TVAS

NORTH MIDLANDS

Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire

Archaeological Evaluation

by Helen Daniel, Laura Schenck and Nikk Snape

Site Code VPS 19/164

(SJ 8782 4720) Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire

An Archaeological Evaluation

for Car Shops Limited

by Helen Daniel, Laura Schenck and Nikki Snape

TVAS North Midlands

Site Code VPS19/194

March 2020 Summary

Site name: Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire

Grid reference: SJ 8782 4720

Site activity: Evaluation

Date and duration of project: 5th November to 17th December 2019

Project coordinator: Steve Ford

Site supervisor: Helen Daniel

Site code: VPS19/164

Area of site: 2.7ha

Summary of results: Ten evaluation trenches were excavated. Seven contained one or more kilns, the other three had limited structural remains. The investigations located the remains of six updraught ovens, two tunnel kilns, one rectangular muffle kiln and one possible circular muffle kiln; all of which dated from the early through to the later 20th century. Finds included ceramics both made on the site by several manufacturers and for several markets, and brought into it (e.g. electrical insulators). As a result, the site is considered to have archaeological potential.

Location and reference of archive: The archive is presently held at TVAS North Midlands, Stoke-on-Trent and will be deposited at the Potteries Museum and Art Gallery, Stoke-on- Trent in due course, with accession number STKMG: 2019.LH.87.

This report may be copied for bona fide research or planning purposes without the explicit permission of the copyright holder. All TVAS unpublished fieldwork reports are available on our website: www.tvas.co.uk/reports/reports.asp.

Report edited/checked by: Steve Ford  13.03.20 Steve Preston  13.03.20

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk1 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire

by Helen Daniel, Laura Schenck and Nikki Snape

Report 19/164

Introduction

This report documents the results of an archaeological field evaluation carried out at the former Vulcan Pottery

Works, Clough Street, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire (SJ 8782 4720) (Fig. 1). The work was commissioned by

Car Shops Limited, 2 Penman Way, Grove Park, Leicester, LE19 1ST as advised by Ms Helen Martin-Bacon of

Avalon Heritage, Dairyhouse Lane, Cheadle, Stoke-on-Trent, ST10 2PW.

A planning application (SOT/64907/FUL) has been submitted to Stoke-on-Trent City Council for the erection of a new building for a motor dealership to include a MOT testing facility and external vehicle display area along with revised access, associated parking and landscaping. In response to a pre-application enquiry

(SOT/64030/DTS), the archaeological adviser to the Council highlighted that a desk-based assessment

(Gorzynski and Tesseyman 2019) had established that several pottery factories and a flint mill once stood wholly or partially within the proposed development area. Principally, the Britannia Pottery (PRN:30664) and the

Robson Street potworks (30095) were both active from the mid-19th to at least the mid-20th century, with the

Vulcan Pottery (30094) and Fairfield Pottery (30093) each established in the early 20th century. In addition, a

20th-century rope works was situated along its western edge (Goodwin 2019). On this basis the archaeological adviser recommended that the proposals would require a programme of archaeological investigation, the first stage of which should involve field evaluation.

This is in accordance with the Department for Communities and Local Government’s National Planning

Policy Framework (NPPF 2019), and Stoke-on-Trent City Council’s policies on archaeology. The field investigation was carried out to a specification provided by Mr Jonathan Goodwin, Senior Planning Officer and

Archaeological Advisor to Stoke-on-Trent City Council. The fieldwork was undertaken by Helen Daniel, Laura

Schenck and Nikki Snape between 5th November and 17th December 2019 and the site code is VPS19/164. The archive is presently held at TVAS North Midlands and will be deposited at the Potteries Museum and Art

Gallery in due course with accession code STKMG:2019.LH.87

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk2 Location, topography and geology

The proposed development site is located within the township of Hanley, Staffordshire; one of the six towns of

Stoke-on Trent (SJ 8782 4720) (Fig. 1). It is situated approximately 500m west of the centre of Hanley. The proposed development comprises an irregular parcel of land covering a total area of approximately 2.72 hectares.

The site is bounded by Clough Street to the north, Slippery Lane and Robson Street to the east, Sun Street to the south and by industrial units along its western edge (Fig. 2).

Prior to the evaluation the development area was a disused brownfield site containing the remains of demolished walls and structures and expansive areas of hard-standing. The topography of the site features a slight slope from an elevation of approximately 137m above Ordnance Datum (aOD) in the east down to 132m aOD in the west. The underlying bedrock geology is recorded as Pennine Upper Coal Measures Formation -

Mudstone, Siltstone and Sandstone (BGS 2020).

Archaeological background

The archaeological potential of the site has previously been detailed in a desk-based assessment (Gorzynski and

Tesseyman 2019), which is summarized below. There is little evidence for prehistoric, Roman or early medieval remains recorded in the HER within the site’s immediate area.

Whilst there is no mention of Hanley in Domesday Book, the elements of the place-name indicate a pre- conquest origin in their derivation from Old English; heah meaning ‘high wood’ and leah a ‘woodland clearing’

(Mills 2011, 223; Cameron 1996, 203). Yet, whilst Hanley is situated at a fairly high altitude, the nearby town of

Burslem is even higher still so in this case at least, ‘high’ may refer to the settlement’s level of status rather than its elevation (Gelling and Cole 2000, 239). The first known documentary reference for Hanley is from the Book of Fees in 1212 which mentions a William of ‘Henle’; by 1227 the Charter Rolls record the community as

'Hanlih'. Industry has long been a feature of the towns that comprise Stoke-on Trent and as early as 1297 there is reference to coal mining in the adjacent township of Shelton. However, the only evidence of medieval activity within the area is a watermill mentioned in written sources.

Pottery manufacture and coal mining were staple industries in Hanley by the 17th century (Taylor 2003) and led to the expansion of the town. By 1685, Thomas Miles of Shelton was producing white stone ware and a little later, around 1720, the use of Devonshire ball clay was documented in north Staffordshire. This development has been attributed to the Shelton potter John Astbury (Shaw 1829, 126), and along with the introduction of flint into clay bodies, which Shaw also credits to Astbury, contributed to the eventual

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk3 development of a more palatable white or Creamware. The growth continued with the opening of the Etruria factory by Josiah Wedgwood in 1769 on the side of what was to become the route of the Trent and Mersey

Canal.

By the 19th century, the development of the canal and rail networks had contributed to the area becoming a strategic centre for the trade and was home to over thirty ceramics works. This growth was reflected in Hanley, where its status resulted in a significant rise in the population and subsequent expansion of workers’ housing

(Jenkins 1963). Shelton was incorporated with Hanley in 1857 and its High Street was renamed ‘Broad Street’ to avoid confusion with Hanley High Street. The wider general area is now universally known as ‘The Potteries’ and encompasses the six towns which now make up the city of Stoke-on-Trent: Burslem, Fenton, Hanley,

Longton, Stoke and Tunstall.

The archaeological interest in the site itself stems from the fact that several pottery factories and a flint mill once stood wholly or partially within the development area. These manufacturers were, principally: the Britannia

Pottery to the south (PRN 30664); the Robson Street pot-works to the east (30095); Vulcan Pottery to the north

(30094) and Fairfield Pottery in the centre (30093) (Goodwin 2019). None of these structures remain extant.

Both the Britannia Pottery and the Robson Street works were active from the mid-19th to at least the mid-

20th century. They are marked on the Ordnance Survey map of 1879 although neither is named. Although no kilns are depicted on the 1900 revision, the buildings that housed them are in place. Archival research has demonstrated that the history of these two is unclear. The origins of the Britannia Pottery are particularly confusing as there were a number of factories in the locality which bore the same name or very similar, however by 1963 the site was occupied by an electrical engineering firm Electrical and Ordnance Accessories who manufactured range of ceramic items from insulators to latex-glove moulds. The works on the corner of Robson

Street was recorded on mapping simply as manufacturers of ‘earthenware-china’, making identification of the operating firm very difficult.

The Vulcan Pottery and the Fairfield Pottery were both established at least by the early part of the 20th century. Ordnance Survey mapping features the buildings on these sites from 1900 although they are not named until the 1924-25 and 1937-38 revisions respectively (Figs 12 and 13). The Vulcan Pottery was owned by

Swinnertons, who began manufacturing there around 1906 on the site of the ‘Old Chelsea Works’ (Swinnerton

1981, 125) a small earthenware manufacturer with two ovens, originally set up by Cartlidge and Matthias in the late 19th century. The works were named after Swinnertons’ original business at Burton Place, Hanley

(Swinnerton 1982, 164), and specialized principally in producing dinner sets for South American demand and

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk4 decorated toiletware for the home market (Swinnerton 1982, 8). A complete rebuilding programme began in

1938 but was interrupted by the War. The new factory was not completed until 1952 but included ‘tunnel kilns’, the latest technological advance in the ceramics industry. The Vulcan Works were finally demolished in 2001.

The Fairfield Pottery was owned by A.G. Hackney & Co. who mainly produced porcelain parts for electrical and radio industries but also made porcelain formers for the production of latex gloves, beach balls, balloons and baby bottle teats. Local trade directories confirm their presence in Slippery Lane from at least 1899 through to 1963.

Sometime between 1913 and 1924 on the extreme western edge of the site, ‘The Ropery’ works was constructed for A.T. Robson, having relocated from its original site c.500m to the south-east. Sometime prior to

1937, Slippery Street was renamed Robson Street and the works persisted until at least 1950. This is clear from the cartographic evidence but by the 1970s the buildings were being used as a warehouse. Prior to this, the western area of the site was used as marl pits from the mid-19th century until the start of the 20th century, when the subsequent appearance of the Fairfield Pottery and Vulcan Pottery suggests that these had been backfilled.

Archaeological investigations in the immediate vicinity of the site include an evaluation of the former

Robson Street factory in 2008. Targeted trial trenching revealed a pair of circular pottery ovens, neither of which were fully excavated but were preserved in situ (AOC 2008). In the same year, a little further to the east, works were undertaken on the site of Mason’s Ironstone factory which revealed the remains of several kilns. Further evidence of kilns and adjacent factory structures were uncovered in 2010. Close by and again in 2008, investigations at a former pottery at St James Street revealed the remains of a pair of kilns, and later mitigation identified more of the complex including a muffle kiln. Further evidence of the remains of kilns and factory structures were revealed during exploration of the Kensington Pottery works in 2008 and 2010. Investigations have also taken place to the west of the current site, where excavation of the Dresden Works factory site in

Warner St in 2012 provided evidence of factory structures along with three circular pottery kilns (Cramp 2013).

Objectives and methodology

The purpose of the evaluation was to determine the presence/absence, extent, condition, character, quality and date of any archaeological deposits within the area of development. The West Midlands Research Framework

(ed. Watt 2016) has provided a region-specific agenda and any relevant research themes will be considered throughout the course of the project. The general aims of the evaluation are:

to determine the presence or absence of buried archaeological remains;

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk5 to determine the character, date, extent and distribution of archaeological remains and their potential significance; to determine levels of disturbance to any archaeological deposits from later activity; and to inform upon appropriate mitigation measures should significant archaeological remains which require further investigation and/or preservation in situ be uncovered. Specific objectives of the project as outlined in the WSI were:

to identify and record any features or deposits associated with the former pottery works; to define the date, nature, extent and potential significance of archaeological remains associated with the former pottery works; to identify and sample any industrial residues connected to the making of pottery; to identify and record any structural remains associated with the making of pottery; to develop more detailed objectives if warranted by the results of the fieldwork; and to disseminate the results of the fieldwork through an appropriate level of reporting including potentially in period relevant journals and/or journals dealing with historic industrial processes;

It was agreed with the Council’s archaeological adviser to excavate ten trenches of varying sizes, which were targeted to investigate demolished pottery kilns and other associated buildings that are recorded on historical mapping. Topsoil and any other overburden were to be removed by a 360-type excavator fitted with a toothless ditching bucket under constant archaeological supervision, to expose archaeologically sensitive levels.

All spoil heaps were to be monitored for finds. Where archaeological features and deposits were exposed these were to be excavated or sampled by hand to satisfy the aims of the project, without compromising the integrity of any features that might warrant preservation in-situ.

Results

The evaluation was carried out as intended except for a slight amendment to the position of Trench 8. After discussion with the archaeological adviser, it was agreed to shorten the southern leg of the L-shaped trench due to the topography of the site, as a result of this adjustment one of the bottle ovens targeted could not now be investigated. The trenches were between 2m and 4m wide; they ranged in length from 6m to 21m and were between 0.5m and 1.4m deep. A complete list of trenches giving lengths, breadths, depths and a description of sections and geology is given in Appendix 1.

The stratigraphy in the trenches varied across the site and was considerably disturbed by industrial and construction processes. Consequently, the natural geology was only encountered within Trench 10 where greyish-yellow clay was observed at 1.0m below the ground level. Representative samples of a range of kiln furniture and ceramic finds were collected, and the Archaeological Advisor did not require any samples of industrial residues. The excavated features, with dating evidence, are summarized in Appendix 2.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk6 Trench 1 (Figs 2 and 3; Pl. 1) Trench 1 was aligned roughly west–east and was 5.6m long and 1.1m deep. The stratigraphy of the trench consisted of 0.4m of topsoil above uneven and discontinuous layers of made ground (95). These included saggars and rubble; rubble in a black sandy loam; clay and crushed brick. The layer corresponds to the location of a marl pit depicted on the 1879 Ordnance Survey map and likely represents its 20th-century backfilling. This was confirmed by previous geo-test pits which recorded that the made ground in the area of Trenches 1 and 2 is between 16m and 18m deep (Dale 2017). The natural geology was not reached.

Below the topsoil at the west end of the trench, brick wall fragment 52 was recorded, aligned east – west.

The wall was 1.25m long, two bricks wide and two courses high. At 1.4m from the end and at the base of the trench, fragments of brick wall 50 were recorded, with brick floor fragment 51 abutting to the east. The wall was north–south aligned, 0.47m long, 0.23m high and one brick wide. The floor consisted of one course of bricks,

0.48m by 0.35m. The structures cannot be confidently attributed to the rope works and there were no finds associated with them.

Trench 2 (Figs 2 and 3; Pl. 2) Trench 2 was aligned roughly west – east and was 16.32m long and 1.4m deep. The stratigraphy consisted of made ground comprising 0.4m of concrete over 0.08m of sand, 0.12m of dark brown clay, 0.27m of ceramic material, including large quantities of saggars, and 0.60m of dark brown sandy clay. Early 20th-century finds were mixed with finds from the mid-19th century. As in Trench 1, the natural geology was not reached. At the west end of the trench, red to grey brick floor surface 152 was recorded. This was over 3.52m long, made of frogged and un-frogged bricks and was laid flat and without foundations. Above this was thin mid greyish brown silty sand deposit 150 which was not present over the north-eastern parts. This resulted in disturbance of bricks during stripping, due to partially attached overlying concrete. At 8.5m, a north – south aligned mixed-colour brick wall 167 was recorded, with six courses remaining at 0.6m high. The one brick wide wall was built on

0.14m deep concrete foundations, made using broken kiln furniture. A disused east – west plastic soil pipe truncated the floor surface.

The trench was bounded on the western part of its southern side, by a red brick wall 262. This was visible before removal of concrete and was abutted by a small area of red and black quarry tiles, to the south of the trench. Floor 152 abutted the wall to the north, so was probably contemporary.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk7 Trench 3 (Figs 2, 3 and 4; Pl. 3 and 4) Trench 3 was aligned approximately west – east and measured 21.2m long and varied between 0.15m and 0.7m deep. The stratigraphy of the western section of the trench consisted of a 0.15m deep layer of concrete over 0.1m of silty-sand (87); this deposit contained a moderate amount of kiln furniture along with occasional iron, glass and pottery and covered the entirety of kiln 1005 and the features immediately east. At the extreme west of the trench was dark grey silty sand 156 which covered brick floor 88; whilst to the east and overlying the tunnel kiln

(1006) there was 0.15m of orange builders’ sand over polythene sheeting (252), and 0.40m of hardcore made of crushed yellow refractory brick (86). The deposit layers 86 and 87 contained finds likely to be from the 2nd quarter of the 20th-century. As in previous trenches, the natural geology was not reached.

Structures were present over the majority of the trench in bricks of mixed colours and type, continuing up to 10.14m from the west end of the trench, with buff to red bricks laid in stack bond in the remainder. At 2.93m from the west end, was a square structure 1005 which has been identified as a possible double muffle kiln. This was 8.5m long, at least 3.35m wide and had two brick courses visible; in addition there was a 0.86m wide wall

187 going through the centre, a row of three ash pits present on the eastern side (184) and a further three on the western side (185). The dimensions of the ash pits were 0.6m by 1.1m and 0.07m deep. Ash pits 185 contained a thin layer of ash at the base. The southern side of kiln 1005 was bounded by 0.95m wide wall 186, which had four-brick-wide wall 250 extending perpendicular from the western end towards the south.

At the western end of the trench, two brick floors (88 and 183) were separated by an L-shaped wall (182), which also partially enclosed the latter. These brick floors were 1.60m and 1.11m long respectively. Wall 182 was 0.58m wide with the legs measuring 1.60m (E-W) and 2.51m (N-W). The upper brick course of ash pits 184 had been disturbed by earlier demolition and was not easily recognisable. Kiln 1005 was truncated by a concrete stanchion with polythene sheeting around it and an iron girder through the centre, and another concrete stanchion with an iron girder extending from the centre which had a ring of bricks around it; another of the latter type of stanchion truncated floor 183.

At 10.14m from the west end and abutting kiln 1005, was brick structure 251 which was an ambiguous stepped platform measuring 1.29m long with three brick courses visible. Further east at 11.43m, a further unidentified structure (168) was 4.62m long and more than 3.11m wide, and comprised a large brick floor incorporating two adjacent concreted surfaces (171 and 172). Alongside this, at 16.14m from the western end, was tunnel kiln 1006. The tunnel kiln consisted of two sets of tracks set into a concrete floor, enclosed by a red brick wall to the west and a platform to the east; this feature continued southwards into Trench 4.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk8 Trench 4 (Figs 2, 3, 5 and 11 ; Pl. 5 and 6) Trench 4 was aligned approximately south–north and was 14.3m long and 1.18m deep. The north end of the trench was 4m wide, the south end 3m. Bottle oven 1003, located at 10.9m from the southern end of the trench, had one ash pit (173) visible and on its western half was preserved to level of basal course 180 of the central domed area – 0.60m above floor 76. The eastern half only had the lower parts of the foundations remaining, up to the base of the ash pit. A section was made through the ash pit, removing this half of the oven and showing that oven wall 71 consisted of nine courses of brick below the floor surface and the centre of the oven was built over a ‘cork’ made of kiln furniture, pottery and fragmentary shale. The cork provides firm, dry foundations for the bottle oven; otherwise the oven can become unstable during firing due to the drying out of underlying material. It is described in principle (Sandeman 1917, 196) as being layers of bricks in a three to four foot (1–

1.3m) deep hole, with ground up saggars and other refractory materials in the gaps. Cork 74 had the recommended depth, at 1.07m, but differed in not being made predominantly from bricks, and was enclosed by a solid wall containing the ash pits rather than the un-mortared whole bricks that are recommended. Material mixed in with this suggests the cork may have been laid in the 2nd decade of the 20th century. The oven was

1.65m high overall. Below the oven wall was smooth, hard concrete 192, while the cork lay on a more coarse and uneven concrete surface (193). Ash pit 173 was 1.2m long and 0.35m deep and filled with dark grey brown sandy silt 153 with frequent ceramic sherds from the decade or so around the middle of the 20th century. It protruded about half a brick from the oven wall and its front side had a moderate incline. One fire bar remained, originally keyed in near the inside end of the ash pit, in line with the outside floor surface. The oven was surrounded by floor surface 76, located at 9.6m from the south end of the trench and 1.3m long. This floor was enclosed by wall 169, which most probably formed part of the original structure that enclosed the oven. The floor consisted of one course of grey to pink bricks laid on their side, over layers of fragmentary red shale.

North-south tunnel kiln 1004 was located on the eastern side and appeared to have truncated the oven; its western wall 191 was visible along the entire length of the trench. The wall was 0.62m high, in red bricks with concrete footings and regular vertical iron girders. At 8.75m, the wall turned north – south, nearly in line with wall 194 but 0.46m below concrete layer 56; this wall was bonded to floor surface 76. The tunnel kiln was excavated at the northern end and revealed a pair of rails set into a concrete floor. Along the western edge of the trench, at only 0.3m below the hardstanding (56), was modern wall 194, made of red bricks with an abutting floor of grey-blue glazed bricks at the top to the west. This structure was present from 0 to 7m from the south end and was truncated by four large concrete pillars. Between walls 191 and 194, and lower than their footings,

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk9 was a small area of floor surface 255 measuring 1.4m long and more than 1.2m wide. There was no indication that this was part of a kiln; it was truncated by the tunnel kiln and the small size of floor makes it unlikely there is more remaining outside of the trench.

The south of the trench was covered in 0.15m concrete and 0.3 – 0.74m dark greyish brown sandy silt with frequent rubble. The bottle oven and floor surface were covered in 0.15 concrete and 0.10 – 0.46m dark greyish brown sandy silt and frequent ceramic material. Finds from these layers include one piece that can only have been manufactured in 1946 or 1947 (although it could have been deposited later). As per previous trenches, the natural geology was not reached.

Trench 5 (Figs 2, 3 and 6; Pl. 7 and 8) Trench 5 was aligned south – north, measuring 19.49m long and 0.85m deep. At 3.6m from it’s southern end was the location of bottle oven 1002, at a height of 0.40m. There were three ash pits visible which protruded a half brick from the oven wall, ash pits 161, 162, and 163. Ash pit 161 was excavated. This ash pit was 1.3m long, 0.53 to 1.1m width and 0.32m deep and contained dark grey silty sand to about the height of the first brick.

One fire bar was keyed in near the far end of ash pit 161, in line with the surrounding floor surface. This was

0.52m long, 77mm wide and tapering in thickness from 57mm to 51mm. A further fire bar was present but was loose within the fill of ash-pit 162. At the southern end of the trench, a disused soil pipe and an east – west aligned double skin red brick wall 196 were visible before stripping. The space behind these bricks was filled with deposit 81 and contained frequent kiln furniture. At its centre wall 196 was reinforced by a vertical iron girder; to the south reinforcement was provided by north – south aligned loosely-stacked bricks (83) which were in turn covered by concrete (98). At 3.2m from the southern end of the trench and on the same alignment as wall

196, was a line of loosely-stacked bricks (195) which abutted the concrete foundations of the iron girder in wall

196. Adjacent to this was grey brick floor 165 which surrounded bottle oven 1002. The trench was covered in

0.15m of concrete; below this in the northern half was brick rubble 80 with mid greyish brown silty sand. South of brick stack 83 was 0.30 – 0.85m of mid brownish grey silty sand 81 with very frequent kiln furniture; south of wall 196 was 0.25m of mid pinkish brown sandy clay 82 and 0.65m of a brick layer.

Finds from this trench are predominantly later 20th century (1970’s?) although also incorporate mid- century material. As per previous trenches, the natural geology was not reached.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk10 Trench 6 (Figs 2, 3 and 7; Pl. 9 and 10) Trench 6 was aligned west – east and was 19.5m long and 0.50m deep. Located at 16.8m from its western end was a circular feature, tentatively identified as a possible muffle kiln (1001). It was not possible to confirm this by excavation as later concrete (177) was laid directly over the kiln, only allowing a small proportion of it to be revealed. Along with the circular kiln wall (53) and the brick floor (54) surrounding it, an ash pit (99) was also visible. Where it protruded from the oven wall, ash pit 99 was edged by bullnose bricks with its northern side curving outwards; the dimensions were 1.00m by 0.60m to 0.70m and 0.18m deep. It’s fill (55) contained very dark grey silty sand with rubble, fragmentary shale, coal. Within this were ceramic sherds and toilet pull handles as well as the remains of a thick perforated iron sheet – fused through corrosion to the ceramic waste underneath it; this may represent part of the ironwork from the superstructure, possibly the remnants of the fire-mouth door.

Brick structure 181, which had concrete floors in several areas, comprises several truncated sections of walls that extended across the trench. The full layout of these was obscured by a later north-east – south-west drain with 0.64m wide trench and a curving pipe with 0.5m wide trench at the eastern end. A wall with a concrete floor in the north-west of the trench may signify the edge of an ENE – WSW orientated building, but otherwise the structures appear unsystematically laid out. This is most likely a result of the cut of the modern drain dissecting whatever structure existed here. However, both the floor around the muffle kiln (54) and the concrete layer over it (177) abut the nearest wall of structure 181. This suggests that the building was standing when the kiln was still in use and at the time it was demolished and covered with concrete. Small areas of the concrete floors were also removed in the west of the trench, showing hardcore of kiln furniture and pottery (97) in situ. Stratigraphy consisted of 0.10m of tarmac (57) and 0.35m of moderate sand and gravel (58); at the eastern end this overlay 0.30m of mid reddish-brown silty sand and brick rubble (59).

As with the previous trench, finds from Trench 6 are predominantly later 20th century (1960 to 70’s) although also incorporate mid-century material. Again, the natural geology was not encountered.

Trench 7 (Figs 2, 3 and 8; Pl. 11 and 12) Trench 7 was aligned south – north and was 14.26m long and 0.70m deep. At 4.30m was bottle oven group

1007; about half of which was visible in the trench. The oven had its domed brick base (62) present along with four ash pits (258, 259, 260, and 261) that protruded from the oven wall; ash pit 258 had the remains of a fire bar still in situ. The southern part of 1007 had up to five brick courses preserved; the northern half was only present to the level of the surrounding concrete floor 63. The bricks were red to reddish-purple firebricks, with some fired yellow nearer the ash pits. At 11.6m from the southern end, bottle oven 1008 was at the same lower level

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk11 and comprised domed brick base (61) and two ash pits (256 and 257) that protruded from the oven wall; ash pit

256 also retained part of the fire bar in situ. It was made of mixed-colour, frogged bricks and the inner side of the oven wall had straight sides that lined up with each ash pit. Concrete floor surface 63 joined the bottle ovens and was contemporary with them, curving down to meet the ash pit 258. At its north end was a small area of brick floor surface (269), possibly a later repair; the southern end continued underneath the base of 64 – a stack of bricks in a wall-like arrangement at the western edge of the trench.

At 0.20m from the south end of the trench was blue-grey brick floor surface 198, within the topsoil. The floor was 3.5m long and 3.75m and aligned with Robson Street, unlike the other features in the trench which are aligned with Slippery Lane. At 3.0m was mixed red to buff brick floor 199, which was 1.26m long. The stratigraphy consisted of 0.13m concrete and 0.15 – 0.61m dark greyish brown sandy loam 60 with very frequent bricks, except at the southern end which had topsoil rather than concrete and was slightly upslope from the rest of trench. Deposit 60 included the site’s most convincing 19th-century group of ceramics but it appears that this was nevertheless a later deposit. A modern water pipe was encountered at about 2.8m from the southern end, which still in use and had previously been cut and taped shut. As per previous trenches, the natural geology was not reached.

Trench 8 (Figs 2, 3, 9, 10 and 11; Pl. 13 and 14) Trench 8 was aligned south – north and was 19.49m long and 0.01 to 1.0m deep. Bottle oven 1010 was recorded from the southern end of the trench to 5m along it, and was so close to the surface that almost half of the kiln wall was present within the topsoil. The western half of this was excavated, cutting a section through the northern oven wall. This revealed the well-preserved floor of the oven, and that the oven wall to the north and east remained to a height of 0.90m. The domed floor (66) had large purple-red square bricks, radiating from the well at the centre which was covered in a circular iron lid (267). The bricks of the inner half of the firing chamber wall (264) slope slightly outwards when viewed from above. Four ‘bags’ – a ‘bag’ is a small vertical firebrick flue or chimney – were visible along the interior wall, one of which had the remains of an arch (265) just above the level of the interior floor. Outside the bag, was a platform (266) in a gap through the wall of the firing chamber; similar gaps in the unexcavated half of the oven indicated the locations of two more bags. The bottle oven was within 0.1m of topsoil and contained 1m of dark grey brown sandy loam and brick rubble 68.

At 10.0m from the southern end of the trench, a short section of a truncated wall (270) was visible just beneath the tarmac and measured at 1.50 by 0.58m. Excavations were undertaken to the north of this and uncovered the floor (65) of tunnel kiln 1009. The wall was ten courses high and in line with another wall (271) at

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk12 16m from the south end, which only had up to two courses remaining. Between these two walls was a perpendicular and slightly sunken floor with low ledges on each side reinforced with iron (272). On either side of the two walls were a set of rails; those to the north had buffer stops shortly before the perpendicular rails. A small irregular raised concrete slab was attached to the sunken floor, just west of the sets of rails. A row of four, regularly spaced uneven holes runs parallel to the northern wall, on the west side of the rails, each with a single adjacent brick in the concrete. Over the tunnel kiln was 0.06m of tarmac and 0.90m of dark reddish grey sandy loam and brick rubble 67; finds from deposits 67 and 68 dated from the 1950s or later. As for previous trenches, the natural geology was not reached.

Trench 9 (Figs 2, 3 and 6; Pl. 15) Trench 9 was aligned west – east and was 8.0m long and 0.4 to 2.15m deep. At 3.65m was bottle oven group

1000 which was made with bricks of mixed colour and type, both frogged and un-frogged. It was laid unevenly, including thinner and half-bricks, especially in the oven wall. It is unclear whether the structure remains at the height of the base of the ash pits or lower. At the west end of the trench a test pit revealed a dump of kiln waste to a depth of 2.35m, which may extend under the whole trench. The stratigraphy of this consisted of 0.20m of concrete; 1.35m of dark brownish grey silty sand 93 with lenses of blackish silty sand and loose stacked bricks near the top; >0.80m of dark grey silty sand 94 and ceramic waste with a lens of orangey yellow clay and dark greyish brown silty clay. At 2.7m from the west end of the trench, abutting north – south walls 90 and 91 were recorded as 0.38m wide; the latter was on the western side made of perforated bricks. Wall 90 was a 1.2m high brick wall made of buff to red bricks; wall 91 was a single skin wall made of red bricks. The stratigraphy over the bottle oven consisted of 0.20m of concrete and 0.70m of dark greyish brown silty sand 92 and brick rubble with frequent ceramic sherds and kiln furniture. Deposits 92, 93 and 94 all contained predominantly early 20th- century finds but could extend into the 1950s. As in all previous trenches, the natural geology was not reached.

Trench 10 (Figs 2 and 3, Pl.16) Trench 10 was aligned west – east and was 5.4m long and 1.06 – 1.61m deep. The trench was bounded to the north by wall 170 which was 0.88m high. The stratigraphy consisted of 0.16m of concrete and 1.50m of made ground: mid yellowish-grey sandy clay 166 with moderate brick rubble, occasional kiln furniture and 19th- century ceramic sherds. Natural geology was recorded on the southern side of the trench, where greyish-yellow clay was observed at 1.0m below the ground level. At the eastern end of the trench, abutting the wall at two brick courses high, was concrete floor 263 which was 1.16m long.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk13 Finds

Ceramics and ceramic production material by David Barker

The evaluation yielded 3,510 sherds of pottery, related ceramic production waste and oven bricks, weighing almost 175kg, from 33 contexts. The assemblage includes waste ceramics from the production process, a small number of domestic sherds not made in Hanley, kiln furniture, saggars, plaster of Paris moulds and a number of refractory bricks, all of which are finds typically made on 19th- and 20th-century pottery production sites.

Earlier 18th-, 17th- and perhaps 16th-century material relates to the area’s long history of manufacture, but makes little contribution to the story of the development of the present site and its factories.

The ceramics have been rapidly examined individually with a view to determining the types of ware and the range of vessel forms present, identifying distinguishing characteristics which may identify the manufacturer, and defining the likely date range for material in each context. The related production material has been examined to determine form and function, and to identify evidence for use and discard. Manufacturers’ marks have been noted, but moulded size numbers etc. which are present on many of the kiln furniture items have not been recorded at this stage. No concerted attempt has been made to identify sherd links, within or between contexts, although the existence of these seems highly likely. Large quantities of electrical porcelain were recovered from Trenches 1, 6 and 8, but no more than the most basic identification was possible at the assessment stage. This is a specialist area and, should further work be required, research into electrical ceramics will be necessary.

A detailed discussion of the material by context is presented as Appendix 3. (Where large items of brick or plaster of Paris have unduly distorted the weights of the ceramic finds from each context, their weights have been indicated within the text.)

Discussion In many respects this is a typical factory site assemblage, in itself of secondary importance to the structural remains but with the potential to inform an understanding of the development of the site, and of the Vulcan,

Fairfield, Robson Street and Britannia Potteries, and to aid in the dating of structures and other features of these factories. Structural evidence, in the form of oven bricks and bricks from other structures is present, but most of the finds relate to the firing of the wares - saggars, refractories, shelves and shelf supports, items relating to the monitoring of temperature (Buller’s rings), and a wide variety of kiln furniture used in placing ware for firing.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk14 Firing in traditional intermittent coal-fired ’bottle ovens’ has received much attention, but the kiln furniture here may add to an understanding 20th-century practices. Firing in continuous gas-fired tunnel kilns, by contrast, has largely gone unstudied and even the smallest amount of new evidence can be helpful.

The ceramic wasters are of some interest, but cannot be expected to constitute a representative cross-section a factory’s products, as the bulk of the production waste would have been discarded away from the factory itself.

Nevertheless, they provide some evidence for the range of wares produced by these factories and for the faults encountered during production.

Trenches 1 and 2 have yielded what appear to be mixed groups of late 19th to early 20th-century ceramics, including quantities of electrical porcelains, but the only manufacturers represented by marks – Ridgways and

John Edwards – have no obvious connection with the site, suggesting that at least some of the ceramics were imported from elsewhere for whatever reason.

By contrast, Trenches 3, 4 and 5 seem to relate directly to the operation of the Vulcan Works by

Swinnerton and, indeed, the ceramics from Trenches 4 and 5 include several examples with Swinnerton’s marks of mid 20th-century date. That said, however, the manufacturers Ridgways and Clementson are also represented by marked sherds in Trench 4 [74], the sub-oven floor deposit, suggesting that wasters were brought onto the site, perhaps in the late 1910s, prior to the construction of this structure; a single marked Ridgway sherd is also present in Trench 4 [72], a rubble deposit above the oven. Trench 3 also contained a range of wares which are likely to be Swinnerton’s products, but they lack marks, are less diagnostic, and are not so readily datable.

Swinnertons’ products are reasonably well-known and any further detailed study of the sherds may benefit by being able to draw upon a large body of extant wares. The same cannot be said of the electrical porcelains, which are numerous in Trench 6, and were presumably products of A. G. Hackney’s Fairfield Works.

A. G. Hackney is listed as an earthenware manufacturer in 1900 (Henrywood 2002, 138), but in December

1938, A. G. Hackney & Co., Ltd., was formed to produce porcelain components for the electrical and radio industries, including refractories for electric fires and cookers, fuse boxes, insulators, sockets and lamp holders; they also made porcelain formers for latex gloves, beach balls, balloons and baby bottle teats (Bentley 1963).

Examples of many of these items are present amongst the finds, but no detailed study of electrical wares of this date from archaeological work is known and further study is required to reveal the full potential of this and to identify individual items. The presence of pieces of electrical porcelain marked ‘B I Callenders’ and ‘BICC’ suggests that these pieces were being made for this company (British Insulated Callender's Cables, formed in

1945 but renamed BICC Ltd. in 1975) by A. G. Hackney at, at the time of, and prior to the name change.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk15 However, other material from Trench 6 does seem to have originated elsewhere: the ‘Tim Horton Donuts’ mugs from context [159 bear the printed marks of Royal Doulton of Burslem, although their presence here in

Hanley might indicate that production was out-sourced to Hackney by Royal Doulton. These mugs were produced between 1964 and 1983.

Many of the ceramics from Trench 7 are somewhat earlier than those recovered from the other trenches.

However, the limited evidence of a single marked Hackwood sherd suggests that some, if not all of this ceramic waste was brought in from factories nearby. A Buller’s ring suggests mid 20th-century activity, while a single

18th-century slipware sherd is not an unexpected find in this part of Hanley.

The ceramics from Trench 8 are largely undiagnostic and late in date, but nevertheless with some interesting pieces relating to tunnel oven use.

The ceramics from Trench 9, mostly poor quality majolicas, date to the late 19th or early 20th century, but cannot be attributed with any certainty to a manufacturer. The only marked sherd is a bone china cup with a printed Grafton China mark used from 1935 (this company operated in Longton).

The ceramics from Trench 10 are a mixed group, mostly of 19th-century date, but with a little earlier material. There is no evidence to link them to a manufacturer.

Glass by Helen Daniel

In total there were six intact bottles and 30 fragments of glass recovered from a range of deposits within the evaluation trenches (Appendix 4). The fragments are mostly clear bottle glass but also featured a few sherds of window pane and one piece of pressed glass which was most probably from a small bowl.

Two complete bottles were recovered from saggar layer 70 in Trench 2. One is a small but heavy piece of thick-walled aqua glass, machine made with an uneven, square base and applied lip and is most probably an ink bottle (Height: 140mm, Diameter: 60mm, Weight: 371g). The other is a small aqua glass bottle with a twisted detail to neck and a simple star shape on base, possibly a small sauce bottle (Height: 150mm, Diameter: 35mm,

Weight: 85g). Both of these bottles date to the late 19th or early 20th century.

Fragments totalling 233g of obscured and textured glass were found within rubble layers 80 and 81 in

Trench 5, these presumably came from a window pane and are of a mid-20th century date.

In Trench 3, the deposit covering brick floor 88 near to the possible muffle kiln contained three complete bottles: one small octagonal ink well of aqua glass with a burst lip (Height: 65mm, Diameter: 45mm, Weight:

78g). This bottle features a side seam that continues through the lip, indicating it was machine-made (Hedges

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk16 1975, 23) this and the use of aqua glass allows secure dating between 1905 and 1920. The other two were clear milk bottles from the local Clover Dairies; one pint-sized (Height: 255mm, Diameter: 70mm, Weight: 437g) and one a third of a pint (Height: 140mm, Diameter: 55mm, Weight: 202g). From their form and the company history they appear to date from the middle part of the 20th century.

In deposit 93 next to the wall west of the kiln were six sherds of a clear glass bottle, including part of the neck and the base (74mm) stamped [MAYFAIR].

One aqua glass bottle marked [R. BROWN SPRING HILL BIRMINGHAM] (Height: 185mm, Diameter:

50mm, Weight: 189g) was recovered from layer 150, deposited over the floor of the rope works in Trench 2.

This is most probably a relish or sauce bottle and dates from the early part of the 20th century.

Metal by Nikki Snape

Four pieces of ferrous metal weighing 4865g were temporarily retained as examples; other similar metalwork was observed in trenches 5 and 7 but not retained. All had a thick layer of corrosion product on the surface. Two wrought iron loops were recovered and several others observed in trench 4 from rubble deposit 71 overlying oven 1004. One weighed 843g and measured 17cm long, 11cm wide with a thickness of 2cm, the other weighed

1040g and measured 18cm long, 11.5 cm wide and 3.5 cm thick. Both of these appear to be the links that joined bonts: segmented metal strapping surrounding an oven to strengthen the construction during expansion and contraction of the brickwork during firing.

A ferrous metal object weighing 1536g and measuring 19cm long with a shaft diameter of 3.8cm and head diameter of 6cm was recovered from trench 3, rubble deposit 87 overlying possible muffle kiln 1005. This appears to be a large bolt, likely part of the construction of the kiln. From the same context was a rectangular object, weighing 1446g and measuring 13cm long, 12cm wide, 2cm thick and has a hole in the centre 3.6cm in diameter. This is possibly a square nut or washer for a bolt of similar dimensions to the one above. Other unidentified ferrous objects were observed in this context but not retained.

Bonts and connecting loops were also observed in the rubble layer 68 filling oven 1010. These were photographed on site (Pl. 16) but not retained.

Discussion and Conclusion

The excavations revealed a total of ten kilns in seven out of the ten trenches: these consisted of six updraught ovens, two tunnel kilns, one rectangular muffle kiln and one possible circular muffle kiln. The updraught ovens

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk17 and muffle kilns all coincided with the locations of chimneys depicted on the 1924 and 1937 Ordnance Survey maps. The majority of the updraught ovens were close-coupled examples – that is to say they were not free- standing structures but were enclosed within a (usually) rectilinear building and featured a stack built above the firing chamber that would have protruded through roof of the building. The only one which may have been a hovel oven is 1010 (Trench 8) this did not appear to have any associated structures and was one of those marked in a ‘bank’ of ovens on the earliest historical mapping; for safety reasons due to the location of the trench it was not possible to excavate further to confirm this.

It is difficult to say exactly what age the structures are because of the regular maintenance that was required to keep the ovens working well. The firing chamber of a hovel oven would need to be replaced about every 20 years, whilst minor repairs would be needed every two or three firings and a new floor might be needed every third year. A close-coupled skeleton oven was designed to allow the firing chamber to be repaired or potentially replaced without it affecting the stack above; a normal close-coupled oven, however, would need to be entirely replaced (Copeland 2009, 115).

Trenches 1 and 10 did not reveal the structures they were targeting, the north end of a rope works in use at least from 1924 to 1950 and a circular kiln seen in the 1879 Ordnance Survey map respectively. Trench 10 contained only an east-west wall of a building that was probably to the north of the trench. The brick wall and floor in Trench 1 possibly could have belonged to the rope works but this could not be demonstrated.

Trench 2 was positioned on the south end of the Rope Works in trench 1. Brick floor 152 and brick walls

167 and 262 were probably part of the Rope Works. The floor was on the location of a long structure that ran along the edge of the site and seems to have been a covered walkway; this can be seen on a photo of the area from 1934, reference number EPW045339 (Britain from Above 2020). This would explain its insubstantial construction. Wall 262 may have been an internal wall for this walkway, and subsequently reused for a later building. Wall 167 may have been the remainder of a building parallel to this.

Trench 3 targeted two circular kilns in the north of the Vulcan Pottery. The eastern kiln was present on the

1924 Ordnance Survey map, while the western kiln first appeared in the 1937 map. Rectilinear muffle kiln 1005 was in the location of the western kiln, which probably had a square base and round chimney. The eastern kiln seems to have been lost to the construction of structure 168. This structure may have been associated with adjacent tunnel kiln 1006.

Trench 4 was positioned targeting two other circular kilns from the Vulcan Pottery. One free-standing kiln was seen in the 1900 Ordnance Survey map and the 1913 Inland Revenue map, and then replaced by a kiln that

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk18 was positioned slightly to the north while still within the same footprint. The later kiln was present in the 1924 and 1937 maps. Bottle oven 1003 is probably the later kiln; the earlier seems to have been lost during the rebuilding. The east side of the bottle oven was truncated by tunnel kiln 1003.

Trench 5 placed over the southernmost circular kiln of the Vulcan Pottery, which is seen in the 1924 and

1937 OS maps. This aligns with bottle oven 1002, at the north end of the trench.

Trench 6 was located over a circular pottery kiln at the eastern end and a very small circular possible muffle kiln further west, both belonging to the Fairfield Pottery. These are present in the 1924 OS map. Kiln

1001 appears to be the larger pottery kiln to the east although only a small area could be uncovered due to overlying concrete.

Trench 7 was positioned over two circular kilns, which are present in the 1879, 1924, 1937 and 1950 OS maps. Bottle ovens 1009 and 1010 are likely to be these two kilns. The differing bricks between the two ovens suggest that one was made shortly after the other or had to be replaced.

Trench 8 was positioned to target a circular kiln seen in the 1879 OS map and three adjacent circular kilns in the 1924 and 1937 OS maps. The 1879 kiln could not be investigated because of the steep slope on this part of site. Later groundwork likely removed the majority of this kiln. By the 1951 OS map, the southernmost kiln of the three has been demolished. Bottle oven 1010 appears to be the southerly kiln, so would have been demolished before 1951, while the two kilns to the north were replaced by tunnel kiln 1009 after 1951.

Trench 9 was located over a circular kiln seen in the 1924 and 1937 OS maps. The location of bottle oven

1000 aligned well with historical mapping.

Finds from the site, inevitably, included a substantial ceramic collection. However, the actual pottery is of relatively little interest, other than for dating purposes. Not all of it derives from the factories on this site

(worker’s domestic items?) and what is from these potteries cannot be representative of the ranges produced here, as contemporary waste would have been disposed of elsewhere and what remained on the site is most probably all redeposited. The evidence for manufacturing materials and processes, however, has greater archaeological potential for elucidating the development of the industry. Kiln furniture from intermittent, coal- fired kilns and continuous tunnel kilns could add to the overall picture of manufacturing on the site, while the study of electrical ceramics is under-developed.

The excavations identified structures, deposits and finds dating to between the late 19th century (possibly) and late 20th, with an emphasis on the middle decades of the 20th century. Good preservation of the Vulcan

Pottery, Britannia Pottery and Robson Street works has been shown. The Fairfield Pottery was obscured by

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk19 truncation from drains and a concrete layer over the muffle kiln. Ten of the fourteen kilns shown in historic mapping were found. The Robson Street works and the Britannia Pottery both appear in the 1879 OS map, but the only kilns to remain from that time are those from the Robson Street works. The site has high archaeological potential and as a result the archaeological advisor to Stoke City Council has recommended that further mitigation work is required, comprising the extension of trenches 3, 5, 7 and 9 in order to fully expose the remains of the ovens/kilns in these locations.

References

AOC, 2008, ‘Clough Street, Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent: Interim Report following Archaeological Evaluation’, AOC Archaeology Group unpub rep 7996, London Bentley, B, Fairfield Pottery in Robson Street, Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent City Archive; (Accessed February 2020) https://potteries.staffspasttrack.org.uk/Details.aspx?&ResourceID=38720&PageIndex=2&SearchType=3 BGS, 2020, https://mapapps.bgs.ac.uk/geologyofbritain/home.html (Accessed February 2020) Britain from Above, 2020, https://britainfromabove.org.uk/en/image/EPW045339 (Accessed March 2020) Cameron, K, 1996, English place names, London Copeland, R, 2009, Manufacturing Processes of Tableware during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, The Northern Ceramic Society Cramp, R, 2013, Archaeological Investigations on Land at Warner Street, Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent SJ 88084 47201. Stoke-on-Trent Archaeology Report No.348. Dale, K, 2017, ‘Former Vulcan Pottery Work, Clough Street, Hanley: Desk Study and Ground Investigation’, Hydrock Consultants Ltd unpubl report R/C-06344-C/0001 Gelling, M and Cole, A, 2000, The Landscape of Place-names, Stamford Godden, G A, 1991, Encyclopaedia of British Pottery and Porcelain Marks (rev edn), London Goodwin, 2019, ‘Brief for an archaeological evaluation: Former Pottery Works, Clough Street, Hanley’ Gorzynski, M and Tesseyman, H, 2019, ‘Archaeological Desk-Based Assessment: Former Vulcan Pottery, Clough Street, Hanley, Staffordshire’, Allen Archaeology Limited unpubl rep AAL2019088, Lincoln Hedges, A A C, 1975, Bottle and Bottle Collecting, Princes Risborough Henrywood, R K, 2002, Staffordshire Potters, 1781 – 1900, Antique Collectors’ Club, Woodbridge Jenkins, J G (ed), 1963, A History of the County of Stafford, London Mills, A D, 2011, Dictionary of English Place-Names, Oxford NPPF, 2019, National Planning Policy Framework (revised), Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, London Powicke, F M, 1922, ‘[Review of] The Book of Fees, commonly called Testa de Nevill […] Part I’, Engl Hist Rev 37, 570–3, doi:10.1093/ehr/xxxvii.cxlviii.570. [Accessed December 2019] Sandeman, E A, 1917, Notes on the Manufacture of Earthenware, London Shaw, S, 1829, The History of the Staffordshire Potteries, Burslem Stoke-on-Trent City Council Swinnerton, I S, Lt. Col, 1981, ‘Swinnerton Family History: Swinnertons in Industry’, J Swinnerton Soc 4 No 8 Swinnerton, I S, Lt. Col, 1982, ‘Swinnerton Family History: Swinnertons in Industry’, J Swinnerton Soc 5 No 10 and 6 No 1 Taylor, A, 2003, Stoke-on-Trent: A History, Chichester Watt, S (ed.), 2016, The Archaeology of the West Midlands: A framework for research (revised), Oxford

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk20 APPENDIX 1: Trench details

Trench Length (m) Breadth (m) Depth (m) Comment 1 10.0 2.15 0.64- 1.03 0–0.01m topsoil; 0.01–1.03m made ground 95. Wall fragment 50, floor surface fragment 51, wall 52 [Pl. 1] 2 15.0 3.7m 0.70- 1.40 Over majority of trench: 0–0.10m concrete; 0.10–0.18m modern sand 69; 0.18– 0.30m dark brownish grey sandy clay 253 with freq. brick rubble; 0.30–0.57m saggar fragments in mid brownish grey silty sand matrix 70 with freq. ceramic sherds and other kiln furniture; 0.57–1.17m v. dark brownish grey sandy clay 254. Over floor surface 152: 0– 0.10m concrete; 0.10–0.15m mid greyish brown silty sand 150. Floor surface 152, wall 167 [Pl. 2] 3 21.2 2.21 0.15- 0.70 Western section; 0–0.15m concrete; 0.15–0.25m v. dark grey silty sand with freq. crushed brick and shale, mod. kiln furniture, occ. iron, ceramics and glass. Above possible muffle kiln 1005, floor surface 88, brick structure 168, wall 182, floor surface 183, brick structure 251. Eastern section: 0–0.15m concrete; 0.15–0.30m orange builders’ sand; 0.30– 0.70m hardcore comprising crushed refractory brick. Above tunnel kiln 1006 [Pls 3 and 4] 4 15 4.0 0.10- 1.18 South of wall 169: 0–0.15m concrete; 0.15–0.89m dark greyish brown sandy silt with freq. brick rubble, crushed shale, kiln furniture and ceramic sherds. North of wall 1690: 0–0.15 concrete; 0.15–0.61m dark greyish brown sandy silt and brick rubble with freq. kiln furniture and ceramic sherds. Bottle oven 1003, tunnel kiln 1004, brick surface 76, wall 169 [Pls 5 and 6] 5 7.90 3.22 0.45- 0.85 North of trench: 0–0.15m concrete; 0.15–0.85m brick rubble 80with mid greyish brown silty sand, freq. kiln furniture, ceramic sherds, iron. South of brick stack 83: 0–0.15m concrete; 0.15 – 0.85m mid brownish grey silty sand 81 with very frequent kiln furniture. South of wall 196: 0–0.15m concrete; 0.15 – 0.25m mid pinkish brown sandy clay 82 with frequent kiln furniture; 0.25 – 0.65m brick layer. Bottle oven 1002, brick floor surface 165, wall 196, brick stacks 83 and 195 [Pl. 7 and 8] 6 19.5 3 0.25- 0.50 0–0.10m concrete; 0.10–0.45m mod. sand and gravel 58. At eastern end also: 0.45–0.75m mid reddish-brown silty sand 59 and brick rubble with mod. kiln furniture and ceramic sherds. Muffle kiln 1001, Brick floor 54, Brick and concrete structure 181 [Pls 9 and 10] 7 17.3 3.90 0.15- 0.74 0–0.13m concrete; 0.13–0.74m dark greyish brown sandy loam 60 with v. freq. bricks, mod. kiln furniture and ceramic sherds, occ. modern rubbish (area possibly disturbed by previous archaeological investigations). Bottle ovens 1007 and 1008, concrete floor surface 63 [Pls 11 and 12] 8 17.5 3.0- 6.0 0- 1.0 Over tunnel kiln: 0–0.06m tarmac; 0.06–0.96m dark reddish grey sandy loam 67 and brick rubble with occ. glass and ceramic sherds. Over bottle oven: 0–0.1m topsoil; 1m dark grey brown sandy loam and brick rubble 68 with occ. ceramic sherds and kiln furniture. Tunnel kiln 1009, bottle oven 1010. [Pls 13 and 14] 9 8.0 3.34 0.40- 1.20 0–0.20m concrete; 0.20–0.90m dark greyish brown silty sand and brick rubble 92 with freq. ceramic sherds and kiln furniture. West of wall 91: 0–0.20m concrete; 0.20–1.55m dark brownish grey silty sand 93 with lenses of blackish silty sand and four courses of loose stacked bricks near the top; 1.55–2.35m dark grey silty sand 94 and ceramic and kiln furniture waste, and a lens of orangey yellow clay and dark greyish brown silty clay. Bottle oven 1000, abutting walls 90 and 91 [Pl. 15] 10 6.0 3.0 1.20 0–0.16m concrete; 0.16–1.36m mid yellowish grey sandy clay 166 with mod. brick rubble and occ. kiln furniture and ceramic sherds (made ground). Wall 170

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk21 APPENDIX 2: Feature details

Trench Structure Fill (s) Group Type Date Dating evidence Site 56 Concrete layer 1 50 Wall fragment 1 51 Brick floor fragment 1 52 Wall fragment 1 95 Made ground 20th century Pottery 2 69 Sand layer 2 70 Saggar layer 1912-1920? Pottery 2 150 Layer Mid 20th century Pottery 2 151 Layer Early 20th century? Pottery 2 152 Brick floor 2 167 Wall 2 253 Layer 2 254 Layer 2 262 Wall 3 84 1005 Base of muffle kiln 3 85 1006 Floor of tunnel kiln 3 86 Made ground 3 87 Layer 1930s–50s Pottery 3 88 Brick floor 3 96 Layer 1930s–50s Pottery 3 154 Saggar layer 1930s–50s Pottery 3 168 Wall 3 171 Concrete surface 3 172 Concrete surface 3 182 Wall 3 183 1005 Brick floor 3 184 1005 Ash pit group 3 185 1005 Ash pits group 3 186 1005 Wall 3 187 1005 Wall 3 188 1005 Floor 3 189 1005 Floor 3 190 Void 3 250 Wall 3 251 Brick structure 4 71 1003 Domed base of bottle oven 4 72 Rubble layer 1930s–50s Pottery 4 73 Layer 1946-1948 Pottery 4 74 Layer 1912–1920s Pottery 4 75 Layer 4 76 Brick floor 4 77 Made ground 1950s+ Pottery 4 78 1004 Floor of tunnel kiln 4 169 Wall 4 173 153 1003 Ash pit 1940–60s? Pottery 4 178 Layer 4 179 Layer 4 180 1003 Domed base of bottle oven 4 191 1004 Wall 4 192 1003 Concrete layer 4 193 1003 Concrete layer 4 194 Wall 4 255 Brick floor 5 79 1002 Wall of bottle oven 5 80 Rubble layer 1950s–70s Pottery 5 81 Rubble layer Mid 20th century Pottery 5 82 Rubble layer Mid 20th century Pottery 5 83 Stack of bricks 5 98 Reinforcement of wall Mid 20th century Pottery 5 156 Layer 1930s–50s Pottery 5 161 155 1002 Ash pit 1940s to 1948 Pottery 5 162 174 1002 Ash pit 5 163 175 1002 Ash pit 5 164 1002 Domed base of bottle oven 5 165 Brick floor 5 195 Stack of bricks

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk22 Trench Structure Fill (s) Group Type Date Dating evidence 5 196 Wall 5 197 Layer 6 53 1001 Base of muffle kiln 6 54 Brick floor 6 58 Subsoil 6 59 Rubble layer Later 20th century Pottery 6 97 Ceramic deposit 1975 or later Pottery 6 99 55 1001 Ash pit Mid 20th century Pottery 6 157 Ceramic deposit 1950s-60s Pottery 6 158 Ceramic deposit 1960s-70s Pottery 6 159 Ceramic deposit 1946–1983 Pottery 6 176 Concrete repair 6 177 Concrete layer 6 181 Brick structure 7 60 Rubble layer (very mixed pottery Pottery but deposited early 20th century) 7 61 1008 Domed base of bottle oven 7 62 1007 Domed base of bottle oven 7 63 Concrete floor 7 64 Stack of bricks 7 198 Floor 7 199 Floor 3, 4 252 Sand and polythene sheet 7 256 1008 Ash pit 7 257 1008 Ash pit 7 258 1007 Ash pit 7 259 1007 Ash pit 7 260 1007 Ash pit 7 262 1007 Ash pit 7 269 1008 Brick repair 8 65 1009 Floor of tunnel kiln 8 66 1010 Bottle oven floor 8 67 Rubble layer 1950s or later Pottery 8 68 Brick layer 1950s or later Pottery 8 264 1010 Firing chamber wall 8 265 1010 Foundation course of ‘bag’ 8 266 1010 Arch above ‘bag’ hole 8 267 1010 Iron cap over central well 8 268 1009 Floor outside chamber 264 8 270 1009 Truncated wall above 1009 8 271 1009 Lower wall to N over 1009 8 272 1009 Floor between 270 and 271 9 89 1000 Domed base of bottle oven 9 90 Wall 9 91 Wall 9 92 Layer 1930s–50s? Pottery 9 93 Layer Early 20th century Pottery 9 94 Dump layer Early 20th century Pottery 1, 8 160 Topsoil 1950s or later Pottery 10 166 Made ground 19th century Pottery 10 170 Wall 10 263 Concrete layer 6, 8 57 Tarmac layer

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk23 APPENDIX 3: Ceramic finds Trench 1 [95]: 147 sherds (13,404g) This context contained mostly electrical porcelains, biscuit and glazed, in a wide range of forms, including light fittings; several pieces are marked ‘ENGLISH CHINA’, and others may have manufacturers’ marks which are not clearly defined. Other items include one biscuit white earthenware basin, a glost moulded cup or similar, a Bristol glazed preserve jar and one piece of probable sanitary ware. Kiln furniture includes stilts in a range of sizes, saddles, wad clay and other items of interest. Marks are those of Charles Ford & Co., of Hanley (‘C F & Co.’). There are a number of glost saggar pieces and shelves used within saggars, as well as two shelf supports.

Trench 2 [70] 61 sherds (18,005g) This context yielded a mixed group of late 19th- to early 20th-century material, comprising biscuit and glost earthenwares, electrical porcelains, and biscuit sanitary wares in white, buff and coarse fireclay bodies. There are also single sherds of Rockingham, bone china, redware, glazed blue stoneware and a Bristol glazed stoneware preserve jar. Several of the earthenware sherds have printed decoration consistent with manufacture in the late 19th or early 20th century. However, one plate rim is of a form, and decorated in a style which suggest a mid 19th-century date, while a cup base has a printed ‘Ridgways / Vitrified / England’ mark to the underside of the type illustrated by Godden (1991, 539 no. 3314) and dated to c. 1912+; this mark also bears the name of an American importer ‘L. Barth & Son, New York’. Ridgways operated at the Bedford Works, Shelton, from 1879 to 1920. Kiln furniture includes thimbles, thimble sockets, saddles, stilts (one of unusual form), a shelf support and strips of extruded white clay which were perhaps used as some form of support or seal. There are three glost saggar fragments and one cover from a glost saggar. One refractory brick (1,677g) with a recessed groove to one edge – to interlock with another brick - is probably part of a muffle. [150]: 37 sherds (1,795g) A mixed group of late 19th- mid 20th-century material, comprising mostly white earthenwares (biscuit and glost) and ironstone-type ware, with two sherds of jet ware, one of redware and one of brown salt-glazed stoneware, this last being a domestic item. Kiln furniture comprises stilts, including one marked ‘O & Co.’ – perhaps Henry Ogden & Co. - and an egg-stilt marked ‘C. F. & Co.’ (Charles Ford & Co.), a piece of wad clay and a glost saggar rim. A further piece of hand-formed kiln furniture is salt-glazed and dates to the mid 18th century. (A piece of salt-glazed drain pipe has not been counted.) [151]: 25 sherds (889g) This context contains both electrical porcelains and white earthenwares. The former includes light fittings, one of which bears an impressed registration number ‘266764’ for the year 1895. The white earthenwares, biscuit and glost, are consistent with a late 19th- to early 20th-century date. One vessel, a small dish with green printed decoration, has an incomplete impressed mark ‘[JAMES EDWAR]DS & SON / [DA]LEHALL’. Edwards was operating at Dale Hall from 1851 to 1882 (Godden 1991, 232). One other piece was certainly not made in Hanley – a Bristol glazed stoneware preserve jar. Kiln furniture comprises three pieces of wad clay and an extruded bar of square cross-section.

Trench 3 [86]: 46 sherds (3,463g) Pieces of refractory bricks and shelves or bats, together with pillar rings, pins, a prop and discs or collars which are probably bases or connectors for shelf supports or props. Two bricks have impressed marks with ‘D’ surrounded by a diamond, or lozenge, the logo of Dyson Thermal Technologies, which appears to have been frequently used alongside other manufacturers’ marks. [87]: 166 sherds (2,082g) The ceramics are all of white earthenware or ironstone, biscuit and glost, and include tea, table and hygiene wares. Many of the sherds are, however, undiagnostic, and none are marked. Some moulded wares with a ridged profile may, however, be diagnostic, as may some of the printed and painted designs. The latter look to be 1930s in style, while the printed wares – Oriental patterns in blue and rococo-like swags in pink – are more traditional and difficult to date. There is one sherd with under-glaze painted and sponged decoration and another plate with a heavy blue band to the edge, bordered by gold bands. The kiln furniture comprises thimbles, saddles, pillar rings, basin props, stilts and a small number of unusual patent stilts which merit closer examination. Marks include ‘C F & Co’ (Charles Ford & Co., of Hanley)

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk24 and, others which include the letter ‘A’, possibly for Thomas Arrowsmith of Burslem. There are also thimble sockets, shelf supports, wad clay strips and a single Buller’s ring. The finds probably date to the second quarter of the 20th century. [96]: 56 sherds (2,507g) All but four of the vessel sherds are heavy biscuit white earthenwares, with forms which include jugs or ewers, chamber pots and basins, most with relief-moulded decoration. The wares are not especially diagnostic, although one has printed and painted decoration on a yellow ground with a painted green edge, and all are unmarked. Kiln furniture comprises stilts, thimbles, a saddle, a basin prop, wad clay and a piece of a glost saggars. Marks include those of Charles Ford & Co. of Hanley. The finds probably date to the second quarter of the 20th century. [154]: 19 sherds (2,683g) There are seven white earthenware sherds, four biscuit, three glazed. Two glazed sherds have printed and painted decoration, while the other – a cup - has a blue printed design. There are also sherds of biscuit saggars of indeterminate date, together with a thimble, a thimble and socket and a saddle. The finds probably date to the second quarter of the 20th century. [156]: 63 sherds (729g) The finds from this context are predominantly of kiln furniture, comprising thimbles, thimbles sockets, saddles and stilts of different sizes, which probably date to the second quarter of the 20th century. Marks present of the pieces are those of Charles Ford & Co., of Hanley. There is one unusual stilt of a type also present in context 87, two white earthenware sherds – one biscuit, the other glazed with blue-printed decoration - and wad clay strips.

Trench 4 [71]: 1 brick sherds (3,696g) A single frogged brick measuring 235 x 80 x 113mm bears the mark ‘C.B.C.’. The maker has not been identified. [72]: 245 sherds (6,313g) Biscuit and glost white earthenwares predominate amongst the finds from this context, with forms including cups, plates, a pudding basin, a teapot and others. Decoration, where present, is printed in blue, green and green and red. Several blue printed Chinese landscape scenes are in a 19th-century style, but are probably broadly contemporary with the remainder of the material. The manufacturer of much of the material can probably of identified as Swinnertons on the basis a stamped Swinnertons mark on a glazed cup, and cups with ‘Made in England’ mark and the letter ‘C’ identical to those found in other Trench 4 contexts. Several of the plates have a moulded edge with a band of small triangular leaf-like motifs – a design also noted in other Trench 4 contexts. However, at least one other manufacturer is represented, for there is a single printed Ridgways mark, naming the pattern as ‘Chiswick’ and the body type a Royal Semi-Porcelain; the mark includes a Design Registration Number ‘295264’, indicating that the printed pattern was registered in 1897. Other ware types are a single redware handle and a black glazed or ‘Jet ware’ jug rim. One sherd not related to production is a ceramic cap from a hot tap, made by Twyfords. Kiln furniture includes thimbles, saddles and stilts in roughly equal proportions, all in a range of sizes, together with thimble sockets and a few pieces of wad clay. Marked stilts include several with ‘A’ marks, suggesting possibly manufacture by Thomas Arrowsmith, and another is marked ‘D & Co.’. Two stilts are of an unusual form. There is also a single shelf support or prop and five Buller’s rings. One refractory brick (2,800g) is part of a muffle lining or similar. The presence together of Swinnertons and Ridgway material, and Buller’s rings suggests a mixed group of late 19th- to mid 20th-century date, although with an emphasis towards the later end of this range. [73]: 22 (16,645g) The ceramics from this context consist of biscuit and glost white earthenwares. Forms include plates, covered pots (meat paste or pharmaceutical creams, etc), cups, a milk jug and at least nine pudding bowls, sitting one inside another, which have fused together and distorted during the biscuit firing. The lowest of these is marked ‘ENGLAND’ and ‘C Z’. A plain glazed cup has a stamped mark ‘L.N.E.R. / SWINNERTONS LTD. / HANLEY’, identifying its intended customer, together with an impressed ‘Made in England’ mark and the letter ‘C’, as above in context 72. A glazed milk jug has a stamped ‘SWINNERTONS / STAFFORDSHIRE’ mark with the company logo, a lamp, which was apparently used from 1946 onwards (Godden 1991, 606, no 3779). The plates have a moulded edge with a band of small triangular leaf-like motifs. The covered pots are identical - low and cylindrical with a recessed rim to take a flat cover. There is a single blue printed body sherd and a piece of electric al porcelain – a light fitting. The combination of the Swinnertons lamp mark logo and the L.N.E.R. marked sherd potentially gives a very tight date for the material from this context, as the railways were nationalized from the 1st January 1948. One Buller’s ring was recovered There are also two biscuit saggar profiles (6,575g) and a biscuit saggar shelf or cover (1,414g). A single large coarse fireclay brick (4,870g) with tongue and groove connectors to each long edge has a slightly curved profile; it is part of a muffle wall.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk25 [74]: 416 sherds (17,578g) Material recovered from beneath the kiln floor comprises large quantity of vessel sherds, which are of white biscuit and glost earthenware and ironstone, kiln furniture and saggars. Five different printed marks identify the manufacturer of a good number of the wares as Ridgways of the Bedford Works, Shelton, occupied from 1879 to 1920. Three of the marks are illustrated by Godden (1991, 539 nos. 3312, 3313 and 3314), and are dated to c. 1905+ (one example) and c. 1912+ (two marks). Two of the marks feature the Ridgways bow and quiver trade mark, identifying the body type as ‘Royal Semi-Vitrified’; one of these also names a Canadian importer, Robinson & Co., Ltd., of Winnipeg. Another example of mark 3314 also includes the name of a Canadian customer or importer, ‘The Thomas [...] / Quebec’. One mark not illustrated by Godden includes the pattern name ‘Delft’. Several examples of another mark combine the ‘semi-china’ mark illustrated by Godden (1991, 539 no. 3317) with the bow and quiver trade mark. However, Ridgways is not the only manufacturer represented by marked sherds, for one saucer sherd bears a black stamped Clementson Bros mark with the Royal Arms, similar to that illustrated by Godden (1991, 149 no. 905), although the use of ‘England’ within the mark suggests that it post-dates the 1891 American McKinley Tariff Act which required the country of origin to appear on manufactured goods imported into the U.S.A. Clementson Brothers worked at the Phoenix Works and Bell Works in Hanley between 1867 and 1916. Vessel forms include a wide range of tea and table wares, some relief-moulded decoration, and a least one flower pot. Surface decoration includes printed designs in a range of colours, including a two-colour floral pattern, a sherd of the ‘Delft’ pattern complete with windmill noted above, ‘Willow’ and several other. One under-glaze painted design is a green and red band-and-line pattern. Two biscuit plates have numbers written on them in pencil ‘2’ and ‘3’ or ‘13’. There are a few pieces of electrical porcelain amongst the domestic wares. Kiln furniture includes many thimbles, thimble sockets and claws, saddles and stilts in a range of sizes, together with basin props and pieces of wad clay. Several stilts are marked ‘D & Co’. There are numerous biscuit and glost saggar fragments and roughly circular saggar shelves, glazed and coated with bitstone. These finds are typical of the material used to provide a fill for the cork prior to the construction of oven floors. The ceramics are not especially diagnostic, but the presence of datable manufacturers’ marks suggests that much of this material was brought onto the site for use as filling material during the second decade of the 20th century or slightly later. [77]: 11 sherds (2,114g) Refractory material comprising props, circular stands for these and a brick of uncertain function. All of this material was probably used for placing wares in the tunnel kiln cars and dates to the second half of the 20th century. [153]: 24 sherds (407g) The ceramics from this ash pit are all biscuit white earthenwares, with forms including cups, dishes, small plates and a jug. The cups have ‘Made in England / C’ marks, as on other Swinnertons material above, while the plate have the moulded band of small triangular leaf-like motifs to their edges, as noted above. A mid 20th-century date seems likely for this small group of wares.

Trench 5 [80]: 171 sherds (18,858g), which includes 28 plaster mould pieces (12,854g) With the exception of a single redware teapot cover and a possible biscuit bone china cup handle, the ceramics are all whitewares, biscuit and glazed. Forms include cups, pudding bowls, mugs, teapots, and plates, soup plates of different sizes and serving dishes. The plates have either a plain edge or a moulded edge with a band of small triangular leaf-like motifs, as on plates in Trench 4 [73]. This moulded band also occurs on teapots and other forms. Five sherds bear marks: a glazed cup has a stamped ‘Swinnertons / Staffordshire / England’ mark with lamp as above in context 73; a biscuit cup base has the moulded mark ‘ENGLAND / CZ’ and another ‘MADE IN ENGLAND’; a moulded jug base has an incomplete scratched mark ‘...SH’; while a biscuit 7-inch plate has the word ‘SHORTY’ across its upper face. Just four white earthenware sherds are decorated: two sherds of a plate have a blue printed floral edge pattern, while two cups, one biscuit, one glazed, have under-glaze blue- painted bands to their rims. There is a single piece of electrical porcelain. This context also yielded 28 fragments of plaster of Paris moulds (12,854g) which appear to relate closely to the white earthenwares in this context. Four half moulds are for sauce boats which clearly have the same band of moulded triangular leaf-like motifs noted on plates, teapots and other forms. Four single piece moulds, one fairly complete, are for the production of cups on a jolley machine, and ten are for the production of small plates or saucers on a jigger. One piece may be a sprig mould and another is a complete half of a handle mould. One curious piece is a positive in the form of a cup, but with a thin base which detaches and which is turned on the underside. Kiln furniture includes, thimbles, saddles, stilts and spurs used in earthenware firing, a piece of wad clay, and a cup ring used in bone china firing; one stilt arm bears the initials ‘C F & Co.’, indicating manufacture by

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk26 Charles Ford & Co of Hanley. There are also five sherds of Buller’s rings. One wedge-shaped refractory brick (3,263g) with the impressed mark ‘DOUGALL’ probably relates to the structure of a tunnel kiln. James Dougall & Sons, Ltd., were brickmakers at Bonnybridge in Stirlingshire. This material dates to the third quarter of the 20th century. [81]: 124 sherds (3,137g) Biscuit and glost white earthenwares have some similarities with those from context 80. Plates sherds have the same moulded edge pattern as that present in this context, and ‘ENGLAND’ or ‘MADE IN EGLAND’ marks are present on four bases. Two glazed sherds have blue printed decoration, while another small dish has a blue under-glaze painted band-and-line edge pattern. Kiln furniture includes thimbles, saddles and stilts in roughly equal proportions, all in a range of sizes, together with thimble sockets and many pieces of wad clay. Marked stilts include several with ‘A’ marks, perhaps suggesting manufacture by Thomas Arrowsmith. There are also two biscuit saggar sherds and a Buller’s ring. The group is probably of mid 20th-century date. [82]: 73 sherds (1,762g) Biscuit and glost white earthenwares are undiagnostic. Kiln furniture includes two biscuit saggar fragments, wad clay, many thimbles, some thimble sockets, saddles and a few stilts. All are consistent with a mid 20th-century date. [98]: 1 item (965g) This is a near complete plaster of Paris cup mould for use on a jolley machine. The mould appears to have no relief decoration and so the vessels made in this would have been plain forms. Although not readily datable, such a mould would be perfectly consistent with a mid 20th-century date. [155]: 25 sherds (560g) Biscuit and glost white earthenwares include cups, teapots and a plate. The bases of three cups are marked ‘MADE IN ENGLAND / C’, as is another glazed cup base; this last piece also has a stamped or printed mark ‘L.N.E[.R.] / SW[INNERTONS]’. Teapot sherds have the same moulded band that occur on teapots, plates and other forms in context 80. There is a single Buller’s ring, inscribed ‘2 T’. It is probable that Swinnertons produced all of these pieces; again, a mid 20th-century date seems likely for this material, but the piece produced for the L.N.E.R. could not have been made after 1st January 1948 when the railways were nationalized.

Trench 6 [55]: 168 sherds (4,033g) The ceramics comprise a variety of electrical porcelain items, biscuit and glost, of uncertain function, together with a number of light fittings and light pulls, some of which have the stamped mark ‘PULL’. A further two sherds are a possible teapot cover and a glazed wall tile. Kiln furniture includes thimbles, stilts, pins, wad clay and saggar fragments, biscuit and glost. This material is of mid 20th-century date. [59]: 106 sherds (836g) The ceramics include a range of both electrical porcelains and white earthenwares vessels, some of which is a highly vitrified body. One sherd of white earthenware is decorated with blue-printed ‘Willow’ pattern, while two vessels with litho-decorated patterns probably date to the 1960s. Kiln furniture includes thimbles, saddles, a single stilt, two spurs, small pins, wad clay, pieces of glost saggars and a possible saggar cover. The function of a small ceramics block is unknown. This material is of mid 20th-century date. [97]: 329 sherds (9,741g) The ceramics from this context are entirely electrical porcelains of a wide variety of type, some glazed, others not. The function of these cannot be determined at present. However, many pieces are marked with serial numbers and other identifying details; some are marked ‘England’, others ‘Made in England’. A small number of similar pieces bear the mark ‘B I Callenders’ and others ‘BICC’. British Insulated Callender's Cables was formed in 1945, but in 1975 was renamed BICC Ltd. This would suggest that the material dates to the mid 1970s. There are just three undiagnostic vessel sherds in biscuit white earthenware, and five blue glazed wall tile sherds. A limited amount of kiln furniture includes thimbles, a saddle, wad clay and five glost saggar fragments. (One final item is a piece of a salt-glazed drain pipe.) [157]: 47 sherds (413g) The ceramics are primarily electrical porcelain, but with a few white earthenware sherds. One highly vitrified sherd has the same litho-printed pattern as present in context 59 above. Kiln furniture includes thimbles, saddles and wad clay. The material probably dates to the late 1950s or early 1960s. [158]: 138 sherds (3,508g) The ceramics comprise a mixture of mostly glazed electrical porcelains and biscuit vessels in a highly vitrified earthenware or ironstone body. Plates predominate amongst the latter, with forms suggesting a date range of 1960s to early 1970s. The electrical porcelains include pieces with serial numbers; light fittings bear serial

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk27 numbers and the marks ‘Made in England’ and ‘Vitreous’. Some sherds are from moulds for rubber gloves. A few unglazed white earthenware pieces are of uncertain function and may be shelves used during firing. Other definite kiln furniture includes fragments of glost saggars and thimbles. One fragment of mortar has not been added to the count. [159]: 22 sherds (357g) The ceramics are a mixture of electrical porcelains and at least two mugs in a highly vitrified white earthenware with brown litho-printed decoration advertising Tim Horton Donuts and two printed ‘Royal Doulton / Steelite’ marks on bases. Tim Horton is a Canadian Company founded in May 1964, while Royal Doulton’s hotel ware division was sold to become Steelite in 1983. These mugs were therefore manufactured between 1964 and 1983, presumably for export to Canada.

Trench 7 [60]: 92 sherds (5,623g) The majority of the ceramics are of white earthenware, biscuit and glost. A quantity of biscuit serving dishes and at least one meat plate are present, and other unglazed forms include basins, drainers and dish and a stand. The glazed sherds include several vessels with printed decoration in blue, grey, lilac and brown, with patterns which are typical of the mid to late 19th century. One plate base bears a printed pattern in blue – almost a flow blue – which is identified as ‘Hindoostan’ by a printed mark on the underside; the manufacturer’s name, Hackwood, is impressed. William Hackwood & Son operated from the New Hall Pottery, Shelton, from 1846-1849; William died in 1849, but his son Thomas continued the business until 1853 (Godden 1991, 300, no. 1868). One pot base bears an incomplete printed mark in brown on its underside ‘[NINE HIGHEST PREMIUMS] AWARDE[D / ALSO / A / PRIZE MEDAL /] AT THE / WORLDS FAIR / LONDON 1851 / TO / X. BAZIN / PHILADELPHIA". Other printed pots of this type show that Xavier Bazin of 114 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia was winning medals for his shaving cream which, presumably, was the intended contents of the excavated vessel. Other decorated white earthenwares include two sherds of a blue painted shell edge plate, which certainly date to the second half of the 19th century, two sherds with blue banded slip decoration which may be of a similar date, and four sherds with blue sponged decoration which may date to the mid 19th century. An unglazed blue bodied earthenware handle sherd also dates to the second half of the 19th century, while a Bristol glazed preserve jar dates to the late 19th or early 20th century. A small flower pot cannot be closely dated, although a single sherd of a press-moulded slipware dish probably dates to the early to mid 18th century. A single glazed tile is probably from the early 20th century. Seven clay tobacco pipe sherds include one small moulded bowl with ribbing, oak leaf moulded on the seams and a short spur; none are marked, but the bowl suggests an early to mid 19th-century date. Kiln furniture comprises a stilt arm, a saddle, two Charles Ford Patent spurs, a cup ring, two shelf supports and wad clay. There is also a large saggar base which appears to have an unglazed interior, although the underside has a definite glaze sheen. A single Buller’s ring is inscribed ‘2 T’. A buff-coloured refractory brick (1,335g) bears the mark ‘[?D]OUGALL’; it has a thick clinker build-up on one corner. Two pieces (1,530g) of plaster of Paris moulds relate to an unidentified form with relief-moulded decoration. Most of the ceramics from this context date between the late 1840s and the end of the 19th century.

Trench 8 [67]: 17 sherds (11,276g) All of the ceramic material from this context dates to the second half of the 20th century and is probably related to the tunnel oven. These include twelve ceramic items shelf supports and two fragments (272g) of small refractory bricks. A further two larger and complete refractory bricks (6,324g), one frogged, the other plain, are marked. The larger, frogged example (3,420g) bears the mark ‘P B Co. Ltd. / A’, for the Potteries Brick Company, while the small, plain brick (2,904g), bears an impressed mark ‘GIBBONS (DUDLEY) LTD / No. 1 FIRECLAY’. Gibbons Brother of Dudley were manufacturers of both gas-fired tunnel ovens and electric kilns, and were engaged in the manufacture of Dressler ovens from the 1920s. A final piece comprises three rows of smaller refractory brick bonded together (4,321g); they have shaped inner faces to accommodate pipes or tubes of a round cross-section. [68]: 42 sherds (1,109g) All but one of the vessel sherds is biscuit, many with relief-moulded decoration; they appear to be of white earthenware. One body is heavily vitrified through over-firing, and two joining bases have an incomplete inscription ‘T... / ..10.. / ..’.One glazed item is of electrical porcelain. Kiln furniture comprises a biscuit saggar rim, a glost saggar base and two pieces of wad clay. The finds are not diagnostic, but a date in the second half of the 20th century is almost certain. [160]: 38 sherds (1,375g)

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk28 This context comprises a mixture of electrical porcelain, kiln furniture, wad clay and saggar fragments, together with what may be sanitary ware. There are just five small vessel sherds of white earthenware. The material is undiagnostic, but a date in the second half of the 20th century is almost certain. Fragments of asbestos, roof tile and mortar have not been counted or weighed.

Trench 9 [92]: 237 sherds (4,987g) Of the 175 ceramic vessel sherds, 165 are of white earthenware and just 35 are glazed. Just one of the biscuit sherds and 4 of the glazed sherds have blue-printed decoration; another glazed sherd has under-glazed painted decoration, and another two glazed sherds have thin coloured glazes on a relief-moulded body in the style of majolica. Moulded forms, especially basins, chamber pots and other toilet wares, predominate. None have makers’ marks. A further five sherds (358g) are of poor quality black-glazed or jet ware teapots, while another red-bodied earthenware teapot sherds has an external blue glaze, and another red-bodied teapot is unglazed. Two further sherds are from a yellow-glazed earthenware vessel and a large Bristol glazed stoneware jar of bottle. The only sherd with a manufacturer’s mark is a bone china cup base with a green printed Grafton China mark, dating to c. 1935 or later (Godden 1991, 357 no. 2198). There are also two pieces of glazed electrical porcelain and one badly over-fired sherd of uncertain form or function. Fifty-seven pieces of kiln furniture include stilts, thimbles, saddles, a bone china cup ring, pieces of wad clay and fragments of both biscuit and glost saggars. Of two sherds of brick (160g), one has a glazed surface. It is impossible to know whether the marked bone china piece – clearly brought in to the site as waste from Longton, or as a domestic piece – is helpful in dating this context, for the remainder of the ceramics are not particularly diagnostic. At best an early 20th-century date may be suggested for them. [93]: 137 sherds (3,310g) The ceramics are predominantly of white earthenware sherds, biscuit (53 sherds) and glazed (41 sherds), with a wide range of forms which include moulded rectangular trays, plates, bowls, dishes chamber pots, mugs, teapot covers and a cruet. A number of the larger vessels have heavy relief-moulded decoration and moulded handles, but few of the glazed sherds display any surface decoration (although one cup has blue printed (?Willow pattern) decoration. Other ware types are Rockingham, redware, jet ware and electrical porcelain. Eighteen pieces of kiln furniture includes stilts, saggar pins, cup rings, a thimble and others. Two stilts are marked ‘G. & Co.’ (Gimson & Co.). There are also two ceramic ‘natches’, one negative, the other positive, used to join together the two halves of a plaster of Paris moulds. Other material includes a glazed wall tile, a roof tile and one piece of salt-glazed drain pipe. The ceramics are not especially diagnostic, but an early 20th-century date seems likely for their manufacture. [94]: 312 sherds (9,139g) This context comprises primarily white earthenwares and white ironstones, biscuit (180 sherds) and glazed (95 sherds), but these differ somewhat from those present in contexts 92 and 93. Many of the vessels – jugs, dishes and others - have relief-moulded decoration, including jugs with fish, sweetcorn, basket form and leaf surface designs, which were clearly destined to receive coloured majolica glazes – confirmed by the presence of a number of glazed sherds of this type. Other moulded forms include three small dog figures. There are also several sherds of chamber pots and basins, but without relief-moulded decoration. The presence of a chamber pot cover suggests that these wares were destined for export. There are just two plate sherds, one with the blue- printed pattern ‘Asiatic Pheasants’, and two egg cups, one with coloured glazes. There are also tea wares – cups and saucers. A number of these are glazed, and several are decorated under- glaze with three lines or band-and-line patterns to edges in red or, less commonly, blue. A further two jug sherds have under-glaze painted bands and lines in black and blue. Seven sherds have over-glaze painted bands in green or pink, combined with painted gold lines, and another sherd has a rim decorated with a single gold line. Nine glazed sherds have relief-moulded bodies and coloured majolica glazes. Other wares include a dipped jasper vessel, two biscuit Rockingham teapot sherds, two sherds of bone china, two sherds of Bristol glazed stoneware – one of which may be a water cooler – and a piece of electrical porcelain. Kiln furniture and related items include fragments of glost saggars, cover or bats, a crank, stilts and thimbles, pieces of wad clay and a Buller’s ring. Manufacturers represented by marked pieces include Gimson & Co and Charles Ford & Co. A late 19th- to early 20th-century date is likely for the finds from this context.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk29 Trench 10 [166]: 111 sherds (4,179g) A mixed group of ceramics, related production material, the majority of which are of 19th-century date. Sherds are biscuit and glazed and include, predominantly, whitewares; ironstone-like wares; one sherd of biscuit bone china; perhaps three sherds of creamware; pearlware; one sherd of brown salt-glazed stoneware of Nottinghamshire-Derbyshire type; and three sherds of coarse earthenware. Kiln furniture includes stilt fragments, wad clay, a cup ring used in bone china biscuit firing; and biscuit and glost saggar fragments. ‘Willow’ is best represented of the printed patterns, although others are present. Two plates have moulded shell edges and there are three bowl sherds – one of creamware – with slip decoration; another bowl – London shape – has under-glaze painted decoration. Earlier, 18th-century, material is present in the form of four sherds of white salt-glazed stoneware, two with scratch blue decoration; one salt-glazed ring stilt and two white salt-glazed stoneware saggars; one sherd of a biscuit redware teapot cover; one sherd of agate ware; one 18th-century glost earthenware saggar in a red fabric; and eleven sherds of slipware press-moulded dishes and hollow wares. There is also a base sherd of a 16th- or early 17th-century earthenware jar. There are also three clay pipe stems and one small bowl, with spur, with ribbed exterior and oak leaves on seams; the bowl dates to the late 18th to early 19th century. Lastly, there is one piece each of brick and salt-glazed drain pipe, and a wedge-shaped refractory brick (910g) similar to that from Trench 5 [80] which may also bear the impressed mark ‘DOUGALL’.

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk30 APPENDIX 4: Glass finds Deposit Trench Type Form Type Colour No Wt Rdia Bdia Thickness Comment (g) (mm) (mm) (mm) 70 2 saggar bottle whole aqua 1 371 45 60 5 thick heavy, uneven square-base ink layer bottle. Machine made with seam and applied lip c.1900 70 2 saggar bottle whole aqua 1 85 19 35 2 small sauce bottle with twisted detail layer to neck/star on base 70 2 saggar bottle base and sides olive 1 326 - 66 3.5 round shouldered possibly from layer green mineral water 70 2 saggar bottle neck and light 1 41 35 - 3 probably bitters or a patent cure - late layer shoulder amber Victorian 70 2 saggar bottle body sherd clear 1 38 - - 5 soft drink bottle marked [OX] [DE] layer possibly local for lemonade 80 5 rubble window sherd clear 1 15 - - 6 textured/obscured glass layer 80 5 rubble bottle body sherd clear 1 31 - - 4 iridescent surface weathering layer 81 5 rubble window fragments clear 7 231 - - 6 textured and obscured glass–mid layer 20th century 82 5 rubble bottle shoulder sherd aqua 1 30 - - 4 Codd bottle with iridescent surface layer weathering c.1900 88 3 brick bottle whole aqua 1 78 17 45 2.5 Octagonal ink well, machine made floor c.1905 88 3 brick bottle whole clear 1 437 25 70 3.5 1 pint sterilized milk bottle - Clover floor Dairies >1920s 88 3 brick bottle whole clear 1 202 34 55 4 ⅓ pint milk bottle Clover Dairies floor >1920s 92 9 layer bottle body sherd aqua 1 13 - - >3 small late Victorian chemist bottle 92 9 layer vessel base sherd clear 1 12 - - >6 pressed glass vessel with fine diamond pattern to side and leaves to base 93 9 layer bottle base sherd clear 1 79 - 74 5 marked [EGC] above [MAYFAIR] in sub-oval plaque above [2] 93 9 layer bottle body sherd amber 1 12 - - 3 93 9 layer jar neck sherd clear 1 24 - - 3 modern preserve jar 93 9 layer bottle neck sherd clear 1 22 - - 2.5 93 9 layer bottle body sherd clear 1 9 - - 3 150 2 layer bottle whole aqua 1 189 25 50 3 sauce bottle marked [R. BROWN SPRING HILL BIRMINGHAM] c.1900 160 8 topsoil bottle rim/base/body clear 6 87 28 >50 4 probable soft drink bottle – early sherds 20th century

TVAS North Midlands, 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, ST3 6DD tel: (01782) 595648 email: [email protected] website: www.tvas.co.uk31

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N Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation Figure 2. Site plan.

0 100m Shelter Filling Station

47300

SITE Superstore

Tank

CLOUGH STREET 47200

1005,1006 3 46

2 48 ESSs

1 1004 50 to 54 1003 4

139.9m

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13 RED LION PASSAGE 141.2m 11 MARGILL CLOSE TCB 1 Surgery LB Shelter Garage

St Mark's Close SJ 87800 87900 88000 VPS 19/164

N Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation Figure 3. Site plan showing features in trenches

0 100m 1006

171

168

172

251

184 stanchion stanchion N

188 190

1005 187 186

189

185 KEY = location of ashpits in muffle kiln 1005

= tunnel kiln 1006

250 = concrete

88 183

182

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation

Figure 4. Plan of trench 3

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71 169 76 1003

173

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= IRON TRACK N

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194

0m 1m 2m 3m 4m 5m 6m

255

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation

Figure 5. Plan of trench 4, oven 1003 and kiln 1004

0 1m TRENCH 5 OVEN 1002

163

162

165 79

196 195

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83 below 98 161

164

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= iron

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N

89

91 90

6m 5m 4m 3m 2m 1m 0m

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation

Figure 6. Plans of trench 5 and 9

0 5m = IRON = BRICK FLOOR = BRICK WALL = CONCRETE VPS 19/164

N KEY

N 54 12m 17m 181 11m 16m 53 181 181 Fe 99 1m 177 (concrete layer over 1001)

15m

m

0 1 TRENCH 6

Fe 1001 176 0 54 9m 14m DRAIN Archaeological Evaluation Drain Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Figure 7. Plan of Trench 6 and possible muffle kiln 1001 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street 8m 13m 181 = EDGE OF KILN = IRON = BRICK = MORTAR KEY TRENCH 7 OVEN 1008

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257

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63

256

269

N

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258

62 261

259

260

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63

64

KEY = IRON

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation

Figure 8. Plan of trench 7

0 5m TRENCH 8

16m

268

17m 266

265

18m

66 68

19m

267

20m

Section Line (see Fig. 11) N KEY = BRICK

= IRON

= VITRIFIED SURFACE

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation

Figure 9. Plan of trench 8, oven 1010

0 1m TRENCH 8 TUNNEL KILN 1009

271 272

65

0m 1m 2m 3m 4m

272 270

65

5m 6m 7m 8m 9m

KEY

= IRON N

= BRICK = WOOD VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation

Figure 10. Plan of tunnel kiln 1009 in trench 8

0 1m Trench 4 Kiln 1003 N S 180

76

169 75 74 178

71 179

192 193 KEY = CONCRETE

= MORTAR = REPRESENTATION OF CERAMICS MAKING UP FILL 74

= FILL 74

Trench 8 Kiln 1010 profile N S

KEY = IRON

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, 2019 Archaeological Evaluation

Figure 11. Sections

0 1m Tr 3 1003

Tr 4 1002 Tr 7 1008 Tr 5 1001 Tr 7 1007

Tr 8 1010

Tr 9 1000

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Plate 2. Trench 2, looking west, Scales: 2m and 1m.

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire Archaeological Evaluation 2019 Plates 1 and 2. Plate 3. Trench 3, kiln 1005, looking east, Scales: 2m and 1m.

Plate 4. Trench 3, tunnel kiln 1006, looking west, Scales: 2m and 1m.

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire Archaeological Evaluation 2019 Plates 3 and 4.

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Plate 8. Trench 5, ashpit 161, looking north, Scales: 1m and 2m.

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire Archaeological Evaluation 2019 Plates 7 and 8.

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Plate 16. Trench 10, looking north, Scales: 2m and 1m.

VPS 19/164 Former Vulcan Pottery Works, Clough Street Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire Archaeological Evaluation 2019 Plates 15 and 16. TIME CHART

Calendar Years

Modern AD 1901

Victorian AD 1837

Post Medieval AD 1500

Medieval AD 1066

Saxon AD 410

Roman AD 43 AD 0 BC Iron Age 750 BC

Bronze Age: Late 1300 BC

Bronze Age: Middle 1700 BC

Bronze Age: Early 2100 BC

Neolithic: Late 3300 BC

Neolithic: Early 4300 BC

Mesolithic: Late 6000 BC

Mesolithic: Early 10000 BC

Palaeolithic: Upper 30000 BC

Palaeolithic: Middle 70000 BC

Palaeolithic: Lower 2,000,000 BC TVAS (North Midlands), 2b Stanton Road, Meir, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, ST3 6DD

Tel: 01782 595648 Email: [email protected] Web: www.tvas.co.uk/northmidlands

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