Munyati S, Segwabe M, Chibatamoto P, Mfecane S, Chandiwana B, Nkomo N, Tlou S, and Chitiyo G. (2006). Towards a definition of orphanhood and vulnerable children. AIDS and Behavior, 10: 619-626. Subbarao K and Coury D, (2003). Orphan in Sub Saharan Countries. A Framework for Public Action African Region (Human Development) and Human Development Network (Social Protection), World Bank, Washington D.C Subbarao K and Coury, D. (2004). Reaching out to Africa’s orphans. A framework for public action. Africa Region Human Development Series. Washington, DC. USA, World Subbarao K., Mattimore, A. and Plangemann, K. 2001. Social protection of Africa’s orphans and other vulnerable children: Issues and good practice program options. Human Development Sector, Africa Region. Washington, DC. USA, World Bank. The World Bank 92000), World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty, Washington D.C: The World Bank. Thurman, T., Snider, L., Boris, N., Kalisa, E., Mugarira, E.N., Ntaganira, J., & Brown, L.,(2006). Psychosocial support and marginalization of youth-headed households in Rwanda. AIDS Care, 18(3): 220-229 UNAIDS (1999), UNAIDS and Non-Governmental Organizations. Geneva. UNDP (1993). The HIV epidemic as a development issue. United Nations Development Programme, quoted in Williamson (1995) UNICEF (2005) guide to monitoring and evaluation of the National response of children orphaned and made vulnerable by HIV/AIDS. New York: United Nations Children‟s Fund UNICEF (2008): Sub-Regional Workshop Report on Review and Assessment of Children affected by AIDS/Orphans and Vulnerable Children National Plans of Action, Senegal, Dakar UNICEF, (2003). Africa’s orphaned generations. New York, USA UNICEF, (2006) HUMAN RIGHT, Unite for Children, UNICEF – Tanzania UNICEF, UNAIDS, USAID, 2004. Children on the Brink 2004: A joint Report on New Orphan Estimates and a Framework for Action, Washington DC, Urassa, M., et al. (1997), Orphanhood, child fostering and the AIDS epidemic in rural Tanzania. Health Trans Rev, 7(suppl. 2):141-153.
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71 APPENDICES
APPENDEX 1:
Questionnaire for communities at household level
My name is Zaina T. Msangi, a student of Master of Arts degree in Development
Studies, at the University of Dodoma (UDOM), undertaking a research study on
Community Responsibilities in supporting Orphans in Chamwino District, Mvumi
Misheni Ward. This study is carried out in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the
MA (Development Studies). The finding of this study might lead the government and its institutions to understanding and solve the problems of the orphan vulnerable children.
1. Age of respondents
a. 18 - 22
b. 23 - 29
c. 30 - 35
d. 36 - 42
e. 43 - 49
f. 50 and above
2. Sex
a. Male
b. Female
3. Marital status
a. Married
b. Single
c. Divorced
d. Separation
e. Widow
72 f. Live together
4. Who is an orphan vulnerable children
a. Child without both parents
b. Child with single parent
c. All the above is correct.
5. What are the mechanism used to manage orphans in your village
a. village most vulnerable children committee
b. village malt sectors committee
c. village leaders
6. Who is the initiator of that mechanism
a. Own community
b. Government
c. Faith based organization
d. Non government organization
e. Government in collaboration with Non Government Organization
f. Any other specify………………………………………..
7. what are the tools used to identify orphan vulnerable children
a. Government tools
b. Nongovernmental Organization tools
c. Community tools
8. How do community identify those orphan vulnerable children
a. Through most vulnerable children committee
b. Through village committee member
c. Any other specify…………………….
9. How often the information of orphans are being updated after identified
73 a. Once per year
b. Two times per year
c. Any other specify……………………………
10. Is there any action plan for supporting orphans in your village
a. YES
b. NO
11. If YES what is the time frame for it?
a. One years
b. There years
c. Five years
12. who formulated that action plan
a. Community level
b. Village leaders
c. Ward development committee
d. District level
e. National level
f. Any other specify…………………………………………
13. As a community member, at what stage do you participate in formulation action
plan for orphans?
a. Planning
b. Implementation
c. Evaluation
74 14. What are the services offered by the community to support orphans vulnerable
children?
1. Education services
2. Health services
3. Food
4. Shelter
5. Social protection
6. Clothes
15. How often the service is offered
a. Daily
b. Monthly
c. Quarterly
d. Two times per year
e. Once per year
f. Any other specify……………………………
16. What are the strategies taken by community to ensure that the services provided are
sufficient
a. Fund Raising
b. Community contribution
c. Any other specify………………………………………..
17. What are the services provided by the government to support orphans
a. Education services
b. Health services
c. Food support
d. clothes
75 e. Social protection
a. Any other specify…………………………
18. What are other stakeholders exist to support orphans in this village
a. Non Governmental organization
b. Faith Base Organization
c. Community Base Organization
d. Influence people (politician)
e. individual
f. Any other specify………………………………………………………….
19. If you mention one of the above what are the services offered by them
a. Education service
b. Health services
c. food services
d. Shelter support
e. Clothes
f. Social Protection services
20. What are the violations against orphan in your village?
a. Female genital mutilation
b. Forced marriage/early marriage
c. Rape
d. Child labor
e. Abandoned
f. Any other specify ……………………………………
21. If you mention one among of the above, how do you help them to overcome those
problems
76 a. Through suing the offenders
b. Through caregivers guidance
c. Any other specify………………………………………
22. What are the regulations/ rules used to protect orphans in this village?
a. Traditional methods rules
b. Government guideline
c. Village by laws
23. What is your opinion concern the improvement the wellbeing of the orphans?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………......
77 APPENDEX 2:
Questionnaire for village leaders
My name is Zaina T. Msangi, a student of Master of Arts degree in Development
Studies, at the University of Dodoma (UDOM), undertaking a research study on
Community Responsibilities in supporting Orphans in Chamwino District, Mvumi
Misheni Ward. This study is carried out in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the
MA (Development Studies). The finding of this study might lead the government and its institution to understanding and solve the problems of the orphan vulnerable children.
1. Age of respondents
a. 18 - 22
b. 23 – 29
c. 30 – 35
d. 36 – 42
e. 43 – 49
f. 50 and above
2. Sex
a. Male
b. Female
3. Marital status
a. married
b. Single
c. Divorced
d. Separation
e. Widow
f. Live together
78 4. Who is an orphans
a. Child without both parents
b. Child with single parent
c. All the above
5. What are the mechanism used to manage orphans in your village
a. village most vulnerable children committee
b. village malt sectors committee
c. village leaders
6. Who is the initiator of that mechanism
a. Own community
b. Government
c. Faith based organization
d. Non government organization
e. Government in collaboration with Non Government Organization
f. Any other specify…………………………………
7. what are the tools used to identify orphan vulnerable children
a. Government tools
b. Nongovernmental Organization tools
c. Community initiatives tools
8. How do community identify those orphan
a. Through most vulnerable children committee
b. Through village committee member
c. Any other specify…………………….
9. How often the community update the information of orphans after being
identified
79 a. Once per year
b. Two times per year
c. Any other specify……………………………
10. Is there any action plan for supporting orphans in your village
a. YES
b. NO
11. who formulated that action plan
a. Community level
b. Village leaders
c. Ward development committee
d. District level
e. National level
f. Any other specify…………………………………
12. As a village leader, to what stage does the community participate in formulation
the action plan of orphans?
a. Planning
b. Implementation
c. Evaluation
13. If the action plan is there, what is the time frame for it?
a. One years
b. There years
c. Five years
14. What are the services offered by the community to support orphans vulnerable
children?
a. Education services
80 b. Health services
c. Food
d. Shelter
e. Social protection
f. Clothes
15. How often the services being offered
a. Daily
b. Monthly
c. Quarterly
d. Two times per year
e. Once per year
f. Any other specify………………………………………
16. what are the strategies taken by community to ensure offered are sufficient
a. Fund Raising
b. Go to the ward/village leaders
c. Any other specify………………………………………..
17. What are the services provided by the government support to orphans?
a. Education services
b. Health services
c. Food support
d. clothes
e. Social protection
f. shelter
18. What are other stake holder exist to support orphans in you village
a. Non Governmental organization
81 b. Faith Base Organization
c. Community Base Organization
d. Influence people/key leaders (political leaders)
e. individuals
f. Any other specify………………………………………………
19. If you mention one of the above what are the services offered
a. Education service
b. Health services
c. food services
d. Shelter support
e. Clothes
f. Social Protection services
20. What are the violations against orphan in your village?
a. Female genital mutilation
b. Forced marriage/early marriage
c. Rape
d. Child labor
e. Abandoned
f. Any other specify ………………………………………
21. If you mention one among of the above, how does community help them to
overcome those problems
a. Through suing the offenders
b. Through caregivers guidance
c. Any other specify……………………………………
22. What are the ways used by community to protect orphans in this village
82 a. Traditional l methods
b. Government guideline
c. By laws
23. What is your opinion concern the improvement the wellbeing of the orphans?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………......
......
83 APPENDEX 3:
Questionnaire for district official leaders
My name is Zaina T. Msangi, a student of Master of Arts degree in Development
Studies, at the University of Dodoma (UDOM), undertaking a research study on
Community Responsibilities in supporting Orphans in Chamwino District, Mvumi
Misheni Ward. This study is carried out in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the
MA (Development Studies). The finding of this study might lead the government and its institution to understand and solve the problems of the orphan vulnerable children.
1. Age of respondents
a. 18 - 22
b. 23 – 29
c. 30 – 35
d. 36 – 42
e. 43 – 49
f. 50 and above
2. Sex
a. Male
b. Female
3. Marital status
a. Marriage
b. Single
c. Divorced
d. Separation
e. Widow
f. Live together
84 4. What are the mechanisms used to manage orphans vulnerable issues at the village
level?
a. village most vulnerable children committee
b. village malt sectors committee
c. village leaders
5. Who is the initiator of that mechanism
a. Own community
b. Government
c. Faith based organization
d. Non government organization
e. Government in collaboration with Non Government Organization
f. Any other specify……………………………………
6. What are the tools used by the community to identify orphan vulnerable children
at the village level?
a. Government tools
b. Nongovernmental Organization tools
c. Community tools
7. How community does identify that orphan?
a. Through most vulnerable children committee
b. Through village committee member
c. Any other specify…………………….
8. How often the communities update the in formations of orphans after being
identified at the village level?
a. Once per year
b. Two times per year
85 c. Any other specify……………………………
9. Is there any action plan for supporting orphans at the village
a. YES
b. NO
10. If the action plan is there what is the time frame for it?
a. One years
b. There years
c. Five year
11. who formulated that action plan
a. Community level
b. Village leaders
c. Ward development committee
d. District level National level
e. Any other specify……………………………………
12. To what stage does the community participate in formulation of action plan of
orphans at the village level?
a. Planning
b. Implementation
c. Evaluation
13. What are the services offered by the government to support orphans vulnerable
children?
a. Education services
b. Health services
c. Food
d. Shelter
86 e. clothes
f. Social protection
14. How often the services being offered
a. Daily
b. Monthly
c. Quarterly
d. Two times per year
e. Once per year
f. Any other specify…………………………………………
15. what are the strategies taken by the government to ensure orphans are provided
sufficient services
a. Fund Raising
b. ward/village leaders
c. Any other specify………………………………………..
16. What are the services provided by the government support to orphans to
supplement community
a. Education services
b. Health services
c. Food support
d. Shelter support
e. clothes
f. Social protection
17. What are other stake holder exist to support orphans at the community level
a. Non Governmental organization
b. Faith Base Organization
87 c. Community Base Organization
d. Influence people (politician)
e. individual
f. Any
other specify………………………………………………………….
18. If you mention one of the above what are the services offered
a. Education service
b. Health services
c. food services
d. Shelter support
e. clothes
f. Social Protection services
19. What are the violations against orphan existing at the village level?
a. Female genital mutilation
b. Forced marriage/early marriage
c. Rape
d. Child labor
e. Abandoned
f. Any other specify ……………………………………
20. If you mention one among of the above, how does the community take action to
overcome those problems
a. Through suing offenders
b. Through caregivers guidance
c. Any other specify………………………………………
21. What are the laws used to protect orphans at the village level?
88 d. Traditional methods
e. Government laws
f. By laws
22. What is your opinion concern the improvement the wellbeing of the orphans?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………......
89