Medieval Settlement at Panakton I49

HESPERIA 72 (2003) A LATE MEDIEVAL PagesI47-234 SETTLEMENTAT PANA KTO N

AB STRACT

Excavationsin 1991 and 1992 partiallyuncovered the remainsof the late medievalvillage that overliesthe ruinsof ancientPanakton. Dated to the 14thand early 15th century, the settlementwas built and occupied at a time in whichcentral Greece was ruledby competingWestern powers; both the identityof the residentsand the medievalname of the villageremain open questions.This reportpresents the domesticstructures excavated to date,as wellas the ceramics,coins, and tools associated with rural life andthe agrar- ianeconomy. The reportalso discusses the village's central church, its carved andpainted decoration, and the burialsthat surrounded it.

INTRODUCTION

Panaktonis locatedabove the villageof Prasinoon a summitofthe Parnes- Kithaironridgeline, midway between Athens and Thebes (Figs. 1, 2).1 Dominatedby the higherpeaks of Parnesto the east and Kithaironto the west,Panakton commands wide views to the north and south and is conspicuousfrom manydirections. Athens, Megara, and Thebes arehid- denbehind intervening ridges, but fromthe ruinedmedieval tower at the

1. This report representsthe work MachielKiel. We thankDavid Jacoby VasilisAravantinos, and Konstantinos ofseveral individuals.The firstfour andAmy Papalexandrou for comment- Sarris,in particular,for their collabo- sections (Introduction,Site Survey, ingon an earlydraft of this article.We rationand support throughout the Excavation Methodology,and Domes- aregrateful to the Hesperiareviewers courseof excavationand study. The ticArchitecture) andthe last(Histori- fortheir thorough and insightful com- projectwas directed by Munn,assisted cal Summary)were coauthored by ments.We alsowish to thankall of byGerstel, Patrick Thomas, Mary SharonE. J. Gersteland Mark Munn; thosenamed in the Acknowledgments LouZimmerman Munn, and Carl Gerstelis alsoresponsible for the atthe end of this article. Lipo.A list of otherstaff members discussion of the centralchurch, the The excavationswere undertaken in andexcavators is providedin the ceramicfinds, and Appendix 1. The collaborationwith the FirstEphoreia of Acknowledgments. remaining sectionsare by HeatherE. ByzantineAntiquities and the Ninth Unlessotherwise noted, all Grossman(Architectural Sculpture) Ephoreiaof Classicaland Prehistoric illustrationsare from the project andEthne Barnes and Arthur H. Rohn Antiquities.We thankthe directorsof archives. (MedievalBurials); Appendix 2 is by bothephorates, and Charis Koilakou,

American School of Classical Studies at Athens is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to Hesperia ® www.jstor.org I48 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

Figure1. View of Panakton(center, on honzon) from Skourta summitof Panakton(elevation 714 masl;Fig. 3), stretchesof the main routesbetween these centers are in clearview. The site is alsosituated betweentwo importantByzantine monasteries. Hosios Meletios can be seenon the lowerslopes of Kithaironjust over4 km to the west.The churchnow dedicated to theVirgin, Zoodochos Pege,2 once the katholikon 2. It is nowgenerally accepted that of a largemonastery affiliated with HosiosMeletios, is locatedon the the monasteryshould be identifiedas northface of a ridgebounding the SkourtaPlain.3 The plain(average thatof the Motherof God,mentioned elevation530 masl)extends north and east from the foot of Panakton. in the Life of St. Meletios.See Bouras In the MiddleByzantine period, its principalsettlements were located at 1993-1994,p.34. 3. Orlandos1935. Loukisianear Prasino and at AyiosNikolaos and Ayios Georgios near 4. Munnand Zimmerman Munn modernSkourta.4The five modern settlements in thisupland basin, known 1990,pp.38-39. as the Dervenochoria,"villages guarding the passes,"include Pyli (for- 5. Koderand Hild 1976,p. 96. For merlyDerveno Salesi or Salesat),Skourta, Stephani (formerly Krora), the modernhistory of thevillages, see Panakto(formerly Kako Niskiri), and Prasino (formerly Kavasala).5 These Tsevas1928, pp.380-384. For the role of the Dervenochoriain theTurkish villages,built in the Turkishperiod, flanked an ancientand medieval acbmlnlstratlon . . . otP t ne reglon,. see routethat passed through the mountains and connected Attica with Boe- Giannopoulos1971, pp. 141-146.See otia.Early travelers to theregion followed the same route. Although they alsoAppendix 2. left vividaccounts of the plain'sresidents, agricultural features, and do- 6. Wheler1682, pp.333-334; mesticarchitecture, their descriptions provide little information about its Chandler1776, p. 174;Hobhouse 1813,pp.285-286; Gell 1819,pp.50 antiquities.6 56;Dodwell 1819, pp.51-52; Leake The identificationof the archaeologicalruins on this hilltop,most 1835,pp.369-370. notablythe ancientfortification walls, has been of interestto scholarsof 7. Thuc.5.3.5,18.7,39.2-3;5.42. ancientGreek history; it is nowgenerally agreed that these remains mark Forthe identificationof the site as thesite of Panakton,a Classical garrison fortress first mentioned byThu- Panakton,see Vanderpool1978. cydides.7The investigationof the Classicaland Early Hellenistic phases 8. Munn1996. 9. Laiou-Thomadakis1977. of Panaktonpromises to yieldinformation about the construction,popu- 10. Historiansand art historians lation,and function of Attic borderfortresses.8 Of no less importance, havepreviously studied questions of however,are the site's late medieval remains, the houses and small chapels identityof localpopulations under of an agrarianvillage. While medievalsettlements of this typeare well foreignrule in the medievalMediter- attestedin writtensources,9 the physicalremains of actualvillages have ranean.The Panaktonremains provide yetto befillly explored. Panakton's location within territories held byWest- the opportunityto investigatethe dynamicsof relationshipsbetween the ernrulers makes its investigationparticularly interesting and raises ques- indigenous,Orthodox population and tions aboutthe dailylives of Byzantinepeasants, now underforeign Westernrulers in an archaeological overlordship.l° context. Figure 2. Northwest Ataca and t 2 t f s -rf - \ ' <-- . ;.'Ef <

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I49

southeastBoeotia with modern | | 2 < ov < townsand late me&eval sites around o 1ll 20 kg | ",-\__-v- theSkourtaPlain 1lilSlilililillXlililililililililililililililillilllulililililil i 11) '< --;'¢;

The excavationof medievalPanakton provides a wealthof material forthe study of medievalvillages in general.Finds from the central church offerinformation about the paintingand furnishing of a smallreligious structureas well as materials for the analysis of skeletalremains and burial practicesat the village level.The study of sculptureused to adornthe build- ingreveals close connections with the work of artisansalso responsible for the 12th-centurydecoration of the nearbymonastery of HosiosMeletios andits metochia(monastic dependency) and suggests filrther avenues for theinvestigation of regionalworkshopsand the secondaryuse of ecclesias- ticalcarving. Analysis of Panakton'sceramics raises questions about the distributionof functionalwares as well as the location of a regionalwork- shopthat produced most ofthe vessels on site.The excavation ofthe village's housesyields information about domestic architecture and daily life in the late medievalperiod for a segmentof societythat has left virtuallyno writtenrecords. Twoyears of investigationhave revealed a short-livedsettlement de- pendenton agriculturalproduction.The hardship of dailylifeis evidenced by stressmarks permanently impressed on the bonesof both men and womenburied in andaround the church.That the villagers were engaged in cultivationis revealedin theagricultural tools, such as a plowshare(24), andlarge storage vessels that were found within domestic contexts (18, 19).The absenceof costlyarticles of personaladornment or numerous importedceramic vessels suggests that the economiclevel of the inhabit- antswas not high.The finestglazed vessels and most precious metal ob- jectswere associated with the church;simple sgrafflto bowls and plain waressufflced for the home.Although the precise identity of thevillagers ISO S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

Figure3. Panakton:medieval tower andthe medievalname of Panaktonremain open questions, we propose that the inhabitantsof the settlementwere Orthodox. Their religious identityis manifestedin findsrecovered in the church,including a pos- sibleasterisk (63) and a largesection of a templonepistyle (71). The resi- dentsremembered their Byzantine past through their reuse of sculpture carvedduring imperial control of theregion and through the possession of Byzantinecoins, long out of circulation,one of thempierced for suspension (seeAppendix 1). We suggest,on the basisof textualsources, that Panaktonin thelate medieval period was held by a foreignlandlord, in the mannerdescribed in Catalandocuments for other agrarian settlements in thisregion during this period, and that the prominent tower that crowned the settlementproclaimed land ownership and demonstrated a readiness to defendterritory.

SITE SURVEY

The toweron the summitof Panaktonhas long been a conspicuousland- mark(Fig. 3). Due to its prominence,the sitewas occasionally noticed in 11. Gell 1819,p. 55. passingby travelers ofthe 18thand early l9th centuries,but it seemsnever 12. Skourtais not yet mentioned to havebeen visited by them. Typical are the notesmade by William Gell in 1540and 1570 but doesappear uponhis arrival at Pyli (called by him "Kako Sialesi") on hisitinerary from in the 1642poll tax register. For the Athensto Thebesin 1805:"The plain or valley of KakoSialesi is situated periodbetween 1570 and 1642, no Ottomanrecords for Boeotia have yet upona steepof Mt. Parnes,at a considerableelevation above the valley of beenidentified. the Asopus.There are several villages near it, suchas Kabasabati[i.e., 13. Svoronos(1959, p. 55) sug- Kavasala],with its castleon a hill.''llThe nameof this"castle" seems to gestedthat the villageof Pileana,which havebeen forgotten; there is presentlyno reasonto believethat it shared is mentionedin the late-llth- or early- thename of thevillage, Kavasala (now Prasino), that was later established 12th-centuryCadaster of Thebes, at its foot.The earliestmention of anyof the present-dayvillages in the shouldperhaps be ident;fiedas modern-dayPyli. This identificationcannot Dervenochoria,Derveno Salesi, is in an Ottomanregister of 1521.12To be provenwith anycertainty and results date,we havefound no descriptionin Ottomanor earlier sources of a vil- of archaeologicalsurvey in the areado lagein the regionthat fits the characteristicsof medieval Panakton.l3 not supporthabitation in thisperiod. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I5I

F igure4. Myli:medieval tower

Earlytravelers paid closer attention to themedieval tower that stood on therocky crest above the pass at Pyli,directly across the plain (Fig. 4). Writingof histrip in 1805,Edward Dodwell provides the fullest descrip- tion:"Above the village[Kakasialesi] is a ruinedtower on a rock,in a strongposition, and evidently erected to guardthe pass. It is apparentlyof Venetianconstruction; and there are not tracesof antiquity,except at the footofthe hill,where some foundations of walls,composed of largerough blocks,indicate, perhaps, one of the ancientAttic forts.''14 A more accu- ratedating of the Pylitower and the medievalremains at Panaktonwas not establisheduntil these and other medieval sites in the vicinitywere 14. Dodwell1819, p.51. See also the noticeby Gell 1819,p.55: "The studiedin thecourse of intensivearchaeological survey conducted between towerand pass of KakoSialesi toward 1985and 1989.15 Thebes.There are no positivevestiges Surveyon the siteof the Pylitower discovered a single Venetian tor- of remoteantiquity on this spot,but it neselloof GiovanniDolfin (1356-1361),16 as wellas late medieval sherds hasbeen fortified by walls, as well as fromglazed bowls and cooking wares, which were identical in fabricand by the tower,yet visible." decorationto vesselssubsequently excavated at Panakton.17Survey on the 15.Munn 1989, pp.232-235; Munnand Zimmerman Munn 1989, site of Panaktonrecovered numerous late medievalsherds. These frag- 1990.The cataloguesof medievaltow- mentsincluded a glazedbowl decorated with incisedconcentric circles ersin Atticaand Boeotia presented in andthe raisedbases of late medievalfine warevessels. A torneselloof Lock1986 and Langdon 1995 do not TomasoMocenigo (1414-1423)18 was found in thefields below the site.19 includethe Pylitower. Lock (p. 118) After analyzingpottery recovered from the summitof Panakton,the reportsthe towerat Panaktonsolely on the basisof its noticeby scholarsof surveyorsconcluded: "the homogeneity of the potteryat Panaktonsug- classicaltopography. geststhat the medievaloccupation there can be placedin the laterfour- 16. Papadopoli1893, p. 197,no. 4. teenthand fifteenth century, probably not lasting very long into the period 17.Munn and Zimmerman Munn of Turkishrule."20 Two seasons of excavationconfirmed and refined the 1989,pp. 118-120,cat. nos.137-143, surveyfindings: the medievalphases of Panaktonlasted for littlemore pls.XI, XII,XXXtV, XXXV. thana century,beginning in theearly 1300s and ending before the Turkish 18. Papadopoli1893, p.253, no. 9. 19.Munn and Zimmerman Munn period. 1989,pp. 119-120. Unlikethe slighttrace of ruinsof lessthan a quarterhectare around 20. Munn1989, p.235. thePyli tower, the site extending downslope from the tower at Panakton is I52 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

o 20m ' 11 Figure5.SsteplanofPanaktonwith _ _ X _/ 10 medievalfeatures. Contour interval lm. muchmore substantial. An areaof approximatelya hectare bounded by tracesof Classicalfortification walls slopes gradually to thesouth from the summit(Fig. 5). Within this area, on a seriesof moreor less level terraces runningeast-west, are substantial rums of domesticand public structures. The evidenceof reusedClassical masonry and the abundanceof prehistoric,Classical, and Hellenlstic sherds on the sitedemonstrate that it has beenan attractiveplace for settlementat severalperiods in the past.Its commandingeriew,natural defensibility, and the availability of waterfrom a perennialspring halfway from the summitto the plainon thewest side haveclearly recommended the sitewhenever a communityof a fewhun- dredindinduals required a secure residence in thisarea. By the evidence of survey,confirmed by excavation,the lasttime that the sitewas inhabited wasin thelate medieval period. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I53

The similarityof the findsbetween Panakton and Pyli and the com- parableconstruction of theirtowers suggest that the sites arecontem- poraryand perhaps even related. The towers are intervisible, and each com- mandsa viewof the immediateapproaches to the SkourtaPlain on one side,suggesting their combined utility for warning the inhabitantsof the plainof approachingdangers. In thisand other respects, these are typical of medievaltowers found throughout Attica and Boeotia.21 The Panakton toweris nearlysquare in plan,measuring 6.64 x 6.69 m with a wall thicknessof 1.40m. Dressed blocks, reused ancient masonry, reinforce the cornersofthe structure;the walls are composed of localstones set in fairly regularcourses. On occasion,brick splints level out the stone courses. The Pylitower is constructedin a similarfashion. Both towers are now dimin- ishedin sizedue to erosion.Local residents recall that the Panakton tower oncehad a lower,vaulted chamber; these reports have yet to be verified throughexcavation of the heavyrubble fall now surrounding the baseof the tower.Future investigation of the towermay clarifyits original filnction.

EXCAVATION METHOD OLOGY

In thesummers of 1991and 1992 excavations were conducted for the first timeat Panakton.The study ofthe findsfrom this first program of excava- tionwas completed in thesummer of 1999.This report presents a detailed overviewof the medievalremains excavated thus far.22 Following a brief introductionto theexcavation methodology, we discussthe site's architec- turalremains, as well as ceramic,metal, and glass finds. Reports on the architecturalsculpture and the medieval cemetery follow discussion of the site'scentral church.23 Medieval coins found on siteare catalogued in Ap- pendix1. Appendix2 presentsinformation from Ottoman archives on settlementsin theplain during the Turkish period. The principalobjective of the 1991season was to obtaina sampleof stratigraphyacross the site in orderto establishthe spatialand deposi- tionaldistribution of theremains of thevarious periods revealed by survey. To thisend, it wasdetermined that a seriesof 1 x 2 m testtrenches would be placedsystematically across the site and excavated to bedrock.The site is naturallyaligned very close to the cardinalpoints of the compass,with the longitudinalaxis of severalbuildings aligned east-west with the ter- racesand with cross walls running north-south with the slope. In orderto minimizethe chancesof excavatingtest trenches that paralleled walls but did not crossthem, it was decidedthat test trenchesshould not follow thisalignment.Therefore, a reference grid of 20-msquares (designated by alphanumericcoordinates as indicatedin Fig. 5) was establishedacross thesite, anchored at the survey pin atop the concrete column on thetower

21. SeeLock 1986, where these remains,see Gerstel 1996. towersresemble his common type B, 23.The prehistoric and Classical p. 105;see also Langdon 1995. phasesof thesite uZill be published 22.For preliminary analysis of these separately. I54 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. atthe top ofthe site, and rotated clockwise 20 degreesfrom compass north.24 Withinevery 20-m squarethe same5-m squarewas designated for sam- pling,25and the 1 x 2 m testtrench was selected for excavation within this square.Following this method, seventeen test trenches were opened, thir- teenof whichwere excavated to bedrockat depthsranging from 0.10 to 2.60 m belowpresent ground surface.26 All testsproduced medieval tiles andsherds in theiruppermost strata; four revealed nothing but medieval depositionto a depthof asmuch as 0.75 m to bedrock;27nine encountered remainsof wallsthat stood in the medievalperiod.28 These findings con- firmthe impression given by surface sherds and rubble piles that the entire areawithin the circuit of theruined ancient walls was once filled with the buildings,yards, and intervening paths of a medievalvillage. Beginningin 1991 andcontinuing in 1992,some of the mostcon- spicuoussurface remains were cleared of overlyingrubble and excavated. A magnetometrysurvey revealed a strongmagnetic anomaly at one point, andthis too was excavated (House III in Fig.5). The twoseasons of work uncoveredtwo churches,three complete houses, walls from additional houses,and portions of the settlement'scemetery.

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

Mostof the remainson site canbe identifiedas smallhouses. Based on surfacesurvey of rubbleremains and systematic test trenches, we estimate that at leastthirty houses once stoodwithin the circuitdefined by the ruinsof the ancientfortifications. There is no clearindication that a con- tinuouswall was erectedaround the medievalsettlement, although the wallsof housesconstructed on theedges of theterrace may have created a barrier.29The Panaktonhouses provide important, well-dated material for thestudy of domesticarchitecture in medieval Greece.30 Divided into elon- gatedplans and square plans centered on a courtyard,the houses are con- structedof localstones andwere originallyroofedwith ceramic tiles. Floors

24. The datumpoint on the survey weredictated by the presenceof built M10-6, andM11-2 beforebedrock was columnis markedas elevation713.852. featuresor steepdeclivity. Within these reached. This pointwas designated N(orth) squares,1 x 2 m test trencheswere 27.The followingtrenches had only 1000/E(ast)1000 m on oursurvey grid, placedin the southeastcorner. Adjust- medievaldeposition: H9-6, I7-6, I9-6, andmarks the southwestcorner of the mentswere made in caseswhere the J9-6. 20-m squareF8, so that,for example, presenceof featuresor bedrockpre- 28. The followingtest trenches the southwestcorner of 20-m square ventedexcavation. This testingproce- containedmedieval walls: I9-6, I10-6, K8 is pointN 900/E 1000.Additional durewas discontinued after the first Ill-lO,J10-6, K8-6,K9-6, K10-6, datumpoints were established by season;these squares yielded a consis- L10-6,M11-2. pinsset in concreteat N 929.279/E tent stratigraphicsample. 29.The Classicalcircuit wall was 1040.565(datum 1), andN 908.392/E 26.The following1 x 2 m test originallymade up of mudbricks above 1010.717(datum 2). trenches(a few enlargedto 2 x 2 m) a stonesocle, and therefore existed as 25. Five-metersquares are num- wereexcavated: H9-6, I7-6, I9-6, no morethan a foundationin the late bered1-16, westto eastbeginning I10-6,Ill-lO,J9-6,J10-6,J11-6, medievalperiod. fromthe northwestcorner. For even K8-6,K9-6, K10-6, K11-6, L9-6, 30. See Coleman1986, pp. 141- spatialdistribution of samplingunits, L10-6,L11-6, M10-6, M11-2. Depo- 149,for the excavationof a 12th- or we arbitrarilyinvestigated square 6 in sitionwas generally deeper downslope. 13th-centuryhouse with similarcon- every20-m square.Two exceptions Excavationceased in K8-6,L9-6, structionfeatures. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I55

weremade of packedearth and clay. Due to thedensity of rubblefill from collapsedhouse walls, doorvvays are occasionally difficult to identify.Among thoseexcavated so far,there is no evidencethat any house had more than a singlestory. Bothmedieval and early modern houses in this regionare generally modestin sizeand bereft of amenities.JohnHobhouse, who spent Christ- maseve of 1809in Skourta,described his experienceof a houseas "the worsthovel of whichwe hadever been inmates. The cowsand pigs occu- piedthe lowerpart of the chamber,where there were racks and mangers andother appurtenances of a stable,and we wereput in possessionof the upperquarter. We were almost suffocated with the smoke,a commonca- lamityin Greekcottages, in whichthe fire is generallymade in themiddle oftheroom, and the roof, having no aperture,was coveredwith large flakes of soot,that sometimes showered upon us duringthe night.''3lHobhouse describesa small,single-storied long housewith a singleroom divided intotwo sections by a changeof floorlevel. JohnSibthorp offered a first-handdescription of thesame house type basedon anovernight stay in thenearby village of Koundouraon Novem- ber16, 1794: "The houses, covered with pan tiles, consist of a singleroom, witha door-wayin the middle;the areais dividedinto two parts, the one servesfor the stable, the other, which rises a foothigher, is tenantedby the peasantand his family;in the centeris a fire-place,the smokepassing throughapertures made in the roo£"32Many of the traditionalhouses in theDervenochoria are built according to thissimple plan, which was popu- laruntil the beginning of the20th century in Greece.33In thesingle-story, elongatedhouses in the region,the livingquarters of the familyand the stablesfor animalsformed part of a continuousarchitectural shell; indi- vidualrooms were divided by a narrowcross wall and accessed by separate doorvvays.34Chimneys are located at the centerof the shortwalls of the houses.Familiarity with thesetraditional houses and the livingarrange- mentsof thefamily clarifies certain aspects of thehouses of medievalPan- akton.For example,both the late medievaland earlymodern houses havetwo connected but discrete spaces, one for human habitation, and the otherfor animalsor storage.Also, terracotta smoke holes were found in the courseof excavationimmediately outside the housesin the midstof walland roof debris (see below, Figs. 11, 25).Their discovery, seemingly disassociatedfrom hearths, may signal that they wereonce locatedat the edgesof the roofs,at the top of a wall,as arechimneys on the early modernhouses.

HOUSEI (SQUAREJ10) HouseI, consistingof tworooms on a north-southaxis, lies parallel to the westwall of the church(Figs. 6, 7).The entirestructure measures 13.8 m 31. Hobhouse1813, p. 285. fromnorth to southand has a width ranging from 4.8 to 5.0 m.The south 32.J. Sibthorp,in Walpole1817, roomwas the first to be builtand a slightlysmaller room was added to the

P 33. Demetsantou-Kremeze1988 north.An additionalwall, which descends from the southeastcorner of pp.22>233, pls.31-38. the houseand runs parallel to the westwall of the church,may have de- 34. Stedman1996. finedthe house'scourtyard and may have also served to isolatedomestic S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. I56 MUNN, ET AL.

Figure6. HouseI: plan activitiesfrom those of the adjacentecclesiastical structure and its sur- roundinggraveyard. A surfaceof packedearth with gravel to the westof thehouse may have formed a paththat ran on a north-southline, con- nectingthe lower levels of the settlementto the tower(Fig. 5). The lower,southern room, with an internal dimension of 6.0x 3.3 m, waspartially excavated in 1991;a testtrench (J10-6) dug on the eastside ofthe roomdisturbed the line of thewall.35 The walls of the southroom, 0.75m thick,are constructed of rubblemasonry with brick splints used to evenout courses of localstone. The entranceto theroom lies on thesouth sideand has smooth jambs. The northwall is bowedslightly inward, per- hapsdue to pressureexerted by the abuttingeast wall of the northroom. The1991 test trench showed a depositionalpattern that is commonto all ofthe medievalbuildings excavated to date:a thicklayer of largebuilding stones(approximately 0.30 m) coversa layerof rooftiles (approximately 0.20m). Belowthe tile layeris a shallowlevel of fill overpacked earth, whichrepresents the medieval floor. The floor level rests directly on a layer ofHellenistic roof tiles. A singlemedieval coin, a deniertournois,36 was recoveredin the tilelayer of thistrench and suggests a 14th-centurydate 35. In 1992,debris covering the roof forthe house's occupation (see Appendix 1). Unfortunately, the coin is not tiles,including a largenumber of stones whollylegible and cannot therefore provide a morerefined date. Given fromthe fallenwalls of the house,was removedin preparation for therelativelysmall size ofthe testtrench (2 x2 m),a surprisingnumber of excavation smallfinds were withinthis room. recoveredbelow the tile layer,that is, at the levelof the 36. Inv.no. 1991-16. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I57

Figure7. HouseI: view from south

floor.Complete nails and nail fragments were found in the tile leveland werealso associated with the floorsurface of the southroom.37 The re- mainingitems can be associatedwith domestic and agricultural activities: a knifewith a bonehandle, a sectionof a beltbuckle, a plowshare,and an equineshoe (23-26). The upper,north room, measuring 5.4 x 3.5 m on the interior,was completelyexcavated in 1992.The walls of thisroom are not bonded with thoseofthe south room. The stratigraphy matched the pattern established in otherdomestic deposits on site.Large stones that once formed the walls ofthehouse layover a thickstratumof rooftiles,excavated as stratigraphic units(SU) 111, 118, and 129. The highestconcentration of tileswas col- lectedin the northeastcorner of the room,demonstrating that the roof collapsedfirst in this sectionand that tiles subsequentlyslid into the building'sinterior. The entranceto the roomis locatedat thewest end of the southwall where a Classical,inscribed stone formed a flatthreshold. The blockwas placed with the inscriptionside up but turnedsideways; bothedges of the inscriptionwere worn by tread marks. The definingfeature ofthe northroom is thestriated bedrock, which runsdiagonally through the upperhalf of the room,creating an uneven andprotruding surface. In the northeastcorner, the bedrockforms the foundationfor the wall; the remaining walls appear to be builtdirectly on the soil.In the lowerhalf of the room,to the southof the bedrock,the flooris formedof earthmixed with small pebbles. A numberof ceramicvessels (7-19), primarily cooking wares and large, coarsepots intended for storage, were recovered from the level below the 37. Nails,or nailfragments, from rooftiles, i.e., resting on the floorsurface. These finds, particularly in the thisroom are inventoried as 1991-21, southeastcorner ofthe room,occur in unit133. Units 126 and 131 define 1991-60,1991-68,1991-72,1991-99, 1991-101,1991-110,1991-647, anindentation within the bedrock along the room's east wall. This natural 1991-648,1991-657,1991-681, indentationmay have served as a storageniche. Six iron nails were discov- 1991-682. eredbelow the tile layerin this cornerof the room,suggesting, together I58 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. withthe largenumber of pots,the constructionof a storageshelf or the attachmentof metalpegs for suspension.38 Most ofthe pottery from sealed layerswas found in the southernhalf of theroom, i.e., to thesouth of the protrudingbedrock. Fragments of cookingpots (10, 13)were also recoveredin unit129, the tightlypacked soil within the bedrock in the room's northhalf. This unit contained a high concentration ofbarley grains, which mayindicate that the upperpart of the room,with its protrudingfloor surface,was used as a storagebin.39 The recoveryof numerousfragments of cookingpots, mixing bowls, and storage vessels suggests that this room wasused to housestaples for domestic use. A singlecoin helps to situatethe pottery found within this room chro- nologically:a Venetian soldino nuovo minted under the dogeFrancesco Dandolo(1329-1339) was found immediately adjacent to theexterior face of thelowest course of theeast wall, within a levelof earththat had accu- mulatedagainst the foundation(see Appendix1).4° Althoughthe coin doesnot provide a securedate for the construction ofthe room,the period of the coin'scirculation is coevalwith the use of theroom and the pottery foundwithin it.

P O T T E R Y 1 1999-4:Bowl Fig.8 Fromtile layerof northroom (SU 120). Est. Diam.0.19 m. Rim fragmentof thin-walledbowl. Smooth,pink fabric(7.5YR 7/4). Yellowglaze overwhite slip on interior;white slip aroundrim on exterior.Incised grooves below lip and rim on interior;incised wavy line on uppersurface of rim. For a possiblebase fragmentfrom the samevessel, see 3.

2 1999-28:Bowl Fig.8 Fromfloor deposit in the southeastcorner of northroom (SU 133).P.H. 0.045,est. Diam.0.145 m. Fivejoining fragments of vertical,tapered rim and upperbody. Hard-fired fabric with redcore (2.5YR 6/8). Monochromebrown glaze(7.5YR 5/8) coatinginterior and exterior surfaces. Glaze thicker at lip. Cf. Williamsand Zervos 1994 p. 34 no. 48 pl. 8. Fora baseof a similar 38.The nalls are lnventorled as vessel,see 43. 1992-235(SU 111); 1992-320 (SU 131);1992-321 (SU 131); 1992-327 3 1992-217:Bowl Fig.8 (SU133); 1992-328 (SU 133); 1992- Fromwall debris immediately below surface in northroom (SU 103) PH 390(SU 131). Additional nails found 0.05, Diam.of foot 0.055 m. High ringfoot andlower body. Hard-fired, pink in thecourse of excavatingthis room (5YR7/3) fabric with small grit inclusions.Traces oftwo tripod marks on interior. 1992159, 1992160, 1992 178, 1992 Yellowglaze over white slip on interior;small trace of glazeon exterior.Interior 240. incisedwith spiral composed of fivecircling lines at joint of bodyand base. 39.Barley grains were identified Basesfrom similar vessels also recovered in SU 113,117, and 119 arecata- throughseed flotation in units111, loguedas 1999-11,1999-12, and 1999-15. For a possiblerim profile, see 1. 129,and 131.These units immediately overliebedrock, where prehistoric 4 1992-420:Juglet Fig.8 depositsoften occur on the site. Fragmentsof glassand sherds from Fromfloor deposlt below roof ales ln northroom- ' found ln lndentatonln medlevalcoarse wares were also found bedrock(SU 126).P.H. 0.097 Diam.of base0.057 m. Two joining fragments of ln theseunlts, as were Flnal Neollthlc baseand lower body with handle attachment. Moderately coarse, reddish-yellow sherds.Ottoman tax registers record (5YR7/6) fabricwith gray and white grit inclusions. Upper body painted with barleyas a majorcrop grown in the whiteslip with traces of greenleaf(?) outlined in darkbrown glaze; lower body and plain(see Appendix 2). interiorcovered in clearglaze. 40.Inv. no. 1992-197. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON IS9

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Figure8. House I: fine wares(19). Scale 1:2 Handle from similarjuglet cataloguedas 1999-36. Cf. Armstrong1989, p. 20, no. 49, for an exampleof a slightlylarger jug with similardecoration dated to the 13th century.

5 1992-301:Mixing bowl Fig. 9 From tile layerin north room (SU 111). P.H. 0.128, Diam. at base 0.115, Diam. at rim 0.359 m. Thirteen fragmentsof base, wall, and horizontalrim forming complete profile.Coarse, reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith black andwhite grits.Attachment for wide, vertical handle at rim andbody (0.07 m below rim).Deep green,mottled glaze on interiorand on portionsof uppersurface of rim. For a similarbowl, though smaller and with a differentrim, see 27.

6 1999-l9:Bowl Fig.9 Fromwall debrisimmediately below surfacein north room (SU 103). P.H. 0.052, est. Diam. 0.24 m. Single fragmentof verticalrim with incurvinglip and upperbody. Moderately coarse, reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith sandyinclusions. Ridge on exteriorat join of rim andbody. Similarfragment found in surveyof Pylitower: Munn and Zimmerman Munn 1989, no.142. Cf. Sanders1993, no.53, for an early-13th-centuryexample from Sparta.

7 1999-53:Mixing bowl(?) Fig. 9 Fromfloor deposit below rooftiles in northroom, southeast corner (SU 133). P.H. 0.035, Diam. at base 0.11 m. Single fragmentfrom thick ring base.Gritty, reddish-yellow(7.5YR 6/6) fabricwith fine white inclusions. V X F -@ e J -

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Figure9(oppositeJ. HouseI:plain 8 1992-421:Cookingpot Fig.9 waresandcookingwares(5-13). Fromfloor depositbelow tiles in northroom; indentation in bedrock Scale 1:3 (Su 111, 126,131).P.H.0.12, Diam.0.14, W. of handle0.029 m. Fourteenjoin- ingfragments of rim,upper body, handle. Gritty, reddish-yellow (7.5YR 7/6) fabricwith black and white inclusions. Thickened, upturned rim with inner resting ledge.Wide handlewith groove on uppersurface attached 0.021 m belowrim. Exteriorsurface burned gray to blackat base.

9 1999-51:Cooking pot Fig.9 Fromtile layer in northroom (SU 111).Est. Diam.0.20 m. Singlefragment of slightlyeverted nm with innerresting ledge. Gritty, reddish-yellow (7.SYR 7/6) fabricwith dark orange, black, and white inclusions. Wide handle (0.037 m) withgroove on uppersurface.

10 1999-58:Cooking pot Fig.9 Fromtile layerin northpart of northroom (SU 129).P.H. 0.032, Diam. 0.19 m.Three joining fragments broken below rim. Gritty, reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) fabricwith small pitting and black and white inclusions. C£ 30. Similarfragment found in surveyof Pylitower: Munn and Zimmer- manMunn 1989, no.141.

11 1999-29:Cooking pot Fig.9 Fromtile layer in northroom and deposit under tiles in southeastcorner of northroom (SU 111, 133).P.H. 0.039, Diam. 0.175 m. Fivefragments of elongatedvertical rim with slightly inturned lip. Grittyfabric with black and white inclusions.Broken at join of rimand shoulder. Burned over exterior surface.

12 1999-31:Cooking pot Fig.9 Fromtile layerin northroom (SU 111).P.H. 0.078, Diam. 0.13 m. Single fragmentof vertical rim and upper body. Gritty, reddish-yellow (7.5YR 6/6) fabric withblack and white sandy inclusions. Horizontal ridges on exteriorsurface belowrim. See31 forthe samerim profile on a slightlylarger vessel.

13 1999-30:Cooking pot Fig.9 Fromtile layer in northpart of northroom (SU 111,129)and deposit under tile layerin indentationin bedrock(SU 126).P.H. 0.031, Diam. 0.137 m. Six fragmentsof nmbroken above join to body.Gritty, reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) fabricwith fine white inclusions. Groove under lip on interior.

14 1999-35:Closed vessel Fig.10 Fromtile layer in northroom (SU 111) and deposit under tile layer in indentationin bedrock(SU 126). P.H. 0.084, Diam. of base0.089 m. Five joining fragmentsof flatbase and lower body. Gritty, reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith micaceousinclusions. Fragmentof similarbase from SU 111inventoried as 1999-38.

15 1999-33:Cooking pot Fig.10 Fromtile layer in northroom (SU 111,118)and deposit below tile layer in southeastcorner of room(SU 133).P.H. 0.019, Diam. of base0.10 m. Seven t o E S w

S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. I62

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161999-57:Pitcher Fig.10 Fromtile layerin north room (SU 111). P.H. 0.055 m. Fragmentof trefoil rimand upperneck. Coarse,reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) fabricwith gritty sions.Incised, inclu- decorativeband on upperneck 0.018 m belowrim.

171999-49: Storagepot Fig.10 Fromtile layerin northroom (SU 111), depositbelow tiles in indentationin bedrock(SU 131) andsoutheast corner(SU 133). P.H.0.126, Diam. at rim0.087, W.ofhandle 0.038 m. Four fragmentsof verticalrim and complete handle. reddish-yellow Coarse, (7.5YR7/6) fabricwith fine white inclusions.

181999-80: Amphora Fig.10 Fromtile layerin northroom (SU 111);deposit below tiles in indentationin bedrock(SU 126). P.H.0.17, Diam. of rim 0.08, W. of handle0.07 m. Nineteen joiningfragments of rim, shoulder,and two handles.Thick straphandle rises A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I63

verticallyfrom shoulder and attachesto upperbody. Coarse, reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith white and deep orangegrits. Traces of burningon exteriorrim andshoulder. Incised wavy decoration on shoulder;horizontal grooves on exterior of body.Rib on neck.

19 1992-306:Pithos Fig. ll Fromtile layerin northroom (SU 111) anddeposit below tiles in indentation in bedrock(SU 126). H.0.86, Diam. at base 0.475, Diam. at rim 0.475, interior Diam. of restingledge 0.37 m. Many fragmentsyielding nearly complete storage jar.Flat base. Inwardand outwardthickened rim, interiorresting ledge for lid. Broadstrap handle attached at rim.Coarse, reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith largestone inclusionsand deep pitting.Smoothed surface on exterior,rough sur- faceon interiorwith fingersmoothing over joins between built sections. Two wavy lines incisedbetween three grooves on the shoulder. A slightlysmaller pithos of similartype and fabricwas excavatedby Cha- ris Koilakouat Akraiphnionin 1998. Koilakoudates the pithos to the end of the 12th or beginningof the 13th century.4

TILESAND SMOKE HOLES 20 1999-17: Smokehole Fig. ll Fromwall debrisin northroom (SU 103). P.L.0.23, W. fromrim to smoke hole 0.155, H. of flange 0.11 m. Single fragmentpreserving complete profile. Coarse,reddish-yellow fabric (7.5YR 6/6) with stone inclusionsand pitting on surfaces.Finger impressions around exterior in continuousrows. Forother examples, see 38,39.

21 1999-6: Pan tile Fig. ll Fromtile layerin northroom (SU 111). L.0.58,W.0.35,Th.0.025 m. Five joining fragmentsof completepan tile. Coarse,reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabric with redand white smallstone inclusions. Smoothed upper surface decorated with impressedS curvein center;two parallelgrooves on shortside for adhesion. Cf. AvP XV.2, pp.3>33, fig.10, pl. 14, for Late Byzantinetiles of compa- rablesize, profile,and decoration.

22 1999-7: Covertile Fig. ll Fromtile layerin northroom (SU 111). L.0.54,W.0.215,Th.0.025 m. Six joining fragmentsof completecover tile. Coarse,reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) fabric with small stone inclusions.Smoothed upper surface decorated with impressed wavygroove at centerand two parallelgrooves at shortend. Cf.AvPXV.2, pp.30-33, fig.10, pl.14. Additionalcomplete cover tiles from this house,of similarsize and decoration,catalogued as 1999-8,1999-9.

SMALLFINDS 23 1991-78:Iron knife with bone handle Fig.12 Fromfloor of southroom (SU 11). L.0.215, Max.W. of blade0.024 m. Iron bladecomposed of two fragments.Bone handlein two partsattached to bladeby fourrivets of which two arepreserved. Upper and lower bone handlecracked. Similarbone-handled knives, dated to the 13th and 14th century,have been 41. C. Koilakou,pers. comm., 2001. recoveredin excavationsof the CarevgradPalace in Bulgaria;Georgieva and I64 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

# 22

Figure11. House I: pitios (19), smokehole (20), and roof dles (21, 21 22). Scale 1:6 -@^ ;_SeeForbes0 _$;_t pp. .0.038 From mentFrom311-313, kg.floor floor holesHalf 378-379,of of of south southironon fig. preservedshoeroomroom1976. 122. and (SU (SU; For four 11).8). ssimilar additionalL.halfL.0.04,W.0.041,Th.0.004 0.084, iS. horseshoes W.fragments. 0.031, from. Th.Two a Xcomparable 0.005 squaredm. .Iron m. attach-Weight 12th-bent

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I65

Figure12. House I: iron knifewith bonehandle (23) :-

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Nikolova1974, pp. 216-219, fig. 33. Seealso a bone-handledknife from Thebes publishedin Papanikola-Bakirtzi2002, p.109. This knife, dated to the 12thcen- tury,measures 0.22 m in length.Two additional nonjoining blade fragments from the northroom of thehouse, SU 135,are inventoried as 1992-389.

24 1991-42:Iron plowshare Fig.13 Fromfloor of southroom (SU 8). L. 0.128,Th. 0.015m. Weight 0.365 kg. Brokenat the stem. Heavily corroded exterior. Type is simplescratch-plow or ard.

i:: _W W _ t ^, 25 1991-51:Equine shoe Fig.14

'-'A ; :: 0^ Similarhorseshoes, dated to the 13thand 14th century, have been recovered ;;: _ in excavationsofthe Carevgrad Palace in Bulgaria;Georgieva and Nikolova 1974, f'_ _ centurysettlement in Thrace,see Fol et al.1989, fig. 143.

.__ ___ t 26 1991-120:Belt buckle

_ intothe circular shape of a bucklewith one flattened side. Tongue missing, but it maybe cataloguedas 1991-680,which has the same dimensions (L. 0.041 m) as Figure14. House I: equineshoe (25) thewidth of thebuckle. I66 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

0 5m . : l Figure15. House II: plan

Figure16. House II: view from east

HOUSEII (SQUAREK9) HouseII comprisestwo roomsfacing each other across a courtyardand, thus,presents a differentplan from that of the elongatedhouses on the site(Figs. 15, 16).The back wall of thewest room uses a wallof theadja- centClassical tower as a foundation.In 1991,surface clearing revealed the outlinesof therooms of thishouse. A 2 x 2 m sondagewas dug within the westroom, which has interior dimensions of 5.7 x 3.3 m.A layerof boul- derscovered a levelof medievaltiles. Below the tiles was a medievalfloor level,which covered a layerof Hellenisticroof tiles mixed with Classical andHellenistic pottery. A secondtest trenchdug in 1991 (K9-6)encountered the exterior faceof the northeastcorner of theeast room. This room, measuring 3.8 x 2.8m on theinterior, was excavated in 1992.These two rooms were con- nectedby a crosswall that defined a courtyardbetween them and divided A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I67

themfrom a secondhouse, whose outlines appeared in surfacecleaning immediatelyto the north.The eastroom was excavated to thelevel of the packeddirt floor. Four nails were found at this level.42 Originally the room was roofedwith terracottatiles; these were found embedded in a thick layerof clay.43In the sametile level,a fragmentof carbonizedwood was uncoveredtogether with iron nails, perhaps part of thewooden framework thatsupported the roof. A thickerlayer of tileswas deposited on thesouth sideof theroom, with a heavyconcentration in thesouthwest corner. The tiledistribution demonstrates that the roof first collapsed in thesouthwest corner,allowing the tilesto slideinto the building's interior. A singlede- niertournois dated to the reignof Philipof Tarentum(1307-1313)44 was foundbelow the surface in a levelof fallenwall material (see Appendix 1).

P OT T ER Y 30 27 1999-153:Mixing bowl Fig.17 Figure 17. Houses II and III: Fromtile layerof eastroom (SU 201). H.0.095, Diam. at base0.09, Diam. at cookingand coarsewares (27, 28, rim0.265 m. Fourjoining fragments forming complete profile with slightlyraised 30). ScMe1:3 ring base and rolled,slightly outturnedrim. Coarse,reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith blackand white inclusions.Deep greenmottled glaze coatinginterior and uppersurface of rim. Ridgeunder lip on exterior. For a similarbowl, though larger and with a differentrim profile,see 5.

28 1999-136:Mortar(?) Fig.17 Fromtile layerof eastroom (SU 201). H.0.142, Diam. at base0.18, Diam. at rim 0.21 m. Two joining fragmentsforming complete profile of small basin or high-walledmortar. Coarse, gray (1OYR8/2) fabricwith blackand white stone inclusions;pitting on surface.Smoothed interior and uppersurface of rim. 42.The nailsare inventoried as 1992-118,1992-323,1992-324, 1992-427. SMALL FINDS 43. In size andfabric, the tilesfrom 29 1999-112:Knife blade this roomare identical to thosefound in HouseIV. From floor level of east room (SU 214). P.L. 0.045, P.W. 0.016 m. Single 44. Inv.no. 1992-84. fragmentof iron knifeblade. Heavily corroded. S. I68 E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

ocCo>mO

o _ _ _6m Figure18. House III: plan

HOUSEIII (SQUARESI11, J11) Remainsof HouseIII were discovered in 1991after a magnetometrysur- veyhad detected the presenceof a magneticanomaly directly east of the mainchurch (Figs. 18, 19).45 Excavationuncovered the topof a subterra- neanstorage pithos (the southern of thetwo pithoi in Fig.18). The pithos wasconstructed of rubbleand cement in theform of anoval flattened on thebottom, 1.15 m acrossat the mouth,1.50 m at maximumdiameter, reachinga depth of 1.50m. The pithosappears to havebeen intentionally filledwith earth and rubble, and covered with flat stone slabs. No visible tracesof burningwere discovered, and the cause of themagnetic anomaly remainsunknown.46 The cornerof a roomto the southwas exposed in surfacecleaning. Two of 45. The magnetismof thisfeature thewalls of thisroom, at theedge of theterrace, indicatedfiring appearto at a temperatureap- havebeen destroyed by erosion. proximatingthat of a kiln.S. Papama- A roomto thenorth, with interior dimensions measuring 2.2 x 4.0 m, rinopoulosmade this suggestionbased containsa second subterranean storage pithos.The foundations ofthe walls oncomparable anomalies encountered ofthis room, like the wallfragments of the southroom, lay close to the onother sites. modernground surface, so thatthe 46. S. Valamotihas pointed out that originalfloor of theroom and the rim residue ofthe pithoshad been in storagepits is sometimes destroyed.Construction of thisroom encroached firedto eliminatemolds. It is possible onthe edge of a cemeteryextending to this point,approximately 6 m thatthis cleansing process explains the eastof the apseof the mainchurch. The foot of grave1992-4 (Fig. 77, magnetismassociated with thispithos, below)lay below the foundations of theroom's southwest corner. Because butthe factthat it is a uniquemagnetic thecemetery lies close to the west side of these storage featureon a sitewith several such built structures,it pithoiremains a seemsprobable that associated house foundations curiosity.Remains of remainto be discovered builtpithoi have been found in squares tothe east. K8,K10, and Lll. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I69

Figure19. House III:view from south

PO T T E RY

30 1999-184:Cooking pot Fig. 17 Foundat floorsurface beside the southernpithos (SU 57). P.H. 0.064, Diam. 0.21m. Two joining fragmentsof elongatedvertical rim and upper shoulder. Rounded,slightly inturned lip. Gritty,reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) fabricwith black andwhite inclusions.Ridges on shoulder. Cf. 10. Similarin profileand fabricto a sherdfound in surveyof Pyli tower: Munnand ZimmermanMunn 1989, no. 141.

HOUSEIV (SQUARESL10, L11) HouseIV, an elongatedstructure, is situatedat the edgeof the adjacentto the terrace Classicalfortification gate (Figs.20, 21). The house, builton an east-west axis,measures 12.2 m in lengthand varies in width from4.2 to 4.75 m. HouseIV is dividedinto three separate rooms con- nectedby doorways;the locationof its mainentrance is not clear.The interiordimensions of the eastroom are 1.9 x 2.8 m. The centerroom measures2.6 x 2.5, andthe west room, the largest, measures 4.85 x 3.1 Excavationin the m. eastroom ended just below floor level. The eastern ofthe central half roomwas excavatedto floorlevel, as was the entire room.In order to west understandbetter the composition of thefloor, a shallow sondagewasdug in the southeastcorner of thewest room. Wall construc- tionwithin the building variessomewhat, but all the walls have two faces, reuseClassical blocks, andemploy medieval tiles to levelstone courses. Tracesof an earlier foundationare visible in the eastroom, where a low wallwas uncovered at 47.It is possiblethat the claylevel floorlevel. Deposition within the house consisted of belongsto more walltumble above a thanone medieval layerof rooftiles, which covered a layerof compact floorandthat the housemay green-grayclay, havehad generally0.04-0.08 m thick.This claylevel, the bedding multiplephases of constructionor onwhich the tiles originally lay, remodeling. covereda compressedclay floor, which, in turn,covered Hellenistic fill.47 _ .

I70 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

0 5m Figure20. House IV:plan |

Figure21. House IV:view from west overroom II

As withother medieval structures on site,this house dates to the 14th century.A singlecoin was foundwithin the tile layerof the house,an oboleof Williamor GuyII de la Roche(1280-1308), which was pierced forsuspension (see Appendix 1).48 The ceramicfinds include fragments of glazedbowls with incised, concentric circles of the typecommon on the site.49Fragments of coarseware storage vessels (34, 36) werefound in the tiledebris above the floor in thecenter room; other coarse ware vessels (33, 37) wereassociated with a depressionin the centerroom. A cookingpot (32) wasfound resting on the floorlevel in the southwestcorner of the 48. Inv.no. 1992-219. eastroom, where it hadbeen covered by clayfrom the fallenroo£ The 49. Fragmentsfrom two glazed bowlswith incised decoration were ceramicvessels recovered in thisroom are similar in fabricand type to the inventoriedas 1999-98and 1999-99 assemblagefrom House I. The discoveryof severalsmoke holes suggests butdo not appearin thiscatalogue. For thatmore than one room served as living quarters. the type,cf. 3. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I7I

P O T T E R Y 31 1999-102:Cooking pot Fig.22 Fromrubble tumble in westhalf of eastroom (L11, SU 107).P.H. 0.057, Diam.0.17 m. Singlefragment of elongatedvertical rim andhandle. Gritty, reddish-yellow(5YR 7/6) fabricwith black and white inclusions. Two grooves on uppersurface of handle.Ridges on shoulder.Fragment from same vessel inventoriedas 1999-103. Fora similarfragment from survey of Pyli tower:Munn and Zimmerman Munn1989, no. 141.For a Corinthianpot of similarshape, see Sanders1987, p. 182,no.21, fig. 6.21.

32 1992-352:Cooking pot Fig.22 Foundon the floorlevel of the eastroom (L11, SU 106).Ninety-six fragmentsof rim,body, and two straphandles. H. 0.22,Diam. of rim0.15 m.Tall, slightlyflaring rim. Gritty, reddish-yellow (5YR 7/5) fabricwith many reddish- brownangular grits and white and gray inclusions.

33 1999-106:Storage vessel Fig.22 Fromdepression in floorlevel at centerof centerroom (L11, SU 111).P.H. 0.123,Diam. of base0.165 m. Fivejoining fragments of baseand lower body. Coarse,reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith black and white grits. Wavy combed bandbordered by incised grooves on shoulder.

34 1999-107:Storage vessel Fig.22 Fromtile and clay layer below roof in centerroom (L11, SU 109).P.H.0.114, Diam.of base0.10 m. Twenty-onejoining fragments of baseand lower walls. Coarse,reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) fabricwith black and white inclusions. Deep greenglaze splattered on exteriorabove base.

35 1992-403:Storage jar lid Fig.23 Fromlower fill in easthalf of westroom (L10, SU 105).Est. Diam. 0.14, Th.0.018m. A quarterof thelid. Coarse, reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) fabricburned to pinkishgray (7.5YR 6/2) on upperand lower surface. Smoothing on upper surfaceand around edges. Raised radial ribs and roughly impressed points on uppersurface. Forsimilar lids found in sitesurvey in theValley of theMuses and dated to the 14th-16thcenturies, see Vroom 1997, p.208, fig.5; 1998,pp.538-539.

36 1999-100:Pithos lid Fig.24,left Fromtile andclay layer below roof in centerroom (L11, SU 109).Diam. 0.44,Th. 0.011,W. of handle0.042 m. Ten joining fragments of lid withbroad straphandle. Coarse, reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabric with many stone inclusions. Forthe pithos type, see 19.

37 1992-423:Pithos lid Fig.24,right Fromdepression in floorlevel at center of centerroom (L11, SU 111).Diam. 0.40,Th.0.015m. Seven joining fragments of pithoslidwith knob handle. Coarse, reddish-yellow(7.5YR 7/6) fabric with black and white stone inclusions. Smoothed on uppersurface and beveled edge. Forthe pithos type, see 19.Fragment of a similarlid cataloguedas 1999-88. -

I72 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

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Figure22. HouseIV: cookingwares (31,32), coarsewares (33, 34), and tile(40). Scales 1:3 (31-34) and 34 1:6(40) f f f 0 : X 0: X _ 2 | 0 ; 0 t 7 2 i 0; 0 _L.? 2 0 g . < i-D i f r: <;;(i' i) !-) * l : :;;N;(0 i;: ;9ii\:ftH:.td : t:;: i. ;:' ; : : ;:;- .:l t t;5!_l-Qg'B ;0;. ; ,B h - Et<-0 AQ;: 0e S ... . , ;e S j 0

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I73

L -;:;

* -Wed!

Figure23. House IV: storagejar lid | X | 1 :: :5;: (35)

f : : :D:Ed; : :0:7:i:fl::f-ES-:0000ffi-! ::D02-vE-:::jitA.!

j ; C. E i i: .- iS l? _ zE : : :: \ :;. : f: : ;:iVE.:007:!::::0000:f: M. : - .fi: 0 :: : : ; XL t it:ESCCE:0:07 0: _ i:: 7j_L-.X;:X; ;:ffi:;00rD;:;di;S;:.d*''::: i-. :: ::f..;_L:;0;; L;-0-: f: ,_;: C V z S t t (0000

-_^.0;0;; ,99 D_t'-;ft'-'; | _S t _ |

* , ;E . 0 , @ : ,A

_AgA ; 0; ; i; t i ;0 ti; i;;- itr- g_£ %->

t_g i; F )00E'-::7;;Edy';t -iS E S7E- E7jE'^'z;z MEF', 7 1_W,,-'L';SiSi; ' ;S0f''d;'''T;iEV'''M'''P' _ >;Y'X ve;*A--v ;?

Flgure24. House IV:plthos hds 00 F _ ><-0>^;:;t - i :;!:; a00>: ;; ;E009 f :9 !0 9i40--:: l; 95-; '0i'->0-5 '

(36,37) ;0:-0: 000:000;;f: i :;;::E f0 LLE:L:;! SC;000::{ :;;f00-::t:;0 : L9-0E.:: ? 4.> -- :A ;0;00.;i000 '';;. . ' 0 5 $.V90 0 .' 5t'

TILESAND SMOKE HOLES 38 1999-73:Smoke hole Fig.25, left Fromwall tumblein east half of west room (L10, SU 101). P.L. 0.55, P.W. 0.15, P.H. of flange0.074, P.L.(smoke hole) 0.34 m. Fivejoining fragments con- stitutingroughly a thirdoftile. Coarse,reddish-yellow (5YR 7/8) fabricwithmany stone inclusions.Traces of burningon lowersurface and on interiorof opening. Punchedcircles between grooves around perimeter of tile.

39 1992-206:Smoke hole Fig.25, right From wall and roof tumble from the south exteriorof west room (L10, SU 102). L. (tile)0.64, W. (tile)0.38, L. (smokehole) 0.34,W. (smokehole) 0.23, H. of flange0.085 m. Sixjoining fragments giving full dimensionsof tile. Coarse, reddish-yellow(5YR 6/6) fabric with large white inclusions. Upper surface smoothed.Punched circles forming horseshoes at centerof eachside; incised palm frondsor pine treesin corners. Additionalfragments of anothersmoke hole inventoriedas 1999-74a-c.

40 1992-208:Pan tile Fig.22 Fromlower tile level in east half of east room (Lll, SU 105). L. 0.60, W. 0.38, Th. 0.019-0.032 m. Sevenjoining fragmentsgiving full dimensionsof tile. I74 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

Figure25. House IV: smokehole covers(38, 39)

Reddish-yellow(5YR 6/6) coarse fabric with red, white, and orange inclusions. Evidenceof smoothingmarks on uppersurface. Decorated with parallel lines at edge,two straight, vertical lines at centerflanked by thick, double wavy lines. Additionaltiles from the housecatalogued as 1992-209,1992-210,1992- 211,1992-212,1992-213,1992-214,1992-215.The tiles are decorated with dif- ferentconfigurations of straight and wavy lines. Cf. AVPXV.2, PP.30-33, fig. 10, pl.l4, fora LateByzantine parallel.

SMALLFINDS 41 1999-371,1992-65:Knife blades Fromeast exterior of eastroom at floorlevel of house(SU 201).L. O.O94, 0.051m. Fragments from two iron knife blades; both broken at tips.

THE CENTRAL CHURCH

Localtradition ascribes names to fourof the ruinedchurches on the Panaktonhill; it is impossibleto know,however, if thesenames reflect theirinitial dedication. Two of the churchesare located outside the walls of the fortress.A smallabandoned chapel immediately below the main Classicalgate is saidto be dedicatedto St. Nicholas.A ruinedchapel on the slopesdescending to Prasinocarries the nameof St. Kyriake;a small shrineis maintainedto thisdate within the rubble. Thus far, two churches havebeen cleared within the fortress. The smallchapel in squaresG8-G9 nearthe summit of thesettlement is saidto be dedicatedto theAnnuncia- tion.No findswere discovered during the clearingof thebuilding, which restson bedrock. 50. Localvillagers believe that it At thecenter ofthe settlement, in squaresJ10-11,is the church known wasnear this church that two resis- as "Sotera"(Figs. 26-28).5° Measuring 15 x 5.5 m overall,the churchis tancefighters were buried. No modern sitedon a narrowplateau and is flankedby HouseIII to the eastand burialshave so farbeen discovered nearthe church.Shell casings and un- HouseI to thewest. This is thelargest church on siteand it playeda cen- firedbullets, however, were recovered tralrole in the life of the villagers.In additionto housingreligious cere- fromsurface levels in squaresK9, L10, monies,it servedas the burialchurch for Panakton. Excavation revealed andL11. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I75

l _ _ o 5m Figure26. Church:plan

Figure 27. Church:view fromwest with narthexand tombsfollowing excavation

Figure28.Church: view from east I76 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. graveson thenorth, east, and south of thechurch, in additionto twobuilt tombsin the narthex(Fig. 27). Illegaldigging within the churchproper between1993 and 1998 revealed traces of humanbones in the centerof the nave;we canassume, therefore, that burials were also located under thefloor of the church. The naveof the churchis constructedfrom reused stones, including sevenstele bases and an inscribedmonument base of the late 4th cen- turys.c.51 These stones were built into the wallfabric at variouslevels withoutregard for their proper orientation. The double-facedwalls, pre- servedto a heightof 1 m, arecomprised of dressedstones evened out by bricksplints. These are supplemented by rough boulders and smaller stones culledfrom the site.A dullwhite mortar with broken ceramic and stone inclusionsis foundthroughout the masonry.Large boulders set vertically serveas orthostates and doorjambs, a construction technique that is commonin medievalGreece. Soon after the church'sconstruction a narthex, measuring4.7 x 4.0 m,was added to thewest end ofthe building; its north andsouth walls are not bonded to theoriginal structure. The outerface of the wallsalternates large cut blocks with smaller stones. The masonryof theinterior face ofthe narthex consists of smallerstones set in evencourses. The naveof the churchis accessedby twoentranceways. Upright stones, includinga stelebase, flank the southdoorway. The westentrance, which leadsfrom the narthexto the nave,is borderedby dressedstones set in evencourses on thesouth and an upright cut stone on thenorth. The west doorto the narthexis noton the sameaxis as the originalentrance to the church.A benchmade up of largecut blocks runs along the exterior south wallof the narthex;the stonesare not bonded to the churchexterior. The positionof the apse,which is off axisbut aligned with the west doorof thenave, presents a curiouselement (Fig. 28). The apse'sdisplace- mentto the northsuggests that it wasrebuilt or formedpart of a rebuild- ing campaignat somepoint, perhaps the resultof earthquakedamage or inherentstructural flaws (there is currentlyan unevencrack through the exteriorface). The northwall of the churchis 0.40 m narrowerthan the southand west walls; in alllikelihood, the wall was rebuilt sometime after its initialconstruction. Another anomaly within the masonrysuggests a disturbanceto theoriginal north wall: a largeboulder that once stood up- rightat thewest end of thewall fell over into the naveand rests on topof thefloor tiles (Fig. 30, right side).The stone courses above this boulder are largelyintact but the wallimmediately to its eastnarrows considerably. The northwall of the narthexis alignedwith the northwall of the nave, suggestingthat any interventions in thewall construction took place prior to or contemporarywith the constructionof the church'swestern chamber.Efforts to tracean earlier wall to the northof thechurch in a location thatwoluld account for the off-axis position ofthe apse and west door were interruptedby the discoveryof a grave,1992-3, immediately outside the northwall, and traces of otherskeletal remains (Fig. 74, below). Threefactors suggest that the navewas originally vaulted: the thicknessof thewalls (1 m on the southand west); the large number of stones thatwere found, together with fragments of rooftiles, in destructiondebris;and the survivalof contemporaryvaulted churches in the areawith 51. Munn1996, pp. 53-55, pl. 20. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I77

Figure29. Church:mullion and sill fragmentsfrom apse window

similarconstruction features.52 The vault of thePanakton church was origi- nallycovered with tilesset into a mortarbed. Numerous tile fragments werefound in theupper levels of theexcavation and one fragment, still set intoits bedding,rested directly on thefloor level of the church. The churchis datedby coinsfound in goodstratigraphic levels (see Appendix1). Five coins were found in thenarthex. Four coins were recoveredfrom units below the layerof roofand tile debris,that is, restingon thefloor surface. Ofthese, three are coins minted for circulation in Venice's coloniesand one is a deniertournois possibly minted in Thebes.53The Venetiancoins include a soldinonuovo of Andrea Dandolo (1343-1354),54 a torneselloof Andrea Contarini (1368-1382),55 and a torneselloof Michele Steno(1400-1413).56 An additionalcoin, a torneselloof AntonioVenier (1382-1400),57was found below the articulated skeleton in thenorth grave of thenarthex. Torneselli of AndreaContarini58 and Michele Steno59 were alsofound in levelsof buildingdebris excavated on the west andnorth 52. Vaultedchurches that may be sidesof the church,respectively. Furthermore, a Venetian tornesello of datedto the latemedieval period are AntonioVenier60 was discoveredbehind the altarat approximatelythe foundat Skourtaas well as Daphni (formerlyDarimari), across the passin sameelevation as the floortiles at thewest end of the nave.The numis- theAsopus valley. See Gerstel1996, maticfinds suggest that the churchwas constructed in the secondhalf of pls.30,31. the 14thcentury. The narthexwas added shortly after. This dateaccords 53. Inv.no. 1992-172. wellwith the ceramic finds, especially from the narthex, and the surviving 54. Inv.no. 1992-200. fragmentsof monumentalpainting discovered in situand in the fill.The 55. Inv.no. 1992-108. 56. Inv.no. 1992-199. churchcontinued to be in use in the firstdecades of the 15th century. 57. Inv.no. 1992-384. Lateruse of thebuilding is not attestedin the archaeologicalrecord. 58. Inv.no. 1992-55. Thechurch preserves a number of its originalfilrnishings and decora- 59. Inv.no. 1992-251. tiveelements. The originalaltar base, an orthostate,stands at the center 60. Inv.no. 1991-439. of the curvedapse (Fig. 26). The uppersurface measures 0.50 x 0.70 m. 61. Inv.no. 1991-604.Both pieces arefragments. The sill measures0.39 x The prothesis(offering) table base, 0.30 x 0.40m, is locatedon thenorth 0.19 m.The mullion,which is hexag- side of the church,0.84 m fromthe eastwall. A doublelight window onalin shapewith an articulated, originallypierced the apse's east wall. The fragmentary sill and mullion for squarebase, is 0.24 m high. the window(Fig. 29),61 formed from shelly limestone, were discovered _1 w - E _#D S | | E_ end of nave

I78 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

1 | 1!l 11! Ll 1|1 | i3 2 FD Figure30. Church:floor tiles at west togetherwith fragmentsof the altartable immediately above the floor levelof theapse, signaling that the east wall collapsed into the church and fracturedthe marbletable top. The floorof the churchwas originally covered in ceramicpavement tiles(Fig. 30). These had a uniformthickness of 0.04 m andwere decoratedwith four lightly impressed patterns: triple zigzag, crescent, parallel curves,and an S shape.62The mostcomplete examples were located at the westend of thechurch and along the north and south walls; the tiles at the centerof thenave were undoubtedly crushed when the vault fell. A lineof tilescrosses the naveapproximately 2 m fromthe eastwall and may indi- catethe locationof a templonscreen (Fig. 28).63 The evenspacing of the tilesdemonstrates that the floor was laid in rowsfrom east to west.Pieces of cuttile were used to fill the 0.15-mgap between the endof the pave- mentand the west wall. The earthfloor of thenarthex was coated in whit- ish-blueplaster. A largenumber of ceramicvessels were found in boththe naveand narthex.The cataloguepresents vessels associated with the floor levels and gravesof the church.A fulleranalysis of the churchceramics is givenbe- low(see "Summary of CeramicFinds").

WAL L PAI NT I NG S Morethan 2,000 smallfragments of paintedplaster were found on the interiorand south exterior of thechurch and narthex, primarily in levelsof stoneand tile debris(Figs. 31-33). The recoveredfragments represent a smallpercentage of the decorativeprogram that would have covered the

62.The tilesmeasure 0.47 x the flooraccording to theirpattern. 0.40 m.The coarse,reddish-yellow 63. See 71 fora probablefragment (5YR6/6) fabrichas large stone inclu- of the screen.At the samepoint along sions.There is no evidencethat the the southwall we discoveredthe paint- tileswere evenly distributed across ing of a saint'sgarment (Fig. 31). A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I79

Figure31. Church:wall painting fromsouth interior wall. Borderof saint'srobe.

Figure32. Church:wall painting. Fragmentsfrom step pattern.

Figure33. Church:wall painting. Fragmentsfrom kufesque pattern. S. E. J. GERSTEL, I80 M. MUNN, ET AL.

wallsand vault of the church.64Many of the fragmentsstill preserve the mortarbacking that evened the wallsurface for the applicationof paint. Redand blue segments of paintwere found in situon the northand west wallsof the naverespectively; these belong to the lowestregister of the walldecoration and were presumably protected from destruction and de- teriorationby the rubblefall from the walls and vault. Survivingpieces of plasterfound within the rubble fill were decorated with a widevariety of ornamentalpatterns. There were no tracesof in- scribedletters. Only two fragments could be associatedwith the representationof humanfigures, a footand the hem of a garment.The smallfrag- mentof a paintedfoot with a stripedsandal is theonly clue that the church wasonce decorated with narrative scenes. Of thestandard composition of full-lengthsaints that decorated the lower walls of churchesin thisperiod, theonly surviving trace at Panaktonis theleft edge of a garmentfound on thesouth wall of thenave close to its eastend (Fig. 31). Set against a deep bluebackground, the garment, a longred tunic and some sort of a mantle, cascadesoutward in threezigzag folds and terminates in a borderarticu- latedby a thickwhite line enclosingcrosslets. A similardecorative detail canbe seenin mid-13th-centurychurches in Attica,where it ornaments the clothingor halosof saintlyfigures.65 The locationof the painting,at theexact point where the tilepavement is interrupted,and the tracesof a verticalred field bordered in white to theleft of thefigure suggest that the saintwas depicted beside the sanctuaryof the church;the paintedborder demarcatedthe divisionof ecclesiasticalspaces and, as in manylater Byz- antinechurches, may have indicated the location of a sanctuarybarrier.66 The widerange of ornamentalpatterns on the fragmentsfits com- fortablywithin the repertoireof decorativeschemes used in paintingin thisregion, and elsewhere, in the LateByzantine period. Two of thepat- ternswere found in abundance;others await further reconstruction and study.A steppattern decorates several large fragments excavated in the churchnave (Fig. 32). Contained within a rectangularfield framed in black, 64. A similarphenomenon of pres- thepattern is set againsta plainwhite background enclosed within a red ervation,in whicha relativelysmall amountof painted fieldof color.Within the framedcomposition, the light blue steps on the plasterwas found, exteriorof the wasnoted in excavationsof a churchat rectangleare visually anchored to theborder by ambertri- Nichoria, angles. Messenia.There, the excava- Thesemotifs, in turn,enclose red stepped crosses decorated at their torsconcluded that"the plaster frag- centerswith yellow diamonds with dashes pointing inward. A narrowwhite mentswould have deteriorated and lineand a hintof bluepaint are found at the edgeof the fragments.In all disintegratedmore easily if exposedto likelihood,this is the sameblue paint that serves as a backdropfor the plowingand weathering." See Rosser saintedfigures on the lower 1983,p. 412. registerof the walls.The segregationof the 65. Mouriki patternsuggests that it 1975-1976,fig. 74; wasused to fillan empty space or to separatescenes Panselinos1991-1992, p. 156,fig.2. withinthe church.The steppattern is popularin medievalchurches in Asimilar tnotif was employed for the Greeceand its use at Panakton situates the settlement's ecclesiastical paint- bandsthat encircle the rowof prophets ingwithin broader trends of churchdecoration of the period. inthe churchof theTaxiarches; see Panselinos1991-1992, Tracesof ornamentalkuSesque painted in blueand red on a white pp. 162-163, groundwere also figs.13-16. discoveredduring excavation of thenave (Fig. 33). One 66. It is ofthe possiblethat some of the fragmentsis decoratedwith the tipsof twocuneiform bars, which sculptedworks found in the naveof wouldhave been the uppermostpoint of the pattern.Parts of flowering thechurch belonged to a screen.See shootsthat usually spring at the bottomof the barsare preserved on a 71(Fig.52), which was found in the secondfragment. This decorative element was often used in northeastcorner of the nave. latemedieval 67. paintingto fill spacesbetween narrative scenes and Coumbaraki-Panselinou1976, holy portraits,and pl.13; Panselinos 1991-1992, p.163, examplescan be foundin ruralchurches in Atticaand the Argolid.67 fig.14. A LATE MEDlEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I8I

CATAL O G U E

POTTERY 42 1991-594:Bowl Fig.34 Fromfloor level of southside of naveand deposit on southexterior of church (SU 153, 207, 250). Thirteenjoining and two nonjoiningfragments of rim and body.P.H.0.086, Diam.0.18 m. Fine,reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) fabricwith small stone inclusions;traces of pittingon exteriorsurface. Yellow glaze overwhite slip on interiorand exteriorof rim. Incisedparallel grooves on interiorbelow lip, at join of rim and upperbody, at middleof body,and at join of body and base. Similarto a rim sherdfound in surveyat Pyli tower:Munn and Zimmerman Munn 1989, p.119, no.137. Similarbowls, dated to the 13th century,have been found at Thebes and Corinth.Cf. Koilakou1997, p. 81, fig. 20; Sanders1987, p.165,fig.2.1.

43 1999-181:Bowl Fig.34 Fromfloor level of south side of nave(SU 207,250). Twojoining fragments of ringbase and lowerwall of bowl.P.H.0.028, Diam. of base0.05 m. Hard-fired, red (2.5YR5/8) fabric.Strong brown glaze overinterior and exterior surface. Tri- pod markson interior. For a similarvessel, see 2.

44 1991-595:Bowl Fig.34 Fromfloor level of south side of nave (SU 207). Fourjoining fragmentsof raisedring base and lower wall of bowl.P.H.0.046, Diam. of base0.067 m. Hard- fired, fine reddish-yellow(5YR 6/6) fabricwith small stone inclusions.Yellow glaze overwhite slip on interior;plain exterior.Incised spiral at join of base and lowerwall.

45 1991-593:Shallow bowl Fig.35 From fill and floor level of nave (SU 101, 201, 206, 207). H. 0.05, Diam. of base 0.055, Diam. of rim 0.153 m. Fourteenjoining and five additionalfrag- mentscomprising complete profile of glaze-decoratedplate with evertedrim. Fine, reddish-yellow(5YR 7/8) fabricwith few inclusions.Green and yellow glaze over white slip in interior;trace of glaze on exteriorrim andbody. Similarbowls, dated to the mid-13th century,have been found at Corinth. Cf. Williamset al.1998, p.236, pl.44:d. See 50 for an additionalglaze-decorated vessel.

46 1999-116:Bowl Fig.34 Fromfloor level of narthexand fill immediatelyabove floor (SU 306,308). Elevenjoining andthree additional fragments forming complete profile. H.0.07, Diam. at base0.05, Diam. at rim 0.12 m. Fine, reddish-yellow(7.5YR 7/6) fabric with smallstone inclusions.Slightly incurving lip with interiorridge below rim. Yellow-greenglaze on interiorover cream-colored slip. Deeper green glaze pooled at lip. Glaze over lip on exteriorwith some drippingon outer surfaceof vessel. Incisedspiral on interiorof base.

47 1999-131:Bowl Fig.34 From fill immediatelyabove floor level of narthex(SU 306). Two joining fragmentsof ringbase andlower wall. P.H.0.032, Diam. of base0.05 m. Moder- atelyfine, reddish-yellow(5YR 7/8) fabricwith smallstone inclusions;smoothed S. E. J. GERSTEL, I82 M. MUNN, ET AL.

\ 50

Figure34. Church:fine wares. Scales 1:2(42 47 44, 46 48, 51) and1:3 (50) A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I83

Figure35 (above,lefi). Church: fine wareplate from nave (45). exteriorwith signs of pitting.Mustard yellow glaze over white slip on interior; Scale ca. 1:2 plainexterior. Three concentric circles incised at centerof base.

Figure36 (above,right). Church: fine 48 1999-145:Bowl Fig.34 warebowl from narthex and tomb Fromfloor level of narthex(SU 310). FourJolnlng fragments of rlngbase and (49).Scale ca. 1:2 lowerwallof bowl.P.H.0.04, Diam. of base0.069 m. Moderately coarse, reddish- yellow(5YR 7/6) fabricwith stone inclusions; pitting on exterior.Yellow glaze overcream-colored slip on interior.

49 1999-120:Bowl Fig.36 Fromfloor of narthex(SU 309,310) andinside grave 1992-2. Within the tomb,fragments were recovered in levelsabove and below the marblecover slab (SU311,312). Sixteen joining and eighteen additional fragments of bodyof glazed bowl.P.H. 0.057, est. Diam. 0.20 m. Fine,hard-fired pink (5YR 7/6) fabricwith sandyinclusions. Traces of twotripod marks on uppersurface. Incised with ab- stractfloral pattern.

50 1991-644:Jug Fig.34 Fromlevel below collapsed wall debris to the southeastof churchexterior (SU 102).Nineteen joining fragments of rimand upper body and three joining fragmentsof baseof jugletwith trefoil rim (nearly complete profile). Est. H.0.17, Diam.of base0.07 m. Fine,reddish-yellow (7.5YR 7/6) fabricwith small stone inclusions.Flat base offset at baseof wall.Narrow handle (0.018 m) attached belowrim. Green and brown glaze decoration over white slip on vesselexterior andon interioraround rim. See45 fora glaze-decoratedplate.

51 1991-27:Pitcher Fig.34 Fromtest trench on southside of church(J11-6, SU 6) in associationwith graves1991-1 to 1991-4.H. 0.094,Diam. at base0.034 m. Sixteenjoining fragmentsforming complete profile. Handle missing. Coarse, reddish-yellow (7.5YR 7/6) fabricwith many white gritty inclusions. Deep green, mottled glaze applied unevenlyto outersurface. 55 1992-109:- - / Silverring/ Fig 38 - [Nt00V-0; f t Es

I84 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

< -- w / I t- -

Figure37. Church:plain ware and 53 cookingvessels(52-54). Scale1:3

52 1999-146:Bowl Fig. 37 Fromfloor level of narthex(SU 310). Six joining fragmentsof horizontal, thick rim and upperbody. P.H. 0.097, Diam. of rim 0.30 m. Coarse,reddish- yellow(5YR 6/8) fabricwith grittyinclusions; pitting on interiorand exterior surface.Smoothed on uppersurface. Two bandsof combed,wavy lines below rim.

53 1999-142:Cooking pot Fig. 37 From floor level of narthex(SU 310). Thirteen fragmentsforming nearly completeprofile. Est. H. 0.106, Diam. at rim 0.12 m. Vertical,thickened rim. Singlepreserved strap handle (W. 0.026 m) attachedat rimand lower body. Gritty, light red (2.5YR6/8) fabricwith sandyinclusions. Traces of burningon exterior.

54 1999-119:Table amphora Fig. 37 Fromfill immediatelyabove floor level of narthex(SU 306). Fifteenjoining fragmentsof rim,handle, and shoulder. P.H. 0.15,W. of handle0.038-0.04, Diam. of rim 0.08 m. Gritty,reddish-yellow (5YR 6/8) fabricwith blackand white inclusions.Smoothed surface on rim and outer face of handle.Parallel ridges on outer surfaceof handle and raisedridge markingjoin of rim and neck. Handle attachedat neckand upperbody.

SMALLFINDS - Er E7E Q Q. ^:;ff:0. f 9 :";; . ,,'S" ;!. ;0_ ;: ;; fi: - i- t: CA.:.:.00. : . !.; g; :f;'§A-..L'^s.E.e,'>,',,,' .ET.; j; f.;:

Fromfill immediatelyabove floor level of narthex(SU 306). Diam. 0.021, Th. 0.003 m. Narrowstrip bent into a circle;bezel missing.

56 1991-384:Bronze lamp pendant or censerhandle Fig. 39 Fromfloor level on southside of nave(SU 207). H. 0.036,W. 0.047 m. Cop- per alloyhandle with threeloops for chainsuspension. Figure38. Church:silver ring (55)I - - go' i; 0 _ | | "°TtU < ^t 'Y4ti,Me3 JM o .: . s:.,; j 4ov eS

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I85

r-- *

F l§t/.3yS t1. . , i;:00_ .;. ._ ..

q ( :;): T a\t V

Figure39 (above,leJ:t). Church: bronzelamp pendant or censer Similarhandles found at Corinthhave been dated broadly to theByzantine handle(56) period.Cf. CorinthXlI, p. 128,nos. 861, 862.

Figure40 (above, right). Church: 57 1991-345:Bronze censer base and lid(?) Fig.40 fragmentsof possiblecenser (57) Fromfill behind prothesis table base (SU 208). Diam. of upperplate 0.055, Diam.of lowerplate 0.08 m. Upper, circular disc with hole for suspension attachment.Lower disc has six preserved rivets for attachment.

58 1991-445,1992-163:Bronze handles Fig.41 Fromfloor surface of nave(SU 207,250). Twohandles from vessel. Curved profile.L. 0.063,0.075 m. A holeat thebottom of the handlesused for attachmentto vessel. Cf. CorinthXlI,p. 75, no.565, "Byzantineperiod." Similar handles found in Frankishburials in theHephaisteion in Athens;Ivison 1993, fig.263.

59 1992-131:Bronze candle holder Fig.42 Fromlevel of destructiondebris along north exterior of church(SU 404). Upperspike from candlestick holder. Est. L. 0.093 m. See CorinthXlI, p. 128, no.864, "LateByzantine context."

60 1992-201:Bronze cup or bowl Fig.43 Fromfloor level of narthex(SU 308). L. 0.044, W.0.023, Th. 0.001m. Rim andupper body of flattenedbronze vessel. Stamped lily surroundedby beaded circlebelow band.

61 1992-164,202,204,236: Bronzewick holders Fig.44 Fromfill andfloor level of narthex(SU 306,308,310). Of varyinglengths andwidths,68 the strips are pierced once or twice at a singleend in orderto thread thewick through the metal strip.

68. Representativedimensions are L.4.9,4.22, W.1.77,1.78; 1992-236: providedin centimeters:1992-8: L. 1.4, L.9.45,W.1.7; 1992-257:L.4.63, W. 1.13;1992-89: L. 3.97,W. 1.7; W.1.24; 1992-287:L.2.3, W.1.28; 1992-90:L. 4.1,W. 1.9;1992-164: 1992-296:L.2.05, W.1.36; 1992-310: Figure41. Church:bronze handles L. 6.2,W. 1.01;1992-202: L. 7.5, L.2.3, W.1.25. fromvessel (58) W 1.5;1992-204(two fragments): ^;-Aj ;¢i

I86 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

i it4E 2 e :: :E E

Figure44. Church:bronze wick holders(61). Left to right:1992-204, 1992-164, 1992-202, 1992-236. Figure42. Church:spike from bronze candleholder (59)

Figure43. Church:rim of bronze - - - - bowl (60) Figure45. Church:asterisk(?) (63)

Figure46. Church:iron nailsfrom naveand narthex(65). Left to right, upperrow: 1992-174,1992-258, 1992-21,1992-122,1992-121, 1992-173,1992-77,1992-304, 1992-123;lower row: 1992-417, 1992-99,1992-229,1992-98, 1992-189,1992-307,1992-315, 1992-395. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I87

Similarstrips have been foundat numerousmedieval sites in Greeceand are - oftenassociated with churchesor burials. For wick holders from Nichoria, Messenia, see Rosser1983, p. 406, nos. 513-518. At Corinth,the ends are not piercedbut arefolded to forma tube to hold the wick. See Williamsand Zervos1996, p.24, no.6. Additionalwick holders are inventoried as 1992-8,1992-89,1992-90,1992- : 257, 1992-287, 1992-296, 1992-310.

62 1992-297:Bronze belt buckletongue Fromfloor level of narthex(SU 310). L. 0.024, Th. 0.002 m. Thin stripof bronzebent into a loop at one end andpointed at the otherend.

63 1992-43:Asterisk(?) Fig. 45 Fromfill along south exteriorwall below wall tumble(SU 153). H. 0.036, L.0.091 m.Two ironstrips crossed and attached at the center.Although the shape Ii. ^ . resemblesan asterisk(a metalframe intended to protectthe liturgicalofferings), t.y I w l the materialis unusual. .. s s X, 64 1991-402:Iron hook * *. . .;.?;.-- Fromfloor of nave(SU 207). L. 0.086 m. Iron hook curvedat one end and Figure47. Church:iron spikesand damagedat narrowend. nailsfound in grave1992-2 (66). Left to right,upper row: 1992-337, 65 Ironnails Fig. 46 1992-336,1992-393;lower row: More than fortyiron nailsand nail fragmentswere recovered in the excava- 1992-343,1992-338,1992-332, tion of the narthex,primarily in units306,308,309, and310, which representthe 1992-339. fill immediatelyabove the floorand the floorlevel. Additional nails were found in units150,154, and 159, to the southof the church,as well as in unit250, the floor levelof the apse.Most of the nailshave square shafts and rectangular heads; many of the shaftstaper at the ends.Their size and theirdiscovery on the floorlevel of the narthexsuggest that many of the nailswere associated with roofconstruction. The nailsfrom the churchare inventoried under the followingnumbers (the lengthsare provided for each in centimeters):SU 150: 1992-21 (6.84); SU 154: 1992-99 (4.6), 1992-100 (5.8); SU 159: 1992-98 (4.1); SU 250: 1992-259 (8.8); SU 306: 1992-77 (6.8), 1992-101 (3.8), 1992-121 (6.0), 1992-122 (6.5), 1992-123 (4.9),1992-124 (5.6), 1992-173 (5.2),1992-174 (7.8),1992-188 (4.2), 1992-189 (4.0); SU 308: 1992-225 (5.9), 1992-227 (6.0), 1992-229 (4.9); SU 309: 1992-307 (3.7); SU 310: 1992-256 (nail head), 1992-258 (8.1), 1992-263 (4.1),1992-298 (3.3), 1992-299 (3.9),1992-302 (3.4),1992-304 (5.5),1992-305 (6.7), 1992-308 (5.4), 1992-315 (2.9), 1992-395 (3.1), 1992-417 (5.7).

66 1992-332,336,337,338,339,343,393: Iron spikesand nails Fig. 47 Seveniron spikes and nails were found within the northeasttomb of the narthex (grave1992-2) restingon the lowerportions of the skeletons.The largesize of the spikesexcludes their use in the constructionof a wooden coffin.69As dis- cussedbelow, however, a thickwooden board (0.06 m) was placedover the lower 69. In comparison,see the place- mentof nailsfrom a LateByzantine halvesof the bodies, sealingthe tomb. It is possiblethat the long spikeswere coffinexcavated in Polystylon,Thrace. driveninto the walls of the tomb in orderto form horizontalsupports for the See Bakirtzis1983, p. 18, fig.5; Agela- plank,and fell into the tomb as the plasterlining andwood boarderoded. rakisand Agelarakis 1989, pl. IV.For The spikesand nails from the tombare inventoried as follows(length is pro- woodencoffins, see alsoFol et al. 1989, videdfor eachin centimeters):1992-332 (6.8),1992-336 (17.3),1992-337 (17.6), pp.329-330. 1992-338 (5.3), 1992-339 (6.2), 1992-343 (8.8), 1992-393 (19.4). _:. >||ElL_W S : : :f4-.:..:;f:.;;.:f.;::..;! : -¢.,s ...... _> . ->Figure w%-- E. e 48.Ysji_iw_E? Church:w_> s lamp frombase nave of(67) glass

I88 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

* 00:E '7__4 _ _1 :i;' - > :^:g--0S t, l.0: :igure49.Church:handlesandbody _ : ; - fragmentof glasslamp(s) found on southexterior (68)

G L A S S 67 1991-300;Lamp Fig.48 Fromfloor of navein northeastcorner (SU 205). Est. Diam.0.05 m. Nipple baseof lampwith three joining and eight additional fragments from wall of vessel. Inciseddouble ring marks join between base and wall of vessel.Clear glass with slightpurple tinge.

68 1991-321,1991-643: Lamp(s) Fig.49 Fromsurface clearing on southside of church(SU 101); most likely associated withstone-walled vault at the southeastcorner of the church(grave 1991-5). Twocoil handlesand one joining body fragment of glasslamp(s). Top end of threadfor handle attached to body,looped, pinched at point of reattachmentand thendragged down side of body.Clear glass with greentinge; all surfacesare heavilyopacified. Althoughfragmentary, the glass may be comparedto handleson lampsthat wereexcavated in 14th-centurylevels at Corinth;c£ Williamsand Zervos 1993, pp.22-25. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I89

ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE

The fragmentsof architecturalsculpture reveal strong stylistic similarities to examplesfrom Attica and Boeotia. The nineworks are incomplete, suggestingthat they were reused for the decoration of thechurch. It is unclear whetherthe use of spoliafor architectural decoration at Panakton signaled a consciousdesire to maintaincontinuity with earlier religious structures in thearea or was fostered by economic necessity. In eithercase, the use of spolia,also seen locally at the churchesof the ZoodochosPege near Pyli andat H. Paraskevenear the modern village of Panakto,is in keepingwith standardByzantine building practices.70 The sculptedfragments can be dividedinto three functional groups: altartable pieces (69), doorjambs(70), andepistyle fragments (71-77), someof whichwere used as doorlintels in the Panaktonchurch. Close parallelscan be foundin 12th-centurysculpture from the church of Christ the Saviorin Amphissa,71the katholikonof the Sagmatamonastery near Thebes,72and in HagiosNikolaos sta Kambia,near Orchomenos.73 The techniqueand designs of the carving,however, are best compared to the 12th-centurysculpted ornamentation of the katholikon of HosiosMeletios, a churchvisible from Panakton and an importantmonastic center in the region.74In all likelihood,the atelierpatronized by H. Meletiosand its metochiacarved the majorityof thePanakton pieces. Although the build- ingor buildings for which these sculptures were originally made cannot be identified,it seemsmost likely that the ornamentedblocks, as well as the tabletopsand doorjambs, are spolia from local monuments and that little newcarving was undertaken for the decorationof the Panaktonchurch.

CATALOGUE 69 Fragmentsof rectangulartable(s) Fig.50 GroupI: a. 1991-598a:L. 0.275, W. 0.160, interiorTh. 0.042, borderTh. 0.055 m; b. 1991-598b: L. 0.419, W. 0.22, int. Th. 0.041, bor. Th. 0.060 m; c. 1991-598c:L.0.220, W.0.152, int.Th.0.041, bor.Th.0.060 m;group II: max. W.0.473 m; d. 1991-598d:L. 0.237, W.0.223, int. Th.0.037, bor.Th.0.059 m; e. 1991-598e:L. 0.173, W. 0.130, int. Th. 0.041, bor.Th. 0.062 m;J: 1991-598f: L. 0.191, W. 0.141, int. Th. 0.036 m;g. 1991-598g:L. 0.113, W. 0.053, int. Th. 70. ForZoodochos Pege near Pyli, 0.037 m; h. 1991-598h: L. 0.232, W. 0.177, int. Th. 0.040, bor.Th. 0.064 m; see Bouras1993-1994, p. 31, fig. 10; i. 1991-598i:L. 0.207, W. 0.149, int. Th. 0.039, bor.Th. 0.062 m;y: 1991-598j: for H. Paraskevenear Panakto, see L. 0.108, W. 0.061, int. Th. 0.036-0.039 m; groupIII: k. 1991-598k:L. 0.110, Bouras,Kaloyeropoulou, and Andreadi W. 0.075, int. Th.0.040, bor.Th. 0.058 m; 1. 1991-5981:L.0.320, W. 0.187, int. 1970,figs. 256, 257. An unpublished Th. 0.042, bor.Th. 0.059 m; m. 1991-598m:L. 0.193, W. 0.162, int. Th. 0.039- photographof the altarat Panaktois 0.042 m; other,nonjoiningpieces: n. 1991-598n: L.0.383, W.0.126, int.Th.0.042, foundin the BenakiPhoto Archives, bor.Th. 0.063 m; o. 1992-1: L. 0.158, W. 0.128, bor.Th. 0.065 m;p. 1992-26: no. 19306. L. 0.098, W 0.088, bor.Th. 0.057 m; q. 1992-27: L. 0.105, W. 0.550, bor.Th. 71. Vanderheyde1994, pp. 39S397. 72. Wixomand Evans 1997, p. 40. 0.056 m; r. 1992-362: L. 0.134, W. 0.610, bor. Th. 0.595 m; s. J11-6 frag- 73. Schultzand Barnsley 1901, ment:L.0.146,W.0.135, int.Th.0.031,bor.Th.0.053 m; t. 1992-363:L.0.083, pl. 52:2. W.0.049, bor.Th.0.057 m. 74. Vanderheyde1994, pp. 396-402; Thirteenfragments were found in the churchinterior, twelve of them in the Grabar1976, pp. 102-103. two layersabove the medievalfloor within the curveof the apse (SU 202, 204). I90 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

Figure50. Church:fragments of altartable (69)

Fourfragments were found to the southexterior of the churchin surfacecleaning, one wasfound in the surfacecleaning of the narthex,and two pieceswere found to the west of the narthexexterior. The piecesform rectangular plaques, and on the basisof theirfindspots were most likelyused for the upper,horizontal surfaces of the altarand prothesis(offering) tables. The existenceof seven,nonjoining corners (groupI, groupII, n, o,p, r,and s) demonstratesthat at leasttwo tabletopsare represented.The tables had raisedborders running around a very shallow,flat 75. A similarlycomposed altar, with centerwell. A completesection acrossthe width of the table (groupII) gives an a reusedmedieval plaque set into a absolutewidth of one tabletopof 0.473 m. This wouldnot be out of scalewith the masonrybase, fills the entireapse at 0.50 x 0.70 m stone altarbase still in situ.75The fragmentsof marbleare very H. Paraskevenear modern Panakto. white and havemany mineral inclusions. Fragments b-e, k, and I areall likelyto 76. See Gill 1991,fig. 8, fordesigns have been on the same side of one table as they show similarcutting marks on of stonealtar tables from the Classical theirexterior edges. A central,roughed area flanked at top andbottom by smoother period;fig.28, forthe tableof Demeter, areassuggests that these fragmentsmay havebeen cut down from a plaquethat Kore,and Zeus from Naxos; pl. 18 fora fragmentpossibly from a culttable for was originallymade with a tongueto fit a groovedpost. The bottom surfacesof MenTyrannos, Athens; pl. 19 fortable- manyof the fragmentsare cut with diagonalchiseling marks. top fragmentsfrom the Amphiareion, The tablesshow very general similarities to ClassicalGreek tray design altar Oropos;and pl.22 fora fullypreserved tables,though no exactparallel is apparent.76Antique stelai and EarlyChristian tabletopin the NationalMuseum, and Byzantinechancel barriers present other typologicalparallels; the latter is Athens.These commonly have simple, appealinggiven the possiblescar of a cut-downtongue on the one long edge.Also, roundeddepressions, but the lasttwo the beveledborder of the Panaktonpieces is rarein antiquestelai. Early Christian havemolded rectangular rims around tablesof similarrectangular form includea 6th-centurytable from Basilica A at the escharai.These pieces, however, are Nikopolis,with an undecoratedsurface surrounded by a moldededge; the altarin onlygenerally similar to the Panakton situ at the east end of the north porticoof the atriumof the late-4th- or 5th- fragments. centuryextramural basilica at Dion, with a crosscarved at center;77and two tables 77. Chalkia1991, pp.54-55; 215-219;fig. 44 (Nikopolis);figs.69, of Proconnesianmarble from Xanthos, one of whichwas decoratedwith a foliate 70 (Dion).Note the tonguevisible on design.78In all casesthough, the moldedborder is moreelaborate than the simple the edgeof the altarslab in fig.70, bevelof the Panaktonpieces. An EarlyChristian table from Mactar, Tunisia, in- whichis similarin placementto the scribedin both Latin and Greek and likely to be a reusedfunerary slab, has a scaron the Panaktontable. simplerborder but is overallfar more roughly cut thanthe Panaktonfragments.79 78. Sodini1998, pp.42-43, None of the extantPanakton fragments has anytrace of decorativerelief carving. figs.1-5. Date uncertain. 79. Chalkia1987-1988, fig. 4. fragmentsFigure 51.(70) 0005Church: 0 &>^5-dooUamb : t- -Sty000; s^ 20 0 d - >SP -i-<< |

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I9I

70 Fragmentsof doorjamb(s) Fig.51 a. 1991-599a:L. 0.510,W. 0.187,Th. 0.109 m; b. 1991-599b:L. 0.495, W.0.178,Th.0.121m; c. 1992-13:L.0.20,W.0.180,Th.0.119 m; d. 1992-221: L.0.143,W.0.033, Th.0.016 m; e. 1992-312:L.0.050, W.0.023, Th.0.007 m. Fragmenta was found behind the altar in thechurch's apse in thesame rubble layerthat contained several of thealtar table fragments (SU 204). Fragment b was foundin the surfacelayer at the westend of the naveinterior. Fragment c was foundin a layerof rocktumble in thenorthern section of thehouse situated im- mediatelywest of thechurch. The smallerfragments were found at the floor level of thechurch's narthex (SU 308,310). The three large, nonjoining pieces of doorjambs,a-c, areall of similarprofile. The jambs have a centralconcavity, ca.0.033- 0.042m wide,flanked at both sides by two shallow flanges and then flat external surfacesof 0.066-0.073m. The flangesare all of variedwidths, ranging from 0.013to 0.024m. The cut profiles of a andb runto thefragment's edges, showing thatthey are interior pieces. Fragment c,however, has a terminalborder at one end andthus is a top-or bottom-fitting piece. The fragments are of fine-grainedwhite marblewith little coloration or veining, and the profile is cutin a softmanner and is somewhatabraded. Fragments b and c preserve relatively crisp and angular back profiles,although a hasbeen roughly cut down on thereverse. Fragments d (two joiningpieces) and e aresmall fragments with rounded profiles, probably chips fromthe fillets of otherdoorjamb pieces. Theprofile of thethree larger pieces is verysimilar to thatof anunpublished piecein the lapidarycollection at the monasteryof H. Meletios.This maybe evidenceof an atelierworking in the areaor, alternatively, that all of the pieces comefrom another, earlier site.80 Dateuncertain (possibly 12th century). 80.A memberof thecommunity currentlyliving at H * Meletios reported 71 Es1stylefrazment w1th blrd mot1f Flg.52 (pers.comm., April 2001) that the X piecein thelapidary collection had a. 1991-600a:L. 0.480,W. 0.130,Th. 0.070 m; b. 1991-600b:L. 0.225, beenfound in thehills above the W. 0.130,Th. 0.060m. Joining fragments a and b werefound in destructionde- monastery. brisin thenortheast corner of thechurch. It is possiblethat they formed part of a S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. I92

templonscreen. The piecescombine a foliatemotif with zoomorphicforms. Two Figure52. Church:epistyle fragment rectangularpanels of acanthus leaf motifs are surroundedby a double-knotted withbird motif (71) angularguilloche of threeridges. The acanthusleaves curl around drill holes ca. 0.005-0.010m deep.A large portionof the ornamentalsurface of the largerfrag- mentis coveredwith the motif of two birdseating from stackedfruit baskets. Acanthusleaves springfrom the lower basket and form a carpetpattern onto whichthe birdsare superimposed. The carvingis at differentlevels, with the birds protrudingsharply from the surface,while the foliageimmediately surrounding themprojects to a lesserextent. The interruptedguilloche and acanthusmotifs framingthese elementsare in lowestrelief, and the birds,baskets, and carpetpat- ternextend past the boundariesof the enclosingguilloche. The birds'bodies have adecoratively carved surface patternof parallelridges, which servesto denotethe differentparts of theirbodies. The fragments'carving style favors ridges defined byfairly deep grooves with angled sides.A smoothledge is adjacentto the top of theornamented surface, while an areaof rougherpicking adjoins the bottomsur- face.The reversesof the fragments havebeen cut downand now areconcave with veryrough picking, in diagonal strokes,across the surfaces.The piecesare of white, fine-grainedmarble. The fragmentshave close comparanda,notably two undatedpieces from the AthenianAgora.8l The firstof theseis a particularlyclose comparison:it showsa bird,its bodycarved with the same typesof lines to representits feathers,pecking atdouble-stacked baskets of grapes fromwhich vines sprout. In contrast,the back- groundbehind the birdis plain, thoughthe piecemay be unfinished.The second Agorapiece showsa birdwith similar surfacetreatment, though its breastplum- 81. Grabar1976, pl. LXXX,no. ageis picked out in shallowly drilledholes. Utilizing different depths of carving, 87:a-b.The piecesappear to be missing asatPanakton, the figureof the from birdoverlays an angularguilloche, seen underits the Agoracollection and have no raisedwing. Although the heads recognizable aresomewhat damaged, the eyesof the Panakton Agoraaccession number. birdsseem to havebeen carved 82. Vanderheyde less fully than those in the Agorafragments. A 1994,p.407, figs. 12th-centurytemplon fragment 8,9. with similarlycarved birds, drinking or eating froma basin on a high pedestal 83. Bouras1977-1979, pp.67-68, superimposedon a lower,foliate background, is foundat the churchof Christthe figs.11-13,pl.25. Saviorin Amphissa.82The Panaktonmethod of bi-levelcarving and 84.Bouras 1977-1979, pp.67-68, the formsand techniqueof the leaf and stem similarto motifs arealso fig.10,pl.25. those employedin the 12th-centurysculpture fromthe Sagmatamon- 85.See Grabar1976, pl. LXVI:a, asteryin Boeotia, founded by a pupil of Saint Meletios,83and in the fragment fortheLittle Metropolis; pl. LXXVI:a, fromthe monasteryof H. Ioannes Kynegouat the Byzantineand ChristianMu- c H.for Meletios; also Orlandos 1939- seumof Athens.84 The angular guillocheof multipleridged elements is relatively 1940,p.73,fig.24,p.97,fig.44,p.101, commonin Attica and Boeotia in the late 12th and early 13th centuries.Ex- fig.48,p.105, fig.52. Otherpieces amplesmay be seen at the Little fromthe Metropolis,Athens, and at H. Meletios.85While Athensregion that are in the onlya single knot was carvedin Byzantineand these works,the Panaktonpieces featurea less ChristianMuseum of commondouble knot. Athensalsohave angular, knotted Late 12th or early13th century. guilloches;see Mavroeidi 1999, nos. 204-206. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I93

Figure53 (above,lefi). Church: epistylefragment (72)

Figure54 (above,right). Church: epistylefragment with foliatemotif 72 Epistylefragment Fig.53 (73) 1992-74: L. 0.110, W. 0.144, Th. 0.040 m. Foundat the church'sexterior, nearthe westernwall of the narthex.72 is a smallfragment of an epistylemade of fine-grainedwhite marbledecorated with a foliaterinceau topped by a plainverti- cal border.The leavesare rounded and the carvingstyle and designare similar to those of 73 and74. The top bandof 72 is the samewidth as that of 73 and74. 72 maybe a nonjoiningpiece of 74, especiallygiven its findspot,or of 73. 12th century.

73 Epistylefragments with foliatemotif Fig. 54 a. 1991-602a:L. 0.340, W. 0.150, Th. 0.100 m; b. 1991-602b:L. 0.078, W. 0.075, Th. 0.034 m. Fragmentsa and b, which do not join, were found in the easternhalf of the churchin a destructiondeposit. The two smallfragments are decoratedwith flat,soft vegetalforms similar to those seen on 74. The decoration comprisessweeps of flat ridgesswirling into the stems of tendrilscurled around drill holes.The carvingtechnique is similarto that of 74, and the piecesmay be fragmentsof the same work.The white marbleblock from which this piece is carvedis moremassive than the otherepistyle fragments, and its top edge is destroyed.In comparisonto other pieces,the tilt of the carvedface is much more pronouncedin 73, as if it weremeant to be seen froma higherposition. 12th century.

74 Epistylefragment with Greekcross and foliage Fig. 55 1991-601: L. 0.157, W. 0.135, Th. 0.073 m. Found4 m southwestof the churchin a surfacedeposit. This smallfragment of an epistyleis decoratedwith a Greekcross, broken at its rightarm, and abstract vegetation. A lightlyinscribed X marksthe crossingof the two armsand the crossis outlinedwith a secondband. The outlined,X-inscribed foliate cross motif is also seen in a 12th-century windowcapital from Athens86 and at H. Meletios,on the lintel abovethe north- ernmostdoor between the narthexand nave of the katholikon.87The leavesof the vegetation,which curl around fairly wide drillholes, are carved in a flat,soft tech- niqueraised from a plainbackground. The carvingtechnique is similarto what Figure55. Church:epistyle fragment LaskarinaBouras describes as the 12th century's"soft" modeling style, and is close with Greekcross and foliage(74) to thatof 73.The fragmentsmay come from the samepiece. The decoratedface is flankedby smooth,flat profiles, each 0.025 m wide.As with severalother pieces in 86. Mavroeidi1999, no. 241. the Panaktongroup, a white,fine-grained marble was used.The reverseseems to 87. Orlandos1939-1940, p. 99, havebeen cut down. fig.46, bottom. 12th century. I94 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

Figure56. Church:epistyle fragment 75 Epistylefragment with abstract acanthus rinceau and birds Fig.56 withabstract acanthus rinceau and 1992-233:L. 0.740,W. 0.230,Th. 0.214m. The fragmentwas found in the birds(75) doorwaybetween the narthexand nave of the church,resting directly above the medievalfloor surface. The epistylefragment was obviously cut down and reused as a lintelblock for the nave's primary entrance. 75 is decoratedwith five stylized spikyacanthus leaves bounded at the ends by an eagle at left and peacock at right. Incisedlines articulate the birds' bodies and denote their plumage. Varied patterns detaildifferent parts of theirbodies. The eagle'sbreast and upper wings are deco- ratedusing arched, scalelike incisions, while lines demarcate its tail andlower wingfeathers. The peacock'sfeathers are executed similarly, with the additionof drillholes to showthe eyes of thetail plumage. The eagleinterrupts the acanthus pattern,while a morevinelike leaf surrounds the peacock. The epistyle is damaged atthis end, cutting offthe peacock's head.The motifs,widely spaced on the rough- pickedbackground, are carved in a veryflat, champleve style. An undecorated, narrowflat band caps the foliage and zoomorphs. The bottom face is undecorated, andhas a doorpivot hole at right,below the fourth and fifth acanthus elements. Several1lth-century pieces provide solid comparisons for this Panakton fragment.An acanthus-decoratedepistyle, reused as a lintelover the north door of the early12th-century church of H. Nikolaossta Kambia,near Orchomenos, has a verysimilar carving technique and design, and is closelyrelated to thisepistyle.88 Sculptedpieces in Athensalso show stylistic similarity to the Panaktonepistyle. TheByzantine and Christian Museum in Athens has two 1 lth-century fragments thathave a comparablyflat quality to the carving,though these are less crisp in executionthan the Panakton piece.89 The LittleMetropolis has two zoomorphic panelsthat show birds with differently patterned, though more highly stylized, plumage.90 11thcentury.

76 Chancelbarrier fragment with rinceau and guilloche Fig.57 1991-603:L. 0.209,W. 0.130,Th. 0.070m. Found in theeastern half of the Figure57. Church:chancel barrier churchinterior, in destructiondebris. 76 is a smallcorner fragment of a chancel fragmentwith rinceauand guilloche plaquewith a flatrinceau bordering an interior angular guilloche of raised,ridged (76) profiles.Theguilloche is brokenoffand only a cornerof itsborder and the edge of oneknot is extant.The rinceau border surrounding this guilloche is carvedin a flat techniquewith drill holes punctuating the turning ofthe vine's tendrils.The leaves 88. Schultzand Barnsley 1901, arebroad and not very distinct from the vines, ending in sharppoints. A shallow p.70,pl.60. grooveseparates the areas, so thatwhile the surface flatness is similarto thatof 73, 89. Mavroeidi1999, nos. 199-200. themotif is denserand more unified than in theother piece. The rinceau is offset 90. Grabar1976, pp. 98-99; fromthe exteriorof the pieceand the guillocheby flat,undecorated bands. The pl. LXVIII,no. 81:a-b. withacanthusinguiHoche(77) 400-;000_ d- - 0 0 0 07000000000e; wii;;-^'3

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I95

0 000 t'i ,,i$.

r ..

;fF;0:n (sy4000\\) ''\v& t {+=D0 ='1 ' 0;' i 00;?:f

r.. --s 7 0; ; !; S; 0 :0 00 ,,, f . Figure58.Church:epistylefragment (-;t ; t;0: :0;->t

pieceis of similar,if notthe same, white marble as others in thegroup. The corner is damagedand the back surface is alsohighly abraded. The piece is of a uniform thickness.Among the closest comparisons is the plaque of thesouth chancel bar- rierof H. Meletios,91where the carvingtechnique, mixing a flat,broad-leafed outerborder with an interior guilloche, is quitesimilar to thatused in thePanakton piece.92A second,unpublished fragment in the H. Meletioslapidary collection showsa comparablemix, and its guillocheis a betterparallel as it is formedof ridgesof equalwidth rather than a bandwith fillets. However, the H. Meletios plaqueshave sunken interior elements surrounded by an angled border. Early12th century.

77 Epistylefragment with acanthus in guilloche Fig.58 a. 1992-2:L. 0.295,W. 0.135,Th. 0.060m; b. 1992-34: L. 0.080,W. 0.063, Th.0.040 m; c. 1992-268: L. 0.175,W. 0.146,Th. 0.054 m; d. 1992-401: L. 0.193, W. 0.070,Th. 0.034m. Thisepistyle segment was found broken at the exteriorof the narthex,near thewest entry. In alllikelihood, these fragments formed part of thelintel over the westdoor.93 The fourfragments comprise the remnantsof a reusedepistyle or purposelycut lintel decorated on oneface with an acanthusand guilloche motif. The guillocheis madeof a thick,slightly flattened central band flanked by two narrowfillets. Interspersed between and stemming from the guillocheitself are spikyacanthus leaves. The leaves and bands are carved in a ridgeand furrow tech- niqueseen elsewhere in thePanakton marble group. As in otherPanakton pieces, the bottomleaves of the encircledacanthus are formed around wide drill holes. The motifhas been carved on a broadangled face, topped by a vertical,undeco- ratedflange. The bottom edge of a is brokenoff in ajagged line. The pieceis quitesimilar to thelintels over the eastdoors in the narthexof H. Meletios,94although in thelatter the leaves in theguilloche have rounded tops. The H. Meletioscomparison suggests an llth- or 12th-centurydate for 77, with the laterdate preferred. Another piece with an acanthus-in-guillochemotif in thecollection of theByzantine and Christian Museum in Athens supports a 12th- centurydate.95 12thcentury.

91.Orlandos 1939-1940, p. 73, centuryand after; see Mavroeidi 1999, fig.24. no.296. 92.The motif of a foliateelement 93.Gerstel 1996, p. 146. surroundedbya ridgedguilloche and 94.Orlandos 1939-1940, p. 70, fig. another,more softly carved, foliate 21;Grabar 1976, pl. LXXII, no. 85:b, d. borderis generallyfound in the12th 95.Mavroeidi 1999, no. 251. lSS , . S ; s . _ identified, =2 l X grave|S i s 91-3a<,^ x > 7:) *, ' pitho° k .... --- 5 m/

I96 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

l l l

{ Yt/SStU0zz,,,z,,,,,zzz,,,-S,,,,-;-zX"zzzzzZzz- {z"zzzz"zzntzz-zzz 1 7 , z , , l

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_ _ X x X tt _ _ I

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,o,z,,t, building wall | limits of excavation units 9l 91-1 o excavated grave i - t9_g,

^ X scatteredhuman bone 91-3b Figure59. Planof churchand narthexshowing burial locations MEDIEVAL BURIALS

The excavationsrevealed five complete graves as wellas indicationsthat othergraves still awaitfuture excavation (Fig. 59). A minimumof five gravesare known to existsouth ofthe church, at least one inside the church, andat least one more to theeast of thechurch. Scattered pieces of human bonesalso turned up in otherlocations. Some of thesecould reflect the reuseof gravesin the areaof the church,while others may simply result fromrandom disturbance around the site. The fivecompletely excavated graves and portions of fiveothers that wereencountered in one test trench(J11-6; Fig. 79) indicatethat two kindsof graveswere in useat Panaktonduring the 14thcentury. Within the church,two subfloorvaults were built of shapedstones and mortar, projectingslightly above the floorin the northeastand southwest corners of the narthex(Fig. 27). A third,much cruder construction was added to the exteriorwall of the churchat its southeastcorner (Fig. 71). The two othergraves, and apparently most of the partiallyuncovered graves, con- sistedof simplepits dug into the earth. These lay outside the church on its north,east, and south sides.

STONE-LINEDGRAVE VAULTS All threestone-lined vaults were in someway incorporated into the struc- tureof the churchand its attachednarthex. The two insidethe narthex wereclearly more carefillly constructed than was the one attachedto the churchexterior wall.

GRAVE1992-1 Figs.60-62 Grave1992-1 lay against the interior face ofthe southwallofthe narthex, extending2.30 m eastfrom the west wall and 1.07 m northfrom the south A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I97

j narthexwall g face g tombwall face

o g standing v) a limestoneslab outlineofhead cosrerslab

hiddenbones

Figure60 (above,lefi). Church narthex:grave 1992-1 coveringslab, wall.The southand west interior walls of the narthexformed the south fromwest andwest sides of thevault. Cut limestone blocks standing upright formed the interiornorth and east sides. A secondrow of lesswell cut limestone Figure61 (above,right). Church blocksframed the inner lining outside it on boththe north and east sides, narthex:grave 1992-1 in gravevault makingthese sides each 0.48 m thick.The interiorspace of the grave measured1.80 m east-westby 0.56 m north-south.The skeletonlay 0.47 m belowthe base of thenarthex south wall. This burial chamber had been coveredby segmentsof a largelimestone slab or slabsthat had collapsed inward,suggesting a partiallyhollow space beneath (Fig. 60). There was no traceof a preparedgrave floor. Beneath the cover slabs, a secondlime- stoneslab rested upon the innerliner of the northwall and upon a limestoneslab set vertically inside the south wall. This second slab covered the headof thegrave's occupant. It measuredroughly 0.66 m north-southby 0.40 m east-west.Yet another limestone slab stood vertically above the innerliner wall alongside the north end of thishead cover, creating a sort of alcoveabove the head of thegrave. Numeroussmall and medium-sized fragments of thinclear glass, in- cludingtwo loop handles, were recovered while excavating the gravefill. Theseglass fragments are reminiscent of glasslamps found associated with a Frankish-periodcemetery at Corinth.96 The adultmale who had been laid to restin thisgrave vault lay fillly extendedon his backwith his head at the west end (Fig. 61). His headhad beenpropped up slightlybetween limestone side head props to faceto- wardthe east.There was no signof anychin prop to preventthe mouth 96.Williams and Zervos 1993, fromfalling open after relaxation of rigormortis. The man'selbows flared pp.22-25. See also68 above. slightlyfrom his body.His forearmswere crossed over his torsowith the I98 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. rightforearm almost at a rightangle to thespine and the right hand lying betweenthe left hip andleft elbow.The left forearmangled upward towardthe rightshoulder, and the left handlay above the rightbreast. His legswere fillly extended with the lower three-fourths of thelower legs and feetprojecting beneath the eastern inner lining wall of thegrave vault. His kneesand feet were quite close together, as they would be if theankles had beenbound together. This indicatesthat the innerlining wall had been builtlater than the body'sinterment, although the conformitywith the wallsof thenarthex strongly suggests that he was interred after the narthex wasbuilt. We mightreconstruct the sequenceof eventsas follows.First, the narthexwas constructed. Burial 1992-1 was then placed in the southwest cornerof the narthexwith no stonelining walls other than the narthex walls.Finally, the northand east stone liners were built above the grave, althoughthe east liner wall covered the man's lower legs and feet. The top of thehead lay ca. 0.20 m awayfrom west wall of thegrave vault, and the bodyseems to havebeen twisted somewhat toward the rightand bent slightlyin thesame direction. No gravegoods were found with this burial.

OsteologicaIAnaZysis The bonesare in excellentcondition. The skeletonis fairlycomplete, al- thoughmissing most bones of the feetand ankles, and some bones from bothwrists. The robustbones, narrow pubic arch and sciatic notch of the pelvis,large femoral head diameter, and the presenceof a largeossified thyroidcartilage indicate a male.The obliterationof endocranialsutures, ossificationof cartilageon sternal rib ends, degenerative joint disease present in the vertebralcolumn, dental status, and the pubicsymphysis indicate anage of 45 to 50years. Cranial shape is longovoid,97 within the mesocrany (medium)range,98 with slightlybulging occipital, sloping low forehead, pronouncedglabella (area above the nose),very narrow face, straight narrownose, squareeye orbits,large mastoids, and broad square chin (Fig.62). Stature is estimatedat about 176.23 cm (5 8 ) on thebasis ofthe lengthsof the femurand tibia, using the regressionformula developed by Trotterand Gleser.99 The teeth arelarge with heavywear to the secondarydentin. The upperincisors have been reduced to rootstubs with well-worn and pol- ishedsurfaces, and the left lowercanine and first premolar show wear slantingdownward toward the back teeth, indicating that these teeth were usedas tools. Some calculus was present on thelower teeth, and periodontal diseaseis representedby moderatealveolar bone resorption. Small interproximaland neck caries existed in threeupper and three lower teeth, alongwith an abscess associated with the upper right lateral incisor (missing).All threeupper left molars,the secondpremolar, and the rightfirst andsecond molars had been lost long before death. This man had endured physicalviolence to his faceand upper chest with a depressionfracture, approximately7 x 23 mm, alongthe browridge above the right eye (Fig.62), andinjury where the rightclavicle articulates with the manu- 97. Rogers1984, p. 75. brium.Both injuries had healed, but the claviclewas displaced behind its 98. Bass1995, p. 69. articulationwith the manubrium. 99.Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON I99

Figure62. Churchnarthex: burial 1992-1.Skull of male.

Osteoarthritisin the neck and back, along with evidence of repetitive overuseof theshoulders from rotating the upper arms inward and out and loweringthem while flexing the forearmswith hands clenched, indicates thatthis manwas accustomed to heavywork using his upperbody and arms.Poirier's wear facets on the femoralnecks, greater on the left side, indicaterepetitive extension of the hipjoints with knees flexed.l°° There aresome unusual lytic lesions at thebase of thethird and fourth metatar- sals,the etiologyof whichis unknown.Developmental variants include inferiortransitional facets on theeleventh thoracic vertebra resulting from the borderbetween the thoracicand lumbar vertebrae shifting upward duringdevelopment. The transitionalfacets generally appear on the last thoracic,the twelfth,interfacing with the differentlyshaped facets of the firstlumbar vertebra.l°l Signs of lunginfection are apparent with thread- likelinear lesions with raised borders indicative of inflamedblood vessels on the innersurfaces of the left andright eighth and ninth ribs, and the left tenthrib. This infection was most likely the causeof his death.

GRAVE 1992-2 Figs. 63-69 Grave1992-2 extendedwestward along the interiornorth wall of the narthexfrom its northeastcorner, but it did not lie directlyagainst the walls(Fig. 26, above).It encompasseda space ranging 2.03 m westward fromthe north side of doorwayin thenarthex's east wall and 1.05 m south of the northwall. Three cut limestone blocks measuring0.79, 0.63, and 0.58 m longand each 0.15 m thick standupright to formthe southern sideof the vault.The topsof thesestones rose about 0.20 m abovethe narthexfloor. The west end wall consisted of twocut limestone blocks also standingupright. A roughlybuilt wall of unshapedlimestone blocks, built insidethe northand east walls of the narthexbut separatefrom them, formsthe vault's north side and its eastend. Large limestone slabs, resting on topof bothside walls, covered the vault. 100.Kennedy 1989, p. 147. A second,lower layer of gravecovering rested on a shelfbuilt inside 101.Barnes 1994, p. 109. thebounding walls of thevault. This second covering layer consisted of a AL. 200 S.E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET

> narthex t north wall

- - /////XA

E ,

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Wt -H narthex 3 Q floor f 3; tS limestone 9 g --:: wood Figure63. Churchnarthex: grave

* 1992-2.Cross section at individual's t&OOOoO . .q . --:} iron spike ,,,,,5C,,m,Xx,,,,S, hips. rectangularblue Karystian marble slab resting horizontally above the skulls, a triangularlimestone slab set againstthe eastedge of the marbleslab abovethe torso, and wooden planking, approximately 6 cm thick, over the lowertorso and legs (Fig.63). The limestoneslab rested on smallerstones apparentlydesigned to supportit. White plaster lined the lower interior of thisgrave vault. The topsof bothinner shelves and several lumps of this plasterfound around the bodydisplayed wooden plank impressions with thegrain aligned east-west (paralleling the body axis), indicating that wood formedabout half the lowergrave cover. The interiorspace for this grave measured1.68 m east-westby 0.374.50 m north-south,with the widest portionin the middle.No gravefloor was noticed. The gravehad been filledwith "minusculepebbles and sandy soil," about 0.02 m thick,be- neathwhich was looseloamy soil. Piecesof whiteplaster (several with woodplank impressions), medieval ceramic sherds (49, Fig. 36), animal bones,a thickiron ring (probably not for fingerwear), three iron nails, severalfragments of lampglass, and twelve small pieces of wood further suggestinga woodencovewere recoveredfrom the fill.The gravewas apparentlydug and constructed from the floor level of thenarthex that lay ca.0.20 m belowthe top of the gravewalls. Its uppercovering was easily visibleto peoplewho entered the narthex. Grave1992-2 contained the fairly complete skeletal remains of three separateindividuals: one woman (1992-2a) and two men (1992-2b and c). The womanhad been interred last, and the bonesof the two men had beenpushed to the south(right) side of thegrave and redeposited on top of herlower legs andfeet (Fig.64). She (1992-2a)lay fully extended on herback with her head at thewest end of thegrave facing upward. There wasno signof a chinprop or of sidehead props unless the stackedtwo skullsof the malesto the rightof herhead were intended as such.Her forearmswere folded across her stomach, the left forearm at a rightangle to herspine, and the rightforearm bent to placethe righthand over her pelvis.Her legs were fully extended with the knees slightly separated. Both maleskulls had been stacked on top of one anothernext to the rightside of thewoman's skull. The topone (1992-2b) rested right side up and fac- ingeast on top ofthe other (1992-2c), which lay upside down. Many addi- tionaladult bones lay along the rightside and on top of the articulated woman'sburial, especially in a lowstack over her lower legs and feet. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 20I

Figure64. Churchnarthex: grave 1992-2, fromeast Objectsdirectly associated with the bodies in thegrave include three completeiron spikes plus the tip of a fourthand threeiron nails (66, Fig. 47). The longestspike 0.194 m long-was foundbetween the lowerleft ribs of thearticulated woman with its tipat the spine. The other two spikes 0.173 andO.176mlong, respectivelylayin the northeast cornerof thegrave and outside the woman's right thigh. The three nails- 0.062,0.068, and 0.088 m long-encircledher left leg and feet. There was no evidencethat these iron spikes penetrated the woman's body, or either of the otherbodies. They apparently were arranged around the bodyof thewoman. A Venetiantornesello minted under Antonio Venier (1382-1400)1°2 appearedbeneath the rib cageof the articulatedwoman's skeleton (see Appendix1). It couldalso have originally rested on the bodyand fallen throughduring decomposition. In eitherevent, the finalinterment of the womanmost probably postdates 1382. As notedabove, the arrangement of skeletal remains in thegrave indicatesthat the woman (1992-2a) had been placed in thegrave last, with the bonesof theearlier male occupants pushed to oneside and deposited par- tiallyover her legs and feet. Multiple interment in thismanner was a com- monpractice in theByzantine and Frankish periods at Corinthand other 102.Inv. no. 1992-384. sites.103As eachnewbodywas added, the bones ofthe previous inhabitant(s) 103.The materialfrom Corinth wereredeposited on andaround the newest addition. The practice of rein- is beingprepared by A. Rohnfor a termentcontinues in nearbymodern-day Pyli, as well as in otherareas in chapterto appearin a monographby Greece.The associatediron spikes and nails could also have been rede- E. Barnesin the Corinthseries. For a comparablephenomenon of collective positedwith the bones of theearlier grave occupants, especially since they burialin Polystylon(Abdera), see clusteraround the legs.The coin,however, seems to relatespecifically to Agelarakis1997, pp. 294-295. thelatest burial. 202 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

OsteologicalAnalysis Figure65 (top).Church narthex: grave1992-2. Skulltops, fromleft to 1992-2a.The lastperson placed in this gravewas determinedto be an right:1992-2c, male;1992-2b, male; adultfemale on the basisof gracilebones and the widepubic arch and 1992-2a,female. sciaticnotch of the pelvis.Age wasestimated between 40 and45 years, basedon moderatedegenerative joint disease of the spine,dental status, Figure66 (bottom).Church narthex: andpubic symphysis. All bonesof the skeletonare present and are in ex- grave1992-2. Upperfaces, from left to right:1992-2c, male;1992-2b, cellentcondition. The craniumis a broadpentagonoid shape (Fig. 65),1°4 male;1992-2a, female. withinthe brachycrany(broad) range,l05 with bulgingoccipital, slightly pronouncedglabella, slight post-bregmatic depression behind the coronal suture,vertical forehead, medium face, squarish eye orbits (Fig. 66), wide straightnose, prominent chin with bony protuberance, and medium pointed mastoids(Fig. 67). Stature is estimatedaround 159.83 cm (5'3"),based on the lengthsof the femurand tibia.l06 Some teeth were lost afterburial. Mostof theremaining teeth are heavily worn to thesecondary dentin, and thereis a widespace between the upper and lower central incisors. Several interproximaland neck caries exist on upperand lower teeth, with total destructionof theupper right second molar and abscesses associated with threeupper molars and one lower molar. Severe alveolar bone resorption fromperiodontal disease and tooth loss is evident,along with some calcu- lusbuildup. The upper left canine, second premolar, and lower first molars 104. Rogers1984, p. 75. werelost before death, and the lower central incisors were about to be lost 105.Bass 1995, p. 69. at thetime of death. 106.Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 203

Figure67 (above,lefi). Churchnar- A largeold, healed circular fracture is visibleon the rightside of the thex:grave 1992-2. Skullof 1992-2a, skull,accompanied by a depressionfracture above and behind it, andan female. old healedfracture of the nose.Osteoarthritis in the neckand mid- and Figure68 (above,right). Church nar- lowerback indicates bending and loading stress on the spine.In addition, thex:grave 1992-2. Skullof 1992-2b, this individualhabitually overused her shoulders with the raisingof her male. arms,rotating them inward, down, and back with her elbowsflexed at rightangles. She also overused the thumband fingers of herright hand, whichmay have resulted from spinning. She was accustomed to prolonged standingwith her upper thighs rotated and knees extended and she also haddevelopmental asymmetrical torsion (uneven angles) of the femoral necksof the upperlegs. 1992-2b.Most of the skeletonof the secondadult male placed in the graveis presentand in good condition.Parts of the neckand back are missing,along with some hand bones and a fewfoot bones. The thyroid cartilageossified and was foundwith the skull.Sex was determinedby robustbones and the narrowpubic arch and sciatic notch of the pelvis. Age wasestimated between 45 and50 years,based on dentalstatus, degenerativejoint disease in thespine, endocranial suture closure, and pubic symphysis.The craniumis long andovoid (Fig. 65),1°7 within the dolichocrany(long-headed) range,108 with moderately bulging occipital, mod- eratelypronounced glabella and brow ridges, low forehead,narrow face, mediumstraight nose, very narrow eye orbits(Fig. 66), broadmastoids, broadchin, and flaring gonials of the mandible(Fig. 68). Fine pitting lesionsexist on the browridges. A statureof approximately170.35 cm (5'6")is estimatedon thebasis of the lengthsof femurand tibia.109 Most teethare worn to secondarydentin, with wear slanting back- wardon lowercanines (lower incisors missing). All of the uppermolars andthe lower right first and third molars were lost before death with se- verealveolar bone resorption. This individualsuffered from severe periodontaldisease, some calculus buildup on lowerfront teeth, and a neck cariesof thelower right molar. Healing was taking place from an extensive 107.Rogers 1984, p. 75. abscessassociated with one of the lost molars.There is evidenceof tem- 108.Bass 1995, p. 69. poromandibularjoint dysfunction on theright side of thelower jaw. Daily 109.Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958. activitiescaused repetitive loading stress on thelower back, and overuse of 204 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

Figure69. Churchnarthex: grave 1992-2. Skullof 1992-2c, male. the shoulderswhile flexing the elbowsat rightangles. He alsoshows evidenceof havinghad Osgood-Schlatter disorder below the right knee when young.This disorder is causedby overuseof the quadricepsmuscles pulling on thepatellar tendon during adolescence. 1992-2c. The first adult male placed in thegrave was younger than the othertwo adults.Age wasestimated between 30 and40 years,based on dentalstatus, open endocranial sutures, and lack of degenerativejoint dis- easein the spine.Sex was determined by robust bones and a narrowpubic archand sciatic notch of thepelvis. Most of thebones of the skeletonare presentand in goodcondition, with damage to the rightside of the cra- nium,left shoulder,vertebral column, and pelvis. Some hand bones and vertebraeare missing. The craniumis longand ovoid (Fig. 65),1l° within the mesocranyrange,lll with bulgingoccipital, medium forehead, pronouncedglabella and brow ridges, narrow face, fairly straight but asym- metricalnarrow nose, squarish narrow orbits (Fig. 66), broadmastoids, andmedium chin (Fig. 69). Staturewas estimated at around170.94 cm (5 6 ), basedon thelengths of thefemur and tibia.ll2 All upperteeth and lower lateral incisors were lost afterburial. The lowercentral incisors were lost before death, and the remaining lower teeth showmoderate wear with slightsecondary dentin exposure. The lower caninesshow wear slanting back toward the mouth.This individualsuf- feredfrom severe periodontal disease with some calculus buildup, and neck carieson secondand third molars. Faint linear enamel hypoplasias on the left canineindicate metabolic disturbances during infancy at around18 months,24 months,and 34 months.The baseof thefirst toe on theright foot hasa healedfracture. There is evidenceof repetitiveoveruse of the rightshoulder, and both upper arms have well-developed muscle attach- ments.The right elbow shows signs of repetitiveoveruse flexion at a right angle,along with repetitive overuse raising the left forearm. Developmen- 110.Rogers 1984, p. 75. talasymmetrical torsion (uneven angles) of thefemoral necks is presentin 111.Bass 1995, p. 69. theupper legs. 112.Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958. Displaced i -

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 205

ce o

In situ < -. W 2 right frontal (1) < > right ilium (2) l ) / ffi

right fibula (4) t > 0 tg rock 629 tile $) concretemortar limit of plasteredfloor

Figure70 (aboqJe,leJi). Church,south exterior:plan of grave1991-5, G RAV E 1991-5 Figs. 7>73 showingolder child bones probably still in theiroriginal position Grave1991-5 is a roughlyrectangular stone-walled vault built against the exteriorof thesouth wall of thechurch at its southeastcorner. The exterior Figure71 (above, rzght).Church, southwall of the churchforms the northwall of thevault. The westand south exterior:jumble of childbones southwalls were built of largerough stone blocks and some tile fragments in grave1991-5 set in concretemortar, while the eastwall and the eastend of the south wallwere accidentally removed with fallen rubble from the church.How- ever,remnants of mortarstill in placemarked the originallimits of the vault(Figs. 70, 71).The easterntwo-thirds of the gravevault floor re- tainedits originalplastered surface that sloped downward from its center line towardthe southwall. The interiordimensions of this gravevault, 1.58m east-westby 0.50-0.57 m north-south,were large enough to hold an adultbody, although only a veryfew adultbones occurred among the manyskeletal remains found in it. Severaljumbles of immatureboneswere found inside this stone-walled vault.Some bones belonged to an olderchild (designated l991-Sb) and wereconcentrated along the southwall of the graveconstruction, away fromthe churchwall, although some elements lay close to it. Twolarge piecesof skullwere from this older child: the rightparietal and occipital lay0.08-0.10 m fromthe northwall and ca. 0.37 m fromthe westend, whilethe right frontal was 0.29 m fromthe west wall and 0.19 m fromthe southwall, atop the only large flat rock found in thegrave that could have servedas a headprop (Fig. 70). AL. 206 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET

A secondcluster of bonesrepresenting portions of a youngerchild (designated1991-5a) and an infant (l991-Sc) was found among wall and roofrubble fallen from the churcharound the graveand possibly in the eastend of thegrave. Many elements from this cluster matched elements ofboth children found within the gravewalls. Photographsshow several bones in apparentproper position relative toone another along and parallel to the southwall (Fig. 71). These bones suggestthat the olderchild (l991-Sb) originallylay on its backwith itshead to the west.Probably, this headhad been propped up on a flat limestoneslab. Its right leg andhip (ilium, femur, and fibula) lay extended towardthe east.The clusterof bonesbelonging to the youngerchild (l991-Sa),recovered from around the grave and in its easternend, at one timemay well have been stacked over the lower legs and feet of the older child.Manybones scattered among overlying and adjacent excavation units belongto theindividuals recorded in thisgrave, indicating that there have beenseveral episodes of disturbanceover time. From what evidence sur- vives,we canreconstruct the followingevents: 1.The gravewas originally large enough to containan adult,but it wasfirst used for a subadult. 2. The youngerchild (l991-Sa) was probably placed in thegrave. 3. The olderchild (l991-Sb) was interred on its back,and the dis- placedbones of theyounger child (l991-Sa) were then probably stackedabove the olderchild's lower legs and feet. Portions of an infant(l991-Sc) were also added to thegrave f111. 4. The bonesof the olderchild (l991-Sb) appear to havebeen pushedto the south(right) side of thegrave seemingly to make roomfor the interment of a newperson. That interment, however,never took place. In the top of the gravefill, the excavatorsrecovered about a dozen glassfragments, including three rims and two loop handles (68, Fig. 49), thatbelonged to one or moreglass lamps.

OsteologicalAnalysis 1991-Sa.The younger child is representedby the mandible, upper central incisors,some vertebrae, rib fragments, most of thelower limbs, and parts of the upperlimbs. The craniumis missing.An ageof six to sevenyears wasdetermined by the dentaldevelopment and the diaphyseallengths of the longbones. The lowerright deciduous first molar was affected by a distalinterproximal caries. The righthumerus shows signs of repetitive overusein rotatingand flexing the arm;this could not be determinedfor theleft arrn. 1991-Sb.The olderchild is representedby partsof the craniumand mandible,several rib fragments, most of thevertebral column, parts of the upperlimbs, the pelvis, and the upper legs. An ageof nineto tenyears was determinedfrom dental development, with long bone diaphyseal lengths smallfor the dentalage. The teethare large, suggesting a malechild, with Figureradiiexterior: with73 gravebright).functional 1991-5. Church, stressFifth southlesionslumbar _ _;0non s ] ;0-X - W47*sX _ ^.- : _

A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 207

Figure72 (aboqwe). Church, south f ; - _:^-- ; ; ;X_ vertebrawithunilateral(left) s- _f- spondylolysis,9-10yearoldchild. l ,, l a

exterior:grave1991-5.Rightandleft | > > > ; 0g-iS

radialtuberosities from 9-10 year old X _ g g _ child,compared to normal radius 9 g _ froma child.

somecalculus on the lowerincisors. The upperlateral incisors are peg- shaped,and there are carabelli cusps on theupper permanent molars. The metopicsuture that divides the frontalbone during infancy, and usually disappearsby the ageof three,remains in thisindividual. This child suf- fereda smalloval depression fracture that had healed on the rightside of thehead on theparietal bone. The lastlumbar vertebra of thelower spine showsa stressfracture that separated the neuralarch from the vertebral body,facilitated by the asymmetricaldevelopment of the neuralarch and failureofthe neural arch to fuse.Thisis knownas a unilateral(left) spondylolysis(Fig. 72). Repetitive overuse from lifting heavy loads is represented by deeplytic lesions for the sternoclavicularligaments on bothclavicles, greateron the rightside, smaller lesions for pectoralis major on the right humerus(left unknown), and deep lytic lesions on bothradial tuberosities (Fig.73). The bicepsmuscles insert here, and the deeplesions indicate repetitiveoveruse in hyperflexingthe elbows with palms of thehands upward,as with carrying heavy loads. The distaldorsal aspect of bothfemurs showsshallow lesions of unknownetiology. 1991-Sc. Onlya fewbones and fragments represent this individual, includingthe righteye orbit, right scapula, a vertebralfragment, and the left ilium.The size andfibrous nature of the bonesindicate a newborn infant. 4 -0 ' ^'-4- @ _' - ** *_-S- .- 4- *W 9a iCe <;8

AL. 208 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET

northside: grave t>'; 3;3h<'4 74. Church, '7tN'''+ Figure _B;''t; -'0'0;'>;'P$' 1'''t";i>9¢' >S.- 1992-3,fromeast

SIMPLEPIT GRAVES GRAVE1992-3 Figs.74-76 Thebody of anadult male had apparently been laid to restin a simplepit (grave1992-3) dug into the rocky earth outside the north side ofthe church. Thisgrave's fill consisted of softersoil than the surrounding matrix. There was no evidencefor a gravelining or covering.The individualwas extendedon his backwith his headtoward the westand propped up on a stonealmost vertically to facehis feet (Fig.74). There was no signof a chinprop. His forearmswere folded across his torsowith the rightfore- armangled toward the upperpelvis and the righthand lying on the left hip.The left forearmlay at a rightangle to the spinewith the left elbow flaringslightly from the axisof the torsoand resting on top of a small stone(probably fortuitous since the ground contained many such stones). Theleft hand lay on thelower right rib cage. The legs of thisman lay fully extendedtoward the eastwith both knees and ankles about 0.10-0.15 m apart.The feet pointed slightly toward one another. Disarticulated human bonesnot belonging to the articulatedburial in thisgrave were recovered fromthe grave fill and above it. They represent five other individuals, none ofwhom appear to havebeen intentionally interred within this grave. They mostlikely indicate disturbances from other nearby graves.

OsteologicalAnalysis Mostof the skeletonis presentand in goodcondition, but the skullwas damagedsomewhat. Male sex was determined on the basis of robustbones, largeossified thyroid cartilage, and the narrow pubic arch and sciatic notch A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 209

Figure75 (aboq)e,left). Church,north of the pelvis.An age of 30 to 35 yearswas estimatedby dentalwear, side:grave 1992-3. Faceof malefrom grave. absenceof degenerativejoint disease in the spine,and pubic symphysis. Thecranial shape is broadpentagonoid,ll3 within the brachycrany range,ll4 Figure76 (aboqwe,right). Church: with roundedoccipital, medium forehead, slightly pronounced glabella, fatalskull fracture of malein grave wideface, square orbits, medium nose, small square chin (Fig.75), and 1992-3 largepointed mastoids. Stature was estimated at approximately 175.00 cm (5 8/), basedon lengthsof thefemur and tibia.ll5 The uppercentral incisors were separated by a largespace, not unlike the femalein grave1992-2 inside the narthex.Dental wear is moderate withsome secondary dentin exposure on mostteeth, except for the third molarsthat showed less wear. While the upper front teeth show even wear, the bottomfront teeth show wear slanted toward the back.Slight periodontaldisease occurred around the uppermolars and premolars along withmoderate calculus, while the upper left central incisor was lost before death.There is evidenceof repetitiveoveruse of the shoulders,greater on the rightside, from rotating and lifting the armsoverhead with forearms flexedand rotated, wrists extended, and right thumb flexed. Both calcanei of the feethave fine pitting lesions lateral to the talararticulation where the talocalcanealligaments attach on the outerside of the feet.The left femurshaft is broken,and the exposedinner bony canal is abnormally filledwith trabecular bone, obliterating the innermedullary canal, while the outercortex bone is unusuallythin. Developmental variants include posteriorbridging on theatlas vertebra in theneck (complete left, incom- pleteright) and a facetfor an extrarib on the left sideof the firstlumbar vertebra(right unknown). Ribs generally do not appearon thisvertebra, unlessthe borderseparating the lastthoracic and first lumbar vertebrae shiftsdownward during development.ll6 There is fusionof the lasttwo 113.Rogers 1984, p. 75. 114.Bass 1995, p. 69. bonesof the left fifthtoe (rightunknown). Death was caused by a fatal 115.Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958. skullfracture to the top of the headon the left parietal,leaving radiating 116.Barnes 1994, p. 109. fracturelines behind (Fig. 76). M. MUNN, ET AL. 2IO S.E. J. GERSTEL,

Miscellaneoushuman bones from the fill of grave1992-3 (SU 408) includethe following: 1. Child'sskull fragments; hand bones; vertebral fragment; shafts of femurs,tibiae, and fibula of legs;and left ilium of pelvis.Age unknown 2. Adultfemale gracile fourth metacarpal from right hand, and a fewteeth 3. Newborninfant fibrous fragments of skull,ulna of rightforearm, andtibiae of lowerlegs 4. Infantfour to sixmonths of agerepresented by left temporal fromcranium, humerus of rightarm, and fragments of ribs, ulna,femur, and tibia. Age estimatedon diaphyseallength of humerus Othermiscellaneous human bones, from above grave 1992-3 (SU 406) andall from another adult male, include parietal fragments from a skull,a largerobust patella from the rightknee, left foot bones, and a fibulafrag- mentfrom the lower leg. 78 G RAVE 1992-4 Figs.77, Burial1992-4a lay in a simpleearthen pit cutthrough rocky, rubble-rich soileast of the church.The pitwas just large enough to containthe body, measuring1.62 m east-westby 0.50 m north-southby about 0.40 m deep. Thegrave fill was "softer and looser" than the surrounding matrix. A roughly squarelimestone slab measuring ca.40 cmon a sidecovered the head and upperchest (Fig.77). It restedon a ringof stonessurrounding the head on the north,west, and south sides. The individuallay extended on its back withits headto thewest and slightly propped up (onearth?) to faceeast- ward.The forearmswere folded across the torsowith the left forearmat nearlya rightangle to the spineand with the left handresting above the crestof theright pelvis. The rightforearm angled toward the center of the left upperarm with the righthand resting on the left ribcage. The legs extendedstraight with both knees and ankles no closerthan about 0.10- 0.15 m apart.The pelvishas shiftedsomewhat, probably from ground pressure.The articulatedbody measured about 1.40 m east-westby about 0.40m north-southat the elbows. Some additional human bones, including skullparts, that were found in the gravefill mayrepresent additional humanbones added to thegrave or they may come from another adjacent burial.Portions of anotherskull (1992-4b) were encountered at thesouth sideof thegrave.

OsteologicalAnalysis 1992-4a. Most of the skeletonis representedin fairto good condition. Malesex was determined by robust bones and the narrowpubic arch and sciaticnotch of thepelvis. An ageof 40 to 45 yearswas estimated by dental status,endocranial suture obliteration, presence of somedegenerative jointdisease in thespine, rib ends, and pubic symphysis. The cranialshape A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 2II

is broadsphenoidll7 within the brachycrany range,ll8 with slightly bulging occipital,vertical forehead, pronounced glabella, medium-sized straight Figure77 (above,leJ:t). Church, east nose,square eye orbits, medium chin, flaring mandibular gonials, and broad side:grave 1992-4, showingcover mastoids.An approximatestature of 162.73cm (54 ) wasestimated on slabover head. Curved dashed line at thebasis of thelength of thefemur.ll9 bottom representspithos wall. A largespace occurs between the upper central incisors, similar to that of the femalein grave1992-2 in the narthex,and the malein grave Figure78 (above,rzght). Church, east 1992-3on the northside of thechurch (Fig. 78). The upperright molars side:grave 1992-4. Faceof malewith aremissing. The upperleft molarsand the lowerright second and third spacebetween upper incisor teeth. molarswere lost due to periodontaldisease not long before death. Most of the remainingteeth are heavily worn to the secondarydentin, and the uppercentral incisors are worn smooth to the rootsfrom being used as tools.There is a largeabscess associated with the upperright canine and leftlateral incisor, and calculus is presenton allteeth. Patches of periosteal plaqueand striations from irritation can be seenon bothtibiae, and severe periostitison both fibulae ofthe lower legs. Periosteal plaque is alsopresent on the distaldorsal aspect of the rightfemur. The neckand back show someloading stress. There is evidenceof repetitiverotation overuse of bothupper arms and forearms, with elbowsflexed at rightangles. The rightforearm rotated the palmof the handupward, while both thumbs showhyperextension facets at interphalangealand metacarpophalangeal joints,and osteoarthritis is present on thedistal phalanges of thethird and fifthfingers of the righthand. This showsthat the individualhabitually overextendedhis thumbs backward with force, with overuse of thefinger- 117.Rogers 1984, p. 75. tipsof the thirdand fifth fingers. The left leg showssigns of overuseex- 118.Bass 1995, p. 69. tendingthe knee,and both calcanei show bony spicules from overuse of 119.Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958. theAchilles tendons. S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. 2I2 MUNN, ET AL.

Developmentalvariants include mild upward shifting of the border betweenthe cervicaland thoracic vertebrae during development, with a unilateralright blunt, bony extension of the transverseprocess of the last cervicalvertebra an attemptat formingan extrarib. The firstlumbar vertebrahas rib facets indicating extra ribs with the borderbetween the thoracicand lumbar vertebrae shifting downward during development, whilethe border between the lumbars and sacrum shifted upward, causing the rightside of thelast lumbar to becomepart of the sacrum.l20 1992-4b. SkuHfragments found at the southside of the gravemost likelybelong to anadult female, based on thesmall size and gracileness of the skeletalmaterial. The leftparietal was reconstructed, and a portionof the rightparietal is present,along with the left temporal,left zygomatic withattached left maxilla containing the incisors with only mild wear, and a portionof thebase of the skull.The firstcervical vertebra, the atlas,was incorporatedinto the base of the skull,resulting from downward shifting of theborder between the cervical vertebrae and the base of theskull duringdevelopment.12l There is alsoa matchingfragment of the secondcer- vicalvertebra.

PIT GRAVESOUTSIDE THE CHURCH PARTIALLY DUG OREXPOSED Whileexcavating a 1 x 2 m testtrench (J11-6) during the 1991field season,the excavatorsencountered portions of severalburials. Even though theydid not excavate the burials in theirentirety, we caninfer that at least fiveburials are still in the groundadjacent to the testtrench (Fig. 79). A glazedpitcher was found among the graves and may have been related to theburials (51, Fig. 34).

GRAVE1991-1 Figs.80, 81 Theskull of aninfant was encountered projecting from the north scarp of thetest trenchalong with severalbones of the rightshoulder and upper torso.Even though the excavatorsdiscerned no graveoutline, it probably hadbeen a simplepit in the earth.Two rocks, or one slabbroken in two, layabove the faceand torso. This infantlay about0.40-0.60 m below groundsurface, but it wasprobably not buriedso deeplyoriginally. The infantapparently had been buried lying on its backwith its headto the westand propped up ca. 70 degreesfrom horizontal, probably on earth.Its headand right shoulder appear (from photographs) to beresting on rocks. Anadult atlas lay alongside the right temporal.

OsteologicalAnalysis Theinfant's skull is fairlyintact (Figs. 80, 81),missing the base occipital. Theright arm is representedby the scapula, clavicle, humerus, and radius. Thereare a few rib fragments,neural arches of all but the last cervical vertebrae,and fragments of a few handbones. The metopicsuture is in 120.Barnes 1994, pp. 103, 112. place,and a small anteriorfontanelle. An age of 12 to 14 monthswas 121.Barnes 1994, p. 83. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 2I3

Figure79.J11-6 burials:1991 sondage

Figure80 (above,left). J11-6 burials: infantface from grave 1991-1 estimatedby dentaldevelopment and diaphyseal lengths of longbones. Veryfine pitting lesions in the roofsof botheye orbitsindicate anemia Figure81 (above,right). J11-6 resultingfrom systemic infection. This babyshows overuse of the right burials:infant skull from grave shoulderand arm (unknown for left arm).The bonesare robust, with a 1991-1 bonyridge for the conoid ligament and extended bony shelf for the deltoid on the clavicle,fine pitting for pectoralis major and subscapularis on the humerus,and for the bicepson the radius.

G R AV E 1991-2 The distalcondyles of thelower ends of twoadult femora from the upper legsin excellentcondition were seen projecting from the northscarp of theexcavation unit near its northeastcorner. They were not removed. The apparentposition of thesetwo bones might suggest a possiblebundle burial. 2I4 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

GRAVE1991-3a The distalhalf of a femurfrom the left upperleg articulatedto its left lowerleg andheel and an associatedright foot (burial1991-3a) were ex- posedagainst the south scarp. Once again, the excavators could discern no graveoutline, but it wasprobably a simple pit. The boneslay 0.50-0.60 m belowground surface. Visible leg bonessuggest the bodylay on its back withlegs extended and feet pointing toward the east.

OsteologicalAnalysis The tibia,fibula, and patella of the left leg, calcaneifrom both feet, and mostof the bonesof the rightfoot (minusmost of the toe bones)of an adultwere removed. The bonesare of moderatesize, with a malestature estimateof 168.56cm (5 6 ) basedon the tibialength. There is an old healedfracture of a proximalphalange of a toe on theright foot. Male sex is indicatedby the presenceof bonyspicules on the patellafrom the left kneefrom strain on extensormuscles, and bony spicules on theheel of the calcaneusfrom stress on theAchilles tendon. Both are frequently seen in adultmales, and rarely present in adultfemales.

GRAVE1991-3b A secondleft foot foundabout 0.20 m eastof the rightfoot of 1991-3a probablyrepresents another individual (burial 1991-3b) buried beneath 1991-3a.The restof bothof theseburials can be assumedto stilllie in the groundsouth of thisexcavation unit.

OsteologicalAnalysis Mostof the bonesof an adultleft foot andproximal phalanges from the firstand third toes of theright foot were recovered. The left calcaneus and talusare missing. The bonesare small and gracile, indicating a female. Fusionof the lasttwo bonesis presenton the fifthtoe. There is a small kneelingfacet on thefirst metatarsal, and the proximal phalange from the left firsttoe exhibitserosive lesions on the articularbase.

GRAVE1991-4 In the northwestcorner of the excavationunit, most of theleft foot and a fewbones of theright foot belonging to anadult were found beneath a flat limestoneslab that extended back into the north and west scarps. No grave outlinecould be determined,but it wasprobably a simple pit covered by at leastone large limestone slab. The remainderof the burialstill lies in the ground.

OsteologicalAnalysis Rightand left talus, most of thebones of theleft foot, and a fewphalanges fromthe right foot, including the first distal phalange, were recorded. The bonesare small and gracile, indicating a female. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 2I5

OSTEOLOGICALSUMMARY The samplesize is too smallto projectany demographic interpretations (Table1). The sampledoes, however, represent a mixed population, based on the presenceof primarilytwo differentskull shapes, ovoid long and broadshapes. It is interestingto note that only maleswith ovoidlong skullswere buried in thechurch, while only males with broader skulls were foundoutside the church.The onlyfemale, buried in the churchnarthex with two males,also has a broadskull similar to the skullshapes of the malesburied outside the church (Figs.65,66). The femaleand males with broadskulls also share a similargenetic trait, a wide spacebetween the upperfront teeth. Further excavations of the cemeterywould help deter-

. . j . . m1ne1t t. R1S 1S a pattern. Evidencefor injury was present on threeof thesix adult skulls and on one child'sskull. The blowto the headof the malefrom grave 1992-3 on thenorth side of the churchwas fatal. The frequencyof blowsto thehead appearsto be ratherhigh, even within this smallsample. Dental disease was common,affecting five out of six adults,and one child.The infant 1991-1shows signs of anemiacaused by infection,and periosteal infec- tionwas present on the lowerlegs of the malefrom grave 1992-4 east of the church.The malefrom grave 1992-1 in the narthexshows signs that he diedfrom a lunginfection. Signsof filnctionalstress resulting from repetitive overuse of muscles andjoints with habitual activities related to dailylife were present on allof the completeadult skeletons, the two childrenfrom grave 1991-5, and eventhe toddlerfrom grave 1991-1. The armsand shoulderswere af- fectedthe most,primarily by activitiesrelated to heavylifting, pulling, or activitiesthat required the elbows to berepetitively flexed at a rightangle. The adultmale from grave 1992-1 in thenarthex and the adult male from grave1992-4 east of the churchshow signs of havingused their upper frontteeth as tools.The even,smooth wear, highly polished to the root stubs,suggests that they were using their upper front teeth to softenleather or someother material by passingit repeatedlyacross these teeth, while the lowerteeth held it in place. Asymmetricaltorsion of thefemoral necks is anuncommon develop- mentaltrait. The necksof the femurs,just belowwhere they articulate with the pelvicbones, usually angle at the samedegree. The anglesin someindividuals are unequal, but do not causeany pathology. The adult female(1992-2a) and the firstmale (1992-2c) buried in the samegrave withinthe narthexshare this trait, despite differences in skullshape. Two ofthe adultmales buried outside the church (1992-3 and 1992-4a) share a similardevelopmental trait. Both havelumbar rib expressionson the firstlumbar vertebra, resulting from shifting of the borderbetween the lumbarand thoracic vertebrae during development. The bordershifted downward,forcing the nearestlumbar vertebra to takeon thecharacteris- tics of the overlyingthoracic, resulting in extraribs projecting from the lumbarvertebra. The unilateralspondylolysis, separation of the left sideof the neuralarch from the lastlumbar vertebra, of the childfrom grave 1991-5b is 2I6 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

TABLE 1. INDIVIDUALS REPRESENTED IN MEDIEVAL CONTEXTS Grave/Burial Location Condition Sex/Age CranialShape Stature

1991-1 SE of church incomplete infant12-14 mos 1991-3a S of church incomplete maleadult 168.56 cm (5'6") 1991-3b S of church lncomplete femaleadult 1991-4 S of church incomplete femaleadult 1991-5a SE stone vault partial child6-7 yrs 1991-5b SE stone vault partial child9-10 yrs 1991-5c SE stone vault fragments infantnewborn 1992-1 narthex complete male45-50 yrs ovoid long 176.23 cm (5'8") mesocrany 1992-2a narthex complete female40-45 yrs broadpentagonoid 159.83 cm (5'3") brachycrany 1992-2b narthex complete male45-50 yrs ovoid long 170.35 cm (5'6t) dolichocrany 1992-2c narthex complete male30-40 yrs ovoid long 170.94 cm (5'6") mesocrany 1992-3 N of church complete male30-35 yrs broadpentagonoid 175.00 cm (5'8t) brachycrany 1992-4a E of church complete male40-45 yrs broadsphenoid 162.73 cm (5'4#) brachycrany 1992-4b E of church fragments female adult SU 20-22 E of church fragments adult SU 92 and 101 E of church, partial infantnewborn aroundgrave 92-4 isolate2 S of churchdoor, a) fragments adult SU 101 and 102 underceramic vessel b) fragments child 7-8 yrs SU110 adjacentto apse a) fragments infant4-6 mos b) fragments female adult c) fragments male adult SU115 SE of church a) fragments femaleadult b) fragments child c) fragments infant newborn SU 152-154 S of narthex fragments femaleadult SU 201 and252 churchfill a) fragments female adult b) fragments adolescent SU 307-310 fill andfloor a) fragments adult in narthex b) fragments child SU 309 and311 abovegrave 92-2 fragments adult in narthex SU 406 abovegrave 92-3 fragments maleadult N of church SU 408 in grave92-3 a) fragments female adult N of church b) fragments child c) fragments infant4-6 mos d) fragments infant newborn SU 409 NVVof church a) fragments female adult W of grave92-3 b) fragments infant newborn SU 503-507 westof narthex a) fragments adult b) fragments child A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 2I7

rare.This is a stressfracture caused by unevendevelopment of the neural archand failure of the twohalves of the neuralarch to fuseduring development.There are two similar cases, both on theleft side, in anadult male and anotherchild at medievalCorinth, dating to the same time periodas thiscemetery. Genetic linkage between the examinedindividu- alsis suggested. Twoindividuals, a male (1992-3) and a female(1991-3b), have filsed bonesin thefifth toe, known as symphalangism. This trait appears in me- dievalcemeteries at Corinthand may be morewidespread.

RECONSTRUCTION OF FUNERARYBEHAVIOR Althoughthe sampleis quitesmall, several interpretations can be drawn. Comparisonswith Frankishand later burials at Corinthand elsewhere demonstratethat funerary practices at medievalPanakton were part of a broadcultural pattern, but also included minor variations that may reflect localcustom. The funerarypractices are as follows: Preparationof thegrave. Two kindsof graveswere identified in the medievallevels at Panakton.Stone-lined vaults were found within the churchnarthex and against the churchexterior wall. These vaults must usuallyhave been built ahead of timesince their construction would have requiredtime, the gathering of materials,and labor. This could account for the apparentmisfit in grave1991-5, located on the southexterior of the church.In the caseof grave1992-1 in the narthex,the vaultlining was constructedafter interment. Grave 1992-2 had even been coated on the interiorwith white plaster. A simple,shallow pit sunkinto the earthsuf- ficedfor those buried outside the church. Such graves could be easilypre- paredwithin the shorttime precedinginterment (bodies were not em- balmed).All of theinfants in oursample came from such a context.If the gravehad been previously used for burial, the bonesof the formeroccu- pantswere removed or pushed aside to makeroom for the newly deceased. Thispractice was followed in graves1992-2 and 1991-5, both stone-lined vaults.It mayalso be possiblethat an adult grave demolished a grave used previouslyfor an infant. In thatcase, some of thebones of theinfant would be foundin the adult'sgrave fill. Grave 1992-3 may be anexample of this phenomenon. Preparationof thebody. While we haveno meansof recoveringhard evidence,ethnographic studies of funeralpractices in ruralGreece describe the processesof washingand dressing the body.122The head,arms, and legswould have to be positionedbefore the onsetof rigormortis, within two to fourhours after death.123 Apparently, mortuary garb at medieval Panaktondid not includepersonal jewelry.l24 There were no signsthat coffinswere used at this site; the deceased may have been encased in cloth 122.Danforth 1982; Kurtz and shroudsthat deteriorated with the passage of time.At Panakton,the heads Boardman1971. wereusually set in a proppedposition (four of fivecases); grave 1992-2a 123.Ludwig 1972; Spitz 1993. providedthe loneexception. Although arms were generally folded across 124.It is possible,although it can- thelower torso, there was considerable variation in theplacement of fore- not be proven,that the silverring found on the narthexfloor (55) mayhave armsand hands. The legswere extended in a straightline with the spine; beenassociated with one of the burials in onlyone case (1992-1) were the knees and ankles close enough to sug- in thatspace. gestthat the anklesmay have been bound. M. MUNN, ET AL. S.GERSTEL, E. J. 2IS practicesin theregion, some In keepingwith contemporary blessing Interment. Panakton.Containers for ritualtook place at grave sortgravesideof As thebody was placed in wereleft behindat thegrave. butun- substances on a stone"pillow." A similar, the headwas propped up 1992-3, in grave1991-5. Ingraves 1991-1,1992- casemay have existed east.No at- confirmed, to bolsterthe headsto face 1992-4, earthwas used andthere 1, and headsbetween side props weremade to straightenthe Thegrave tempts objectsplaced beneath the chins. weretracesno of nonperishable containingwhatever the previouslyexcavated earth, wasthenfilled with andcontaminating the fill. itemsmay have been present lostdiscarded or 1991-1,1991-4,1992-1,1992-2, coveredportions of graves upper Stoneslabs lay abovethe headsand In fourinstances, the slabs and1992-4. feet of the individualin grave onlynote the slabover the torsos.We can orlinings in thesegraves, and wasno useof tile coverings spikes 1991-4.There 1992-2 containedthe iron wererare. Grave in graveaccompaniments in the fill.The one coinfound (66),plus other iron objects andnails anintentional act of inclusion. 1992-2a125seems to reflect narthex grave The gravevaults inside the Post-intermentcommemoration. easilynoticed by level;they would have been projectedslightly above floor markerswere No otherrecognizable grave anyoneentering the chamber. incisedyel- However,a thoroughlysmashed observedduring fieldwork. overthe narthex floor bowl(49, Fig. 36) layscattered lowandgreen glazed vesselis reminiscentof four fill of grave1992-2. This smashed when andin the in Corinthin 1997 and1999 filneralsthat we observed to break contemporary theday following the funeral plateswere broken in thehome thrown new the pieceswere subsequently of deathin the family; of lamps thepattern of thin clearglass typical top of the grave.Fragments allthree overthe andwithin the upper fill of plentifulin thefill of thenarthex handles, were fragmentswere several loop graves.Among these of glasson the stone-lined displayingappliqued ropes nipplebases, and body sherds wereburned over suggestthat votive lamps exterior.Such plentiful finds builtgraves following burial. we thespecially andportions of othersobserved, the five completegraves other From (seeTable 1). At leastseven recognizesome twenty individuals andeast, await can andoutside it to thesouth knowngraves, inside the church fullexcavation in the future.

FINDS SUMMARY OF CERAMIC providea filllpicture of the vesselsexcavated at Panakton Theceramic of a small,agrarian settlement. availableto the residents ftnds rangeof wares above,together with other vesselshave been presented other Individual we haveprovided parallels from thehouses. Wherever possible, to ce- from however,do not compareclosely The majorityof thevessels, of paral- sites. sitessuch as Corinth. The lack ramicfinds from well-established of a completepottery ty- in twoways: the absence lelsmay be explained high percentageof 1992-384. to 15th centuryand the 125.Inv. no. pologyfor the mid-14th in this study Most of the potterycatalogued unglazed,common wares. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON

derivesfrom securely dated contexts on site;a few fragmentshave been 2I9 addedwhen their unusual decoration or shapesuggested their presenta- tionfor further study. Ceramicwares include fine andplain ware bowls, cooking pots, ev- erydaystorage vessels, and pithoi. In general,the vesselswere found in goodcondition, with sharp breaks and many joins. With few exceptions, the fabricsare consistent in firingand color; the majorityfall withina smallrange of reddish-yellowson the Munsellchart (SYR 6/6-7/8 and 7.5YR6/6-7/6). The repertoireof shapesis limited;many of the exca- vatedshapes (e.g., 6,10,30) areparalleled at otherlate medieval sites sur- veyedin the SkourtaPlain, such as the Pylitower, suggesting that these sites drewon the sameregional workshop. Green glaze applied to the unslippedPanakton fabric on both open andclosed shapes produces a thick,mottled greenish-brown surface (5,34,51). Finewares of localfab- ric areuniformly decorated with a simplespiral design (3,44,46) and coarsepots are occasionallymarked by a punchedor combeddesign (35,38). Rooftiles, found in abundanceon site,and floor tiles, recovered in the church,display a limitednumber of designson theirupper surfaces (21,22,40), suggestinga singleworkshop for the manufactureof these largewares. The closestcomparisons to thePanakton vessels are from rescue exca- vationsand surveys in Thebesand its hinterland.126A glazed bowl from thechurch (42) is mostclosely compared to a bowlexcavated in thecity. A seriesof large,thick-walled "mixing bowls" found in severalof the houses at Panakton(5,27) resemblesherds from vessels found in surveyof the Valleyof the Muses,to the west of Thebes,as does a highlydecorated storagejar lid (35).127The closestparallel for the pithos(19) is a slightly smallervessel found in excavationsof a small,late medieval settlement at Akraiphnion.l28Cooking pot rims at Panakton do notgenerally match the seriesof profilesfound at late medieval Corinth or the Athenian Agora,129 andpoint toward another source for utilitarian wares. Onlya fewvessels have substantially different fabrics and surface treat- mentand may constitute imports from outside the region.These include severalbrown-glazed bowls with dark red fabric (2,4,43) thatwere found in HouseI andin thechurch; two vessels found in thechurch, a plateand jugwith green-and-yellow and green-and-brown glaze decoration (45,50); anda glazedplate with a complicatedincised design (49), somesherds of whichwere included in grave1992-2. Close parallels for the shapesand surfacetreatments of thesevessels can be foundat Corinth. 126. Relativelylittle of the late Theproportional distribution offilnctionalwares (fine, cooking, coarse) medievalpottery from Thebes has been published.Its eventualstudy will is uniformin thehouses excavated across the site. Pottery from the church influencethe analysisof vesseltypes presentsa differentpicture. A comparisonof the ceramicsfound in the fromPanakton. northroom of HouseI to thosefound in the narthexof the churchsug- 127.J.Vroom, pers. comm., 2000. gestshow the proportional distribution of specificwares may vary accord- 128.Unpublished; C. Koilakou, ing to context.The storageroom and the narthexare nearly identical in pers.comm., 2001. The vesselis cur- sizebut are functionally distinct. The potteryfound in HouseI represents rentlyhoused at the officeof the First Ephoreiaof ByzantineAntiquities in the abandonmentdebris of the northroom and suggests the rangeand Athens. numberof vesselsthat a singlefamily might have used in everydaycook- 129. Sanders1987; MacKay 1967. ingand storage. Relatively few of thevessels found in thenorth room were 220 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

TABLE 2. SHERDS FROM WARES FOUND IN STRATIFIED LEVELS Context GlazedWares CookingWares CoarseWares Total

HOUSE I SU 129 9 (4%) 10 (5%) 184 (91%) 203 SU 131 12 (2%) 253 (39%) 384 (59%) 649 SU 133 8 (4%) 208 (96%) 216 SU 137 1 (3%) 31 (86%) 4 (11%) 36

NART H EX SU 308 25 (14%) 152 (86%) 177 SU 310 78 (21%) 55 (15%) 234 (64%) 367 glazed.The potteryexcavated in the churchnarthex has a differentchar- acter.A muchhigher percentage of thefinds were glazed and fewer cookingwares were found. A comparisonof numbersof sherdsfound in stratifiedlevels in House I andthe churchnarthex is revealing(Table 2). The sampleis smallbut it establishesa clear pattern. The proportionof fineto coarsewares reflects the differentuses of the structuresin whichthey were found.130 The high numberof glazedvessels in thechurch might suggest that bowls and plates weregiven for ceremonial use or were employed in a widevariety of litur- gicaland extra-liturgical rituals. This is thecase, for example, for the glazed bowldecorated with an incised, abstract floral pattern (49), pieces of which werefound in twolocations: resting on thefloor of thenarthex and below the coverslab of grave1992-2. Glazed bowls found in the churchand its narthexmay have been used to drink,pour, or transportholy water, to anointthe deceased, to containoil, to holditems used in theperformance of theeucharistic service, or to storewine. A largenumber of coarsewares werealso found in the church,and their presence, in a religiousstructure, needsto be explained.Even in modernchurches of theGreek countryside, a largenumber of vesselsare found, ranging from plastic bottles holding oil andwater, to bowlsholding incense, to storagejars holding candles.13l These containers in variousfabrics supplementthe properliturgical vessels,generally metal, used in ritualperformance. ThePanakton ceramics demonstrate the range of wares that were avail- ablein a peasantsettlement. The smallnumber of importssuggests that limitedresources were available for securingfinely made and decorated vessels,either through payment or barter. That glazed wares were available on sitetells us thatthe presence of glazeis not necessarilyassociated with luxury.What may be viewedas an economicindex is the simpledecora- tion of the Panaktonfine wares. The majorityof glazedbowls, as men- tionedabove, are decorated with incisedpatterns consisting of a spiral executedin a sloppymanner. The mostelaborately decorated vessel, the sgraffitobowl (49) associatedwith the narthextomb, may have been ob- 130.For a similarobservation, specialuse in theburial rite. basedon potteryfrom the Australian tainedfor Paliochora-KytheraArchaeological In summary,the ceramicsexcavated at Panaktonserved the needsof Survey,see Caraher,Gregory, and a smallcommunitywith limited resources. Statistical analysis demonstrates Pettegrew2001. thatthese resources, when available, were invested in importedwares that 131.Personal observation. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 22I weregiven over to the serviceof the church.These fine waressupple- menteda smallnumber of ceremonialmetal objects, primarily bronze, that werealso employed in churchritual (55{92). The domesticwares from the sitecomprise a uniformassemblage. This common pottery was produced in theregion, most likely in the areaof Thebes, suggesting close economic tieswith that center.

HI STO RICAL SUMMARY

Twoyears of excavationat Panaktonhave uncovered buildings, both domesticand ecclesiastic, of a medievalvillage built within the wallsof a Classicalcitadel. The numismaticevidence, as well as ceramicsand small finds,suggests that this village was inhabited for not more than a hundred years,from the middleof the 14thto the early15th century. There are no tracesof earliermedieval occupation on the site;stray Byzantine coins, oneof thempierced for suspension, appear to havebeen keepsakes. There arealso no tracesof occupationon the siteat anytime later than the early 15thcentury. The historyof medievalPanakton therefore belongs to the periodof the Catalan(1311-1388) and Florentine (1388-1458) control ofthe Duchyof AthensandThebes.The exact circumstances that spurred the constructionand abandonment of medievalPanakton are as yet unknown,however, as areits medievalname and the preciseidentity of its residents. It is possiblethat preexisting settlements in the SkourtaPlain con- tributedto the populationthat settled at Panakton.Survey has identified threemedieval village sites in the SkourtaPlain: Loukisia (near Prasino), AyiosNikolaos (near Skourta), and Ayios Georgios (near Skourta) with substantialremains from the 12thand 13th centuries. Fragments of Byz- antinearchitectural sculpture with stylistic affiliations to carvingfrom the nearbymonastery of H. Meletioshave been identified at Loukisia.Archi- tecturalfragments carved in thesame style (71-75) were found in excavation of the Panaktonchurch; most of thesehave been dated, on stylistic grounds,to the 12thcentury. It is likelythat the Panakton fragments rep- resentspolia derived from one or morebuildings in the plain.It seems possiblethat villagers from the plainmoved up to the mountaintopat somepoint in the mid-14thcentury, taking fragments of sculpturewith themfor the constructionof theirnew church. Thelocation ofthe Skourta Plain midwaybetween Athens andThebes madeit unlikelythat villagers living in thisagricultural basin would have remainedunaffected by the political vicissitudes of the14th and early 15th centuries.Coins found on site,associated with the Byzantine Empire, the princesof Achaia,the dukes of Athens,and Venice, demonstrate the many powersthat vied for economic and political control of theregion. Panakton wasthe mostsubstantial site in the areaof the SkourtaPlain at thistime, andits historymust have been shapedby its placein the geographyof events.Three general considerations drawn from the historyof theregion in thisperiod may inform our interpretation of the remainswe haveun- coveredat Panakton:the effectsof warfare;the agriculturalbasis of the villageeconomy; and the makeupof thepopulation. 222 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

Warfarefrequently disrupted life in the countrysideduring this period,a factthat explains the preeminently defensive character of thesettle- mentat Panakton.Its location,almost equidistant from Athens, Megara, andThebes, may well have been a factorin theestablishment of a strong- holdat Panakton.The years during which habitation at Panaktonis most securelyattested by the numismaticevidence, the 1360sthrough the second decadeof the 1400s,were particularly turbulent for the Duchyof Athensand Thebes, and more than once Panakton was likely to havebeen affectedby this turbulence. Internal rivalries within the Catalan duchy led to fightingin Boeotiain 1362-1365,in the courseof whicha Turkish forcewas briefly introduced to Thebesby one of the Catalanfactions.132 A decadelater, in 1374,the ambitiousFlorentine lord of Corinth,Nerio Acciaiuoli,found the opportunity to expandhis territory at the expense of the Catalansby seizing Megara.133 Panakton thus found itself on thebor- derbetween Catalan and Florentine territories. At thesame time the castle of Sykaminon,near Oropos, belonged to the Knightsof St.John,134 a cir- cumstancethat rendered the route across the SkourtaPlain practically the onlyconnection between Catalan-held Athens and Thebes that passed throughfriendly territory. In 1379the Catalanslost Thebes to a company of Navarresemercenaries, who also laid siege to Athens.135Whatever their connectionto theseevents, the inhabitantsof Panaktonsurely witnessed thepassage of hostilearmies. In 1388Nerio Acciaiuoli captured the Acropolis of Athensfrom the Catalansafter a siegeofthree years, and the Catalan Duchy of Athensand 132. Setton[1948] 1975,pp.52-64. Thebesceased to exist.136But the firstdecade of Florentinerule was no 133. Setton[1948] 1975,p. 78; less turbulentthan the last decadesof the Catalans.Between 1392 and Cheetham1981, p. 178 134.Luttrell [1969] 1982, pp.241- 1397,Turkish forces entered Boeotia and Attica several times, and laid 248. siegeto the Acropolisof Athensbefore being driven off by a Venetian 135. Dennis1960, for a datein force.137Athens itselfpassed into the hands of theVenetians, while Thebes 1378;Loenertz 1978, p.229. remaineda possession of AntonioAcciaiuoli, son of Nerio.In 1402,Anto- 136.Miller [1908] 1964,pp.322- nio invadedAttica from his strongholdin Thebes,and by 1405 he had 325;Setton [1948] 1975, pp.174-181; Cheetham1981, p. 180. gainedrecognition as the Dukeof Athens.l38Antonio's diplomatic skills 137.Miller [1908] 1964,pp.345- broughtcomparative peace to his dominionsthereafter, until his death 359;Cheetham 1981, pp. 183-190. in 1435.139 138.Miller [1908] 1964,pp.359- It is temptingto speculatethat the towered stronghold and settlement 362;Cheetham 1981, pp. 193-194. at Panaktonwere maintained over the spanof thistroubled half-century 139.Miller [1908] 1964, p. 404; preciselybecause Panakton was situated midway between the more impor- Cheetham1981, pp.208-210. 140.Twenty-six socketed iron pro- tantcenters of Western occupation atThebes, Megara, Athens, Sykaminon, jectilepoints, generally between 4 and andNegroponte. The discoveryof socketediron projectile points of the 7 cm in length,were recovered from typeassociated with crossbowbolts (or "quarrels," see Fig. 82) in seven medievalstrata and the uppermostlayer squaresof the site140indicates that preparations for warfare were never far of Hellenisticfill (medievalground fromeveryday concerns.l41 A stronghold on thissite could not prevent the level)in squaresIlO,JlO,J11, K9, K11, L10, andL11. passageof hostilearmies, but, together with the toweredsite abovePyli 141.The projectilepoints, which (Fig.4),it couldprovide an outpost to keepwatch against the movements wereprimarily found in domestic of enemies,and to giverefuge to a localpopulation. contexts,may also have been used for Althoughthe protective function guaranteed by the commanding vista hunting.For comparable "arrowheads" cannotbe denied,a towersuch as thatat Panakton(Fig. 3) couldserve fromthe 12thcentury, see Folet al. multiplepurposes; the tall structureerected over an agriculturalvillage 1989,pp. 116-120,with additional bibliography. mightalso have functioned as a territoryor identity marker.142 Agriculture 142.Lock 1986, pp. 108-110;1989, wascertainly important to thelife ofthis community, if we maygeneralize pp. 137-141;Langdon 1995, pp. 498- fromthe evidenceof a plowshareand an equineshoe found among the 503. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 223

^ E . x

l 1t- Q Figure82. Projectilepoints. Left to !3,- o right:1991-2,1992-87, 1991-291. h i, Scale 1:2 utensilsand vessels in HouseI. A communityof the sizesuggested by the remainswe haveidentified (perhaps thirty families) must have been ac- tivelyengaged in theproduction of itsown foodstuffs, and engaged, therefore,in farmingon the slopesof Panaktonitself, as was practiced in early moderntimes, and in portionsof the SkourtaPlain below.143 Seasonal pondsdrained by sinkholesrendered the centralportion of the Skourta Plainunusable for farmingbut goodfor grazing,and animal husbandry waslikely to havebeen as importantto the late medievalinhabitants of Panaktonas it hasbeen to the earlymodern population of the plain(see Appendix2).144 Despite,or perhapseven because of, the periodicdisruptions of war, 143.Botanical remains recovered thevarious Western powers controlling this part of Greeceendeavored to frommixed strata across the site in- strengthenthe economic foundation of theirregimes by fostering agricul- cludea varietyof pulses,grape pips, turalutilization of thecountryside. It is clear,moreover, that the establish- andbarley. Because cultural debris mentof agriculturalsettlements was encouraged for the dualpurposes of fromearlier strata is regularlymixed in providinga taxablebase and a populationthat could contribute men and depositsof medievalmaterial, it hasnot beenpossible to isolatepurely medieval horsesfor warfare.145 In some cases, overlords living in the region'scities depositsof botanicalor faunalremains. administeredrural properties in the surroundingcountryside. Such was Forthe historicalecology of the region, the case,for example, of ArnauSabater, originally from Barcelona, whose see Rackham1983. will,filed in Thebeson December28, 1336,lists four "casali," as yet un- 144.During fighting between identifiedin theregion,l46 and the names of the Greek"villanos" who cul- Greekand Turkish forces around Athensin 1826,Karaiskakis is reported tivatedthe lands.147In closeproximity to Thebesand laboring below the to havecaptured 10,000 head of cattle shadowof thecrowning tower, the villagers at Panaktonmay have worked maintainedfor the Turks in the Skourta theland for foreign overlords. Plain(Gordon 1832, p.339). Animal The settlementat Panaktontypifies the measurestaken to support bonesfrom mixed strata across the site defensiveand agricultural objectives during the periodof Westernrule. representsheep, goat, cow, pig, horse, The analysisof the skeletalremains from excavated graves in andaround deer,and fish. 145.Miller ([1908] 1964, p.317) thechurch provides unambiguous evidence of a hard-workingpopulation. andSetton ([1948] 1975, p.255) report In additionto thestress placed on allmembers of thecommunity by agri- a grantof temporarytax-exemption to culturaland construction work, traumas experienced by some of the adult Greekand Albanian settlers within the malesare likely to havebeen the resultof warfare.The seniormale who Catalanduchy following the Navarrese wasburied in oneofthe tombswithin the narthex, grave 1992-1, received incursionof 1379-1380. 146.The siteslisted in the inventory andrecovered from blows to his faceand upper chest during his lifetime. areTrippos, Bussancha, Pzagaritxa, and The maleburied outside the churchin grave1992-3 died from a blowto Erminis.Catalan inventories may yet the top of his head. provideclues about the originalname Perhapsthe mostintriguing question affecting our understanding of of the medievalsettlement at Panakton. medievalPanakton is the questionof the identityof its inhabitants.A1- 147.Perez i Castillo1989, p.146. thoughwe cannot,at present,identify the originsof the peopleswhose We thankD. Jacobyfor this reference. Fora list of additionaldocuments de- remainswe haveexcavated, the distinctionsin skullshapes indicate that tailingrural land holdings of the Cata- the malesburied in thebuilt tombs in the narthexof the churchrepresent lans,see Jacoby 2003, p. 85, n.37. one kinshipgroup that was intermarried with a femalerepresentative of 224 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. anotherkinship group, a groupthat is alsorepresented among the males buriedoutside the church. Tax inventories produced in thisperiod for com- parablesites in the Peloponnesosdemonstrate that small villages were in- habitedby extendedfamilies.148 The churchdecoration and furnishings demonstratethat this population was Orthodox. The relationshipof the inhabitantsof Panaktonto broaderdemographic patterns of latemedieval Greececan be suggestedon the basisof the evidenceof the institutions andhistorical practices attested within the late medievalperiod in the Duchyof Athensand Thebes, as well as taxregisters from the Ottoman period. The mostdistinctive feature regarding the institutionalstatus of this communityis its attachmentto a toweredstronghold. Scholars view these towersas characteristicof settlement patterns established under Western authorityin thispart of Greece.149In Attica and Boeotia at thistime such towershave been identified as features of landtenure of ficially recognized as the exclusiveright of thosewho enjoyedCatalan citizenship, or "enfranchisement." Documentaryevidence clearly attests that land tenure was among the exclusiverights of"enfranchisement" within the Catalandominions in Greece,and that in someinstances families of Greekserfs were included amongthe propertyheld by thosewho enjoyedthe rightsof"enfranchisement.''150Of particular interest for the exampleof Panakton,however,are cases where such rights are specifically extended to Greeksliving underCatalan rule. Greeks are attested holding such offices as castellan (commanderof a fortress)in the Countyof Salona(Amphissa), and no- tary(secretary of state)at Levadia and Athens under the Catalans.15l These 148.Longnon and Topping 1969. andother leading Greek men and women (often the wives of Westerners) 149. See Lock1986, 1989; Langdon weregiven filll rights of propertyownership and inheritance under West- 1995.On Catalansettlement patterns, ern-influencedlaw codes, reflecting at the highestlevels of societya pro- seeJacoby 2003. 150. Setton([1948] 1975, p. 166) gressivebreakdown of barriersbetween Latin and Greek that very likely citesdocuments attesting that the wasproceeding similarly among the less eminent members of thatsociety. enfranchisedGreek Demetrios Rendi By the timethat formal elements of Westernrule of Greececame to receiveda royal"grant that carried with anend, by the mid-lSth century, the occupation ofthe stronghold at Panak- it, in additionto dwellings,fields, tonwas also over. The fallentile roofs of Panakton'smedieval houses bear vineyards,and farm lands, two families witnessto the site'sabandonment in the firsthalf of the l5th centuryand of Greekserfs." 151.The GreeksDimitri and Mitro the subsequentdecay of its structures.A centurylater, beginning in 1521, werecastellans at Salonaat the timeof Turkishregisters include the village of DervenoSalesi (Pyli). By 1642,the the Navarreseinvasion; Setton [1948] villageis listedas a derbend,a settlementthat formed a sourceof revenue 1975,pp.114, 137-138.Constantine for the provincialadministration and the military.152Such villages were Mavro-Nicholaand his son Nicholas generallypopulated by Christians, many of themAlbanian.153 It is tempt- servedas notariesat Livadia,and DemetriosRendi and Nicholas Macri ing to speculatethat the villagersof late medievalPanakton had moved servedas notariesat Athensunder both downto theplain and contributed to theestablishment of thevillages that Catalanand Florentine rule; Setton havesurvived until today, but we cannotexclude the possibilitythat the [1948]1975, pp. 138,161, 166-170, villagersleft the mountainsfor morewelcoming areas. Present-day resi- 252-254. Forthese settlements, see dentsof Prasinorecall the names of thechurches on thehill but there is no Rubioy Lluch1910. localname for the abandonedsettlement; it is simplyto kastro,referring 152.For a discussionof the Otto- manregisters, see Appendix2; andKiel specificallyto the tower.The latemedieval settlement brought to lightin 1997,1999. ourexcavations is thusa mutewitness to the dislocationsand amalgam- 153.Giannopoulos 1971, pp. 141- ationsof peoplesthat took place in difficultand violent times. 146. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 225

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financialsupport for the excavationswas provided by theTresidder and RosenbergFunds of StanfordUniversity. The 1999study season was sup- portedby a DumbartonOaks Project Grant and funding from the 1984 Foundation.Funds were also provided by the Institutefor Arts and Hu- manisticStudies at the PennsylvaniaState University, the Officeof Re- searchand GraduateStudies of the Collegeof the LiberalArts at the PennsylvaniaState University, and the GeneralResearch Board at the Universityof Maryland. Excavationswere supervised by Martha Taylor, Lee Ann Turner, and RichardWestall. Susanne Hofstra, Elizabeth Langridge, Maria Hidiroglou, andDespoinaTsiafakis assisted in therecording of finds.Soultana Valamoti studiedbotanical remains. Yiannis Hamilakis studied faunal remains. Helen Alten servedas conservator.John Dean andEllen Burchenal served as photographers.John H. Krollwas consulted on theidentification of coins excavatedin 1991.Stavros Papamarinopoulos conducted remote sensing on the site.The sitegrid was established by Carl Lipo. David G. Romano surveyedthe site in 1986 andcreated a preliminarytopographical map. Studentand volunteer excavators were Matthew Bandy, Jason Bass, Peter Blitz,Fotini Bourdala, Lisa Butler, Michael Casey, Bianet Castellanos, BryanCooperrider,Jennifer Corbin, Alison Deal, Panayota Dini, Daphne Edwards,Maria Fotias, Ioulia Gavrilidou, Britt Johnson, Eliza Kartaki, JulesKeane, Haley King, Klea Koff, Lambrini Koufousakis, Katia Kubicek, TebbKusserow, Benedict Lanaras, Heather Lind, Victoria Nevius, Laura Nicholas,Scott Ortman,Silvia Rodriguez, Linda Rosenberg, Robert Rosenberg,Michaela Sanchez, Pauline Sanchez, Mark Seielstad, Spiros Sideridis,Thalia Sini, KarenSmelkinson, Amy Sweigert,Christina Traitoraki,AmyWelch, Eleni Zimi, and Anastasios Zompolas.Theodore Chenowethprovided organizational support. Studyofthe finds for this article was assisted byMar,v Lou Zimmerman Munn,PatrickThomas,John Birkenmeier, Rangar Cline, Benjamin Graz- zini,Monika Hirschbichler, Keith Kitchen, and Raina Weaver. Lorraine Trusheimserved as conservator.Finds were drawn by ThomasShields andGerry Wagner. S.E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL. 226

APPENDIX1 MEDIEVALCOINS

in 1991and 1992, Eighteenmedieval coins were recovered at Panakton the majorityare nineof whichare illustrated here (Fig. 83). Of these, Unusualamong the Venetiancoins minted for circulation in theregion.154 the excavationof findsis a follisof TiberiusII, whichwas found during in the Early HouseI. There are no indicationsthat the sitewas inhabited forthe residents of Byzantineperiod; the coinmust have been a keepsake All of the medieval thishouse. The coinsare listed below by findspot. levels. coinsfound in testtrenches were recovered in surface Coinswere found at the followinglocations:

HouseI 1991-16:SU 5 1992-197:SU 123 1992-329:SU 132 1992-409:SU 132 HouseII 1992-84:SU 201 HouseIV 1992-219:Lll, SU 107 Church 1991-439:nave, SU 210 1992-55:west exterior, SU 503 1992-108:narthex, SU 306 1992-172:narthex, SU 306 1992-199:narthex, SU 308 1992-200:narthex, SU 308 1992-251:north exterior, SU 406 1992-384:narthex tomb, SU 312 TestTrenches H9-6, SU 2 1991-148: 154.For a discussionof Venetian Jll, SU 9 1991-199: coinagein medievalGreece, see Stahl SU 110 1991-419:Jll, 1985. 1991-420:Jll,SU 110 A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 227

BYZANTINE COINAGE (4)155

TiberiusII, A.D. 574-582 (Constantinoplemint) 1992-409 Bustof emperorwith mappa DOC I, 270, IIa; Fig. 83 A.D. 579 M ANNO 1., 00 r. pl. LX

AnonymousFollis, Class A2, A.D. 976-1030/1035? (Constantinople mint) 1991-419 0: Bustof Christ DOC III.2,pp. 649-675, R:Four-line inscription pls.XLVIII-LV Hole piercedthrough coin

FRANKISH COINAGE (4)

PRINCESOF ACHAIA

Philipof Tarentum,A.D. 1307-1313(Clarenza mint) 1992-84 +PHSP ACh TAR DR Cross/ Metcalf1971, p. 184 Fig. 83 Den. +D' CLAR[ENC]IACastle Tournois Coindamaged on one side

UncertainRuler of Achaia 1991-16 crosspattee Den. + (DE)CLARENCIA Castle Tournois

DUKESOF ATHENS Williamor GuyII de la Roche,A.D. 128F1308 (Thebesmint) 1992-219 +G DUX ATEnES Metcalf1983, pp. 68-69 Fig. 83 AR Obole Largefleur-de-lis/ +ThEBECIVIS Genoese gate Hole piercedthrough coin

UncertainDuke of Athens(possibly Thebes mint) 1992-172 Illegible Fig. 83 Den.

VENETIAN COINAGE (IO)

FrancescoDandolo, A.D. 1329-1339 1992-197 Doge kneeling/Lionrampant Papadopoli1893, p. 163, Fig. 83 AR no. 10

AndreaDandolo, A.D. 1343-1354 1992-200 Doge kneeling/Lionrampant Papadopoli1893, p. 182, Fig. 83 AR no. 5 155.Thisnumber includes two illegibleByzantine bronze coins found Marco Corner, A.D. 1365-1368 in surfacelevels adjacent to the church 1991-148 Cross/Lionof SanMarco Papadopoli1893, p. 204, (inv.1991-199, 420). Bi (Tornesello) no. 5 AL. S.E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET 228

1992-84

1992-409 1992-197

1992-219 1992-55 1992-200

1992-251 1992-329 1992-172 Figure83. Coins. Scale 1:1

AndreaContarini, A.D. 1368-1382 p. 217, Fig. 83 1992-55 Cross/Lionof SanMarco Papadopoli1893, 992-108 no.7 Bi (Tornesello)

AntonioVenier, A.D. 1382-1400 p. 231, Fig. 83 1992-329 Cross/Lionof SanMarco Papadopoli1893, 992-384 no.7 991-439 Bi (Tornesello)

MicheleSteno, A.D. 1400-1413 240, Fig.83 1992-251 Cross/Lionof SanMarco Papadopoli1893, p. 992-l99 no.7 Bi (Tornesello) A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 229

APPENDIX 2 POPU LATION AN D PRODUCTION ACCORDING TO OTTOt/\AN TAX RECORDS

The Ottomanpopulation and taxation registers of Boeotiaprovide im- portantinformation about the villagesin the SkourtaPlain. Skourta ap- pearsin thepoll tax registers in thefirst half of the 17thcentury. In 1642, thevillage had 25 households,in 1687only 16, showing the demographic declineof the 17th century.Kako Niskiri, Kavasala, and Kroraare not mentionedin anyof thesources and evidently did not exist at this time, at leastnot under these names. Threevillages in thetax registers have the nameSalesi: Salesi-i Kebir (orBuzurg, "Great"), Derveno Salesi, and Salesi-i Sagir. The firstof these villagesto be listed,Salesi-i Kebir, is referredto as Albanian,and was, judgingby the manypeople with "Salesi" as a patronym,a clanvillage. DervenoSalesi (modern Pyli) was a newvillage, to judgeby its statusas partof theestates of the Sultan(Hass-i Humayun). Settlements that were foundedby the Ottomanswhen they first registered the region were usu- allyassigned to serveas a sourceof revenuefor the provincial administra- torsand the military.Newly established villages were often made Hass of the Sultanbecause the military had a fixedincome and the central admin- istrationwanted to preventchanges. Because of itslocation by a passlead- ingfrom the SkourtaPlain toward the Asopus valley, Derveno Salesi was madea derbendbetween 1570 and 1642. Duringthe crisis ofthe 17thcentury, Derveno Salesi fared well due to itsprivileged status. Its population declined during the demographic crisis ofthiscentury, but Derveno Salesi fared better than "Great" Salesi, whereas the"Small"Salesi disappeared altogether (Table 3). Sixteenth-centurytax registers provide some information about land usein EarlyOttoman Derveno Salesi (Table 4).l56These figures may shed lighton thetypes of cropsthat were grown at Panaktonone to twocentu- riesearlier, during the late medieval period. Thelocal measure was the Istife himl, or load of Thebes,which equaled 167 kg. In 1540,the priceper himl of wheatwas 30 ak,ce;the priceof barleywas 16 ak,ce.In 1540,55ak,ce equaled one Venetian gold ducat; in 1570,60 ak,ce.Sheep were taxed at 1 ak,ceper two sheep,honey at 1 ak,ce perhive, and cotton at 5 ak,ceper bale ("teker") of about5 kg.According to 156. Kiel 1987. the registers,there was no wine productionin the village.In 1570,the 230 S. E. J. GERSTEL, M. MUNN, ET AL.

TABLE 3. DEMOGRAPHICS FOR THREE VILLAGES (NUMBERS OF HOUSEHOLDS) Year DervenoSalesi Salesi-iKebir Salesi-iSagir 1466 3 1506 34 1521 30 62 10 1540 38 31 11 1570 38 50 20 1642 70 (derbend) 32 1646 57 (derbend) 28 1687 51 (derbend) 28

priceof a load(himl) of wheatwas 46 akSe,barley 25 akSe.Two sheep weretaxed at 1 akSeas in 1540,but the priceof sheephad gone up from 22 akSeper sheep to 28 akSe.The noticeableamount of inflationis the resultof a growingpopulation that increased the demandfor foodstuffs. Honeyand pigs are more difficult to assess.Honey was priced at 6 to 12 akSeper okka (1.286 kg). Each hive may have produced 8 to 12 kg of honeyper year. A pig fattenedat homewas taxedat 1 akSeper head peryear and 1 akSefor two pigsrunning free in the woodsbut guarded andowned by individualpeasants. In bothcases it was not possiblefor the censuscommission to determineexact numbers since beehives and free-rangingpigs are easy to hide.The numbersthus reflect a dealor an estimate. In themid-16th century an imam of a mosquewould have earned 3 to 5 akSeper day, a goodworkman (carpenter, mason, etc.) 6 to 8 akSeper day.Many soldiers of thegarrisons in the castleshad to managewith 3 or 4 akSeper day. With these numbers in mindwe canwork out total values andproduction trends, remembering that for itemssuch as cerealsand cotton,13% of thetotal harvest was taken, not more.In 1540,per household,1,724kg of wheat,777kg of barley,and 3.8 balesof cottonare indicated.The 1570 registerlists 1,758kg of wheat,946 kg of barley,and 5 balesof cottonper household. Between 1540 and 1570 the amountof cerealsavailable for the averagehousehold had thus grown from 2,501 to 2,704kg. The numberof sheephad doubled (a general trend in Boeotia), andthe number of pigsand hives had tripled. An averagefamily in Derveno

TABLE 4. ENTRIES FROM TAX REGISTERS FROM DERVENO SALESI

Households Bachelors Widows Tax Wheat Barley Sheep Pigs Honey Cotton (n) (n) (n) (akse) (load) (load) (akfe) (akfe) (hives) (bales) 1540 REGISTER 38 14 3 4,732 51 28 572 25 51 19

1570 REGISTER 38 5 3 6,200 52 28 1,200 68 150 25

*Istanbul,Prime Minister's Ottoman Archive, T.D. 431. **Ankara,Tapu ve KadastroGenel Mudurlugu,157. A LATE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT PANAKTON 23I

Salesihad 15 sheepin 1540and 31 in 1570(nomad families could survive with 50-60 sheepper household). The amountof cerealsis morethan sufficient(a familyof fiveneeds 1,000 kg peryear to eat).A fifthof the harvestwas neededfor seed,and an eighthto paythe tax.This is the minimum vitalworkedout by a numberof scholars.l57Theproduction fig- uresare as follows:200 kg of cerealsper person per year, 60 kg forseed, and37 kg fortax, for a totalof 297 kg perperson per year. With theirmany sheep and increased honey and textile production, thepeasants of DervenoSalesi were well off in the 16thcentury and could weatherthe storm ofthe 17th,when population declined, prices collapsed, 157.McGowan 1969; Asdrachas andtaxes rose, and could survive well into the period of themodern Greek 1979;Livi-Bacci 1991. state.

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SharonE. J. Gerstel EthneBarnes UNIVERSITYOF MARYLAND UNIVERSITYOF ARIZONA DEPARTMENTOF ART HISTORYAND ARIZONASTATE MUSEUM ARCHAEOLOGY TUCSON,ARIZONA 8572I COLLEGEPARK, MARYLAND 20742 ethnebarnes@hotmail. com sg 1 13 @umail . umd . e du ArthurH.Rohn MarkMunn WICHITASTATE UNIVERSITY THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTOF ANTHROPOLOGY DEPARTMENTSOF HISTORY,AND CLASSICSAND WICHITA,KANSAS 67260 ANCIENTMEDITERRANEAN STUDIES ahrohn@hotmail. com WEAVERBUILDING UNIVERSITYPARK, PENNSYLVANIA I6802 MachielKiel mxm20@psu . e du UNIVERSITYOF UTRECHT DEPARTMENTOF ORIENTALSTUDIES HeatherE.Grossman DRIFT I5 UNIVERSITYOF PENNSYLVANIA 35I2 BR UTRECHT DEPARTMENTOF THE HISTORYOF ART NE T H E R L A N D S 3405 WOODLANDWALK Machiel. [email protected]. nl PHILADELPHIA,PENNSYLVANIA I9IO4 [email protected]