Weaving As Binary Art and the Algebra of Patterns

TEXTILE Cloth and Culture

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Weaving as Binary Art and the Algebra of Patterns

Ellen Harlizius-Klück

To cite this article: Ellen Harlizius-Klück (2017) Weaving as Binary Art and the Algebra of Patterns, TEXTILE, 15:2, 176-197, DOI: 10.1080/14759756.2017.1298239 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14759756.2017.1298239

Published online: 12 May 2017.

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Download by: [Deutsches Museum] Date: 06 June 2017, At: 07:07 Weaving as Binary Art and the Algebra of Patterns

Abstract

o refer to the Jacquard loom as thread is to be picked up or not. Ta precursor of the computer is Weaving has therefore been a a common narrative in histories binary art from its very beginning, of computing beginning with Ada applying operations of pattern Lovelace comparing the punched algebra for millennia. Jacquard’s card operated loom with the cards were the end of this story calculating engine designed by rather than its beginning, reducing Charles Babbage: “We may say the weaver to an operator who most aptly that the Analytical had to step on a single treadle Engine weaves algebraical patterns repeatedly. This article argues just as the Jacquard-loom weaves that algebra is already involved flowers and leaves.” But this does in operating shafts or heddles not mean that Jacquard invented on ordinary looms, that this the algebra of patterns. He only algebra was applied tacitly constructed the first widely known until the first weaving notations and used mechanism replacing were developed, and that these the drawboy by punched cards to notations make the tacit algebra feed pattern information into his of patterns recognizable to non- mechanism. To control a weave weavers: inventors and engineers. means to decide whether a warp

Keywords: history of computing; history of weaving; pattern weaving; Jacquard loom

ELLEN HARLIZIUS-KLÜCK Ellen Harlizius-Klück is Principal Investigator in the project PENELOPE. A Study of Weaving as Technical Mode of Existence, which has been awarded an ERC Consolidator Grant in 2015 (Grant Agreement No. 682711). From 2014 to 2016, she was international Co-Investigator in the Weaving Codes – Coding Weaves Project, funded by the Arts & Humanities Research Council (AH/ M002403/1). She also investigated the philosophy of ancient textile production in the Collaborative Project Ancient Textiles, (Centre for Textile Research, Copenhagen, Dept. of Ancient History, Hanover). In 2012 and 2013, she spent a Marie- Textile, Volume 15, Issue 2, pp. 176–197 Curie Senior Research Fellowship funded by the DOI: 10.1080/14759756.2017.1298239 Gerda Henkel Foundation (COFUND) at the Centre © 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as for Textile Research, Copenhagen. Taylor & Francis Group Ellen Harlizius-Klück 178

Weaving as Binary Art and the Algebra of Patterns

We may say most aptly that a specific encoding of the pattern the Analytical Engine weaves in a closed-loop series for punched algebraical patterns just as the cards. The loom reads this pattern Jacquard-loom weaves flowers and and weaves the cloth accordingly. leaves. By changing the batch of punched cards, the loom weaves a different This quote stems from Ada Love- pattern. The same loom, a finite lace’s notes on a paper describing device, has the capability for, Charles Babbage’s plans for the potentially, an infinity of weaving patterns. In the Analytical Engine, Analytical Engine, the first machine computation of each distinct math- that could do general-purpose com- ematical function is determined by putation (Lovelace 1843, 696). Bab- an ordered sequence of (arith- bage’s earlier invented machine, the metic) operations on the values Difference Engine, could tabulate of variables. These sequences of polynomial functions but not gen- operation (in present-centered eral arithmetic. The Lovelace quote language, programs) can be became a famous soundbite in the encoded as patterns of holes on history of computing (Plant 1995, 50; punched cards. The machine reads Essinger 2004, 141; Davis and Davis a particular set of punched cards,

2005, 86). Perhaps as a result, it is a different sequence of operations corresponding to a different now common to refer to the Jacquard mathematical computation is loom as a precursor of digital cal- performed. In the evocative words culating machines. James Essinger of Lovelace, the analytical Engine states: “… in essence a computer would weave ‘algebraic patterns’ is merely a special kind of Jacquard much as the Jacquard loom wove loom” (2004, 87) or even that com- ‘flowers and leaves’. (Dasgupta puters are “modern incarnations of 2014, 21) Jacquard’s loom” (2004, 263). The Little Book of Beginnings and Break- However, there have been objec- throughs in Science devotes a par- tions to this analogy. An article agraph entitled “Weaving Algebraic written by a computer scientist and Patterns” to Ada Lovelace as “the a weaver aiming to tell the story in world’s first computer programmer” a factual way with regard to “the (1843; Verma 2015). Also, Subrata inner natures of modern computers” Dasgupta, in his account of the (Davis and Davis 2005, 78) rejects it Genesis of Computer Science, has because the punched cards are only a whole chapter entitled “Weaving “the peripheral devices that bring Algebraic Patterns” (2014, 17–27). data into or out of the machine” And he provides an explanation of and should not be taken “for the the analogy: computer itself” (Davis and Davis 2005, 79). The argument is made In the Jacquard loom, each distinct that also for Babbage’s project “the pattern to be woven is defined by punched-card reader would have Weaving as binary art 179 been at most a superficial compo- of binary control from weavers to and the development of early binary nent” (Davis and Davis 2005, 80). machines. Throughout this history, loom control.1 Similarly, from the standpoint of to control a weave meant to decide loom technology, Jacquard invented whether a warp thread was to be From Drawloom to Computer a peripheral device that brings data picked up or not. Therefore, from the Control—The Common Story to the loom by punched cards, but in very beginning, “weaving is a binary In order to challenge the common fact any loom can be operated and art,” as stated by the computer story of the invention of digital any fabric be woven without such a pioneer Heinz Zemanek (1991b, 33). looms, we first need to introduce it. device. Jacquard’s cards were the end of The most common loom works with Sadie Plant writes: “Jacquard’s this story rather than its beginning, shafts and treadles and is good for system of punch card programs reducing the weaver from a coder of weaving plain or striped fabric. But brought the information age to the weaves, to an operator who had to it also can weave checkers, stars, beginning of the 19th century. His step on a single treadle repeatedly. lozenges or color and weave effect automated loom was the first to This article intends to shed light patterns like dogtooth or meanders store its own information, function- on the algebraical patterns and that result from a certain weave ing with its own software, an early codes of weaving before Jacquard. structure combined with a specific migration of control from weaver It states that the idea of coding order of colored threads. For more to machinery” (1995, 51). Whatever weaves was the crucial step towards complex patterns it is necessary to we think is the true relation of loom the invention of automated loom lift individual warp threads and this and computer, Sadie Plant makes a control mechanisms, no matter if is done with a drawloom—a device point that is worth considering: that they used pegs on cylinders or holes that was probably invented in China. control has migrated from weaver in cards. By this I want to widen the The lifting of the warp threads was to machine. Jacquard did not invent view that seems to be fixed upon not done by the weaver but by an what Lovelace calls the algebra of the Jacquard mechanism. Instead I assistant standing at the side of the patterns. Neither did he invent the want to look at practices of weaving loom: a drawboy or liseuse. The his- binary structure of the weave. What and geometrical patterning which tory of computing, when referring to he did do was to construct the first engage algebraic thinking and ask looms, tells a story of their improve- widely known and used mechanism how these were implemented. I ment focusing almost entirely on that replaced the human being will argue that a sort of algebra is subsequent inventions by French pulling the leashes of a drawloom, already involved in operating shafts engineers, whose main interest the so-called drawboy, who thus or heddles in ordinary looms, that was to spare the drawboy or liseuse controlled the pattern on behalf of this algebra was executed as a tacit necessary for pattern control on the the weaver. Instead, Jacquard used inference until the first weaving drawloom. The usual list of inventors punched cards to feed the pattern notations were developed, and that includes Bouchon, Falcon, Vaucan- information into his mechanism. these weaving-notations resemble son and culminates with Jacquard. However, the binary pattern algebra the respective loom parts and make was already present in the operation the tacit visual algebra of patterns Bouchon and Falcon of the drawloom. The algorithms and recognizable to non-weavers and in In her comprehensive book on the programs were always there, just particular, inventors and engineers. media history of punched card weav- not in a manner visible to outsiders In this article I bring together ing, Schneider gives a short over- and non-weavers. The punched research results from: (1) the inves- view on drawloom improvements in cards simply made the pattern tigation of a weaver’s journal and the eighteenth century (Schneider algebra of weaving perceivable to sketchbook from the eighteenth 2007, 125–130). In 1725, Bouchon someone interested in the construc- century; (2) the history of weave is named as the first to replace the tion of calculating engines on the notation in which the sketchbook is work of the liseuse. But only later, basis of binary logic, someone like embedded; as well as (3) investiga- when cooperating with Falcon, was Charles Babbage. tions of a loom control device from he recognized by the city council The whole history of loom tech- the seventeenth century possibly with an award for his invention: nology is a history of the migration connected to these early notations “Commandments: of 1,000 livres to Ellen Harlizius-Klück 180

Basile Bouchon, master in silk work, Becker says that Falcon’s loom still pattern of raised pins to control the to compensate the expenses he had needed a drawboy and that Vaucan- shedding” (2011, 1). Essinger sim- in seeking the secret to mount and son’s loom was the first to spare it. ilarly talks about “a metal cylinder work looms without the help of warp Davis and Davis, however, say that with spokes in it, basically a large creel and draw-girl”.2 Vaucanson’s mechanism still needed version of the spoked metal cylinder Bouchon started to use perforated a drawboy (2005, 79), which leaves used in the music boxes” (2004, 18). paper tape running over a perforated the laurels for Jacquard. An explana- It is true that Vaucanson used cylinder. Hooks selected single warp tion for this confusion could be that metal cylinders with pegs, pins threads when their straight end falls the looms often needed extra opera- or spokes for the androids and through a hole in the paper and tors that were sometimes counted as automats he is famous for, the Flute the cylinder. Bouchon’s invention drawboys and sometimes not.3 Player or the Digesting Duck. But is said to be “the first, albeit basic, for the loom the cylinder was made programmable loom available for Vaucanson of wood with a grid of drilled holes weaving silk” (Fava-Verde 2011, 1), Becker resumes: “Falcon’s loom was (Figure 1), and needles coming from however, his control mechanism never generally used. Presumably the harness scan this grid. Patterns never made it past the prototype it did not function with sufficient are introduced by punching card- stage. The number of warp threads precision, and a drawboy had still to board that is then wrapped around that could be controlled was quite be employed.” He then comes to the the cylinder.4 The clear disadvan- small and the whole paper tape loom constructed by Vaucanson in tage of this invention is that the needed to be replaced when one 1745 that “could be operated by the pattern has to fit to the cylinder’s hole was torn. Bouchon’s assistant weaver himself without the assis- circumference; otherwise a new Falcon in 1728 solved this problem tance of a drawboy. Vaucanson also cylinder is needed. by using a loop of smaller punched utilized punched cards and took units that could be replaced sep- them over a barrel placed upper- Jacquard

arately when torn. Becker writes most on the loom. The weaver could According to the way the story is that Falcon’s progress was to use move the barrel stepwise with a long usually told, Jacquard’s invention “pasteboard instead of Bouchon’s treadle. This loom likewise never was the first to overcome this paper” (Becker 2009, 336). But obtained any practical success” disadvantage. Instead of a cylinder, according to Ganzhorn and Walther, (Becker 2009, 341). While Becker he used a four-sided prism with a Falcon’s “punched cards” actually thus describes the patterning device grid of drilled holes (Figure 1). Each consisted of wooden slats (Holzbret- invented by Vaucanson as punched side of the prism had the size of a tchen [1975] 1984, 34, 43). Also, the cards, Farva-Verde writes: “In punched card. The cards were then question of the spared drawboy or the 1750s, Jacques de Vaucanson knotted together to form a long and -girl is a source of confusion. While replaced the perforated card with flexible chain running stepwise over Bouchon’s loom is workable without, a wooden cylinder which used a

Figure 1 Jacquard prism. Courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich. Weaving as binary art 181 the prism that could be used with machine or any other mechanical The history of technology is full any length of the card chain. loom instead of a handloom was of stories on patents and inventors Albeit everyone is talking about only triple—and only then when the like Vaucanson, Jacquard or Bab- “the Jacquard loom,” it is important loom worked without thread-breaks bage. But still craftsmen made a lot to stress that Jean Marie Jacquard or glitches, which was not the rule. of improvements in the traditional (as well as Bouchon, Falcon and Calculated from the production sector. In a study of innovation Vaucanson) did not invent a new rate of a whole day, Paulinyi (1989) in the eighteenth-century British loom, but a mechanized harness comes to a number of real picks textile industry, Griffiths, Hunt, and operating with punched cards between 70 and 90 per minute. The O’Brien (1992) compared patented replacing the drawboy or liseuse.5 huge factories in Manchester at that and non-patented innovations from He was not the first to use a harness time introduced a handloom with a 1700 onward. The authors state that which was probably invented in system for gradually winding up the “that the majority of additions to Persia almost 2000 years earlier, warp that was operated at a speed the stock of productive knowledge nor was he the first to use punched of 80 shots per minute. Paulinyi over the eighteenth century, even paper for this, or the first to spare concludes that the big mechanical in a technologically sophisticated the drawboy, but his was the only looms were technically inflexible industry such as textiles, were machine that made it beyond the and without cost benefit (1989, not patented” (Griffiths, Hunt, prototype stage.6 It is “the Jacquard 84–85). and O’Brien 1992, 886), and they loom” that entered the history of With the above in mind, the assume that “any index constructed computing only because Charles often-bemoaned resistance of weav- from this one source is likely to Babbage and Ada Lovelace, as well ers against the mechanical looms furnish a partial and ambiguous as some subsequent computer appears in a different light. To oper- record of inventive activity and tech- pioneers, use this expression to ate a loom with a Jacquard machine nical change” (Griffiths, Hunt, and indicate an invention where highly is not easier for the weaver. Much O’Brien 1992, 889). “Furthermore, complex algorithms for weaving more strength and energy is needed substantial additions to the stock of flowers and leaves are controlled on to step on the one and only treadle, economically significant knowledge the basis of punched cards storing which nevertheless needs to be continued to be made anonymously binary information. done with care. “When the weaver and privately over the course of releases the treadle the consider- the century” (Griffiths, Hunt, and A remark on the efficiency of able number of weighted leashes O’Brien 1992, 896). the new machines causes the inner part of the machine It is another standard idea in con- to fall heavily” writes Becker (2009, Charles Babbage and the Idea nection to Jacquard’s mechanism 345). And the body suffers from the of a Changeable Binary Code that it “speeded the process” of unilateral strain of using only one According to Essinger “Babbage had weaving (Davis and Davis 2005, foot (Bohnsack 1993, 38).7 toyed with the idea of programming 79). However, the technical capac- It is true that the Jacquard his new machine by using a revolv- ity of mechanical looms was not machine immensely speeded up ing drum featuring little raised studs convincing in the beginning of the the preparation of the loom, which, as a mechanical means of inputting development of such devices. In in former times, was achieved by a data and operating the machine”.8 the famous Encyclopedia of Diderot complex system of threads oper- But Babbage then hit upon the idea and D’Alembert we read that the ating on various levels of order in of using punched cards, like the mechanism of Vaucanson was “as combination with the harness. This Jacquard loom. On the 30 June 1836 useless as it was costly” (Schneider was the most time-consuming part, Babbage wrote into his notebook: 2007, 130). In fact, still around 1840 and the reason why patterns were “Suggested Jacard’s [sic] loom as a which is the time when Babbage and rarely changed. The chance to keep substitute for the drums” (Essinger Lovelace cooperated on the idea of up with the pace of fashion was 2004, 85). the Analytical Engine, the increase therefore out of the question for As we already heard, the of production in using a Jacquard drawloom-patterned silks. advantage of the cards lies in Ellen Harlizius-Klück 182

Figure 2 Diagram of canvas-machine from Kinzer 1908.

the flexibility of the length of the wrapped around, carrying wooden transistor computer on the European repeat. A chain of punched cards pegs glued onto it, which could then continent. He was the first manager is potentially limitless whereas a be stored for later reuse. Kinzer of the IBM Laboratory in Vienna, revolving drum repeats itself by observes that “Out of these preced- where he prepared the computer nature (Essinger 2004, 86). But both ing inventions developed the up science exhibition established the revolving drum, as well as the to date unique Jacquard machine” in 1974 in the Technical Museum punched card chain, work on the (Kinzer [1900] 1908, 5). Vienna, and was also involved in basis of a binary code. So, if the In the area of Upper Austria, the the exhibition at the Deutsches binary coding of weaving informa- machine that was in use “before Museum, Munich (1988). In this lat- tion is the essential knack that links the new ones came from Lyon”9 ter exhibition, the Bröselmaschine looms and computers, there is no was known under the names is mentioned (Zemanek 1992, 47): reason to prefer Jacquard’s mech- “peg-machine” (Stöckelmaschine) or a local Austrian device for sparing anism for the essential idea even if “crumb-machine” (Bröselmaschine) the drawboy given as part of the Babbage preferred it. (Figures 3 and 4). The German word prehistory of computing, based in The main improvement of Jac- Brösel can denote a small part of an area where weaving was once a quard’s mechanism was the prism, something (cf. Harlizius-Klück 2012, major craft, the Mühlviertel (lit. mill that provided a possibility to quickly 63), usually a crumb of bread, or quarter).10 and easily change the pattern, and it can be a short form of the name Stating that we “tend to under- support any length of punched card Ambrose (Ambrosius). Accordingly, estimate the skill and wit of our chain. But a device used by weavers there are two explanations of the ancestors” (1976, 15), in a paper of Upper Austria implemented this name of the machine. Some say it presented at the National Computer idea already in the seventeenth stems from the pegs crumbling from Conference in New York, Zemanek century. Its principle is described by the canvas strip (Figure 5) during presents the cogwheels as digital Heinrich Kinzer in a German hand- use, and others that it is a short as the score and nature of music11 book on Jacquard weaving as a “can- form of the inventors’ given name. and points to the Salzburg Bull vas-machine” (Leinwandmaschine, Heinz Zemanek was the first to men- from 1502, a drum-driven organ cf. Kinzer 1900, 5; cf. later Glafey tion the machine in a publication on with more than 200 pipes (cf. Adam 1937, 485) (Figure 2). With reference the history of computing as early as [1973] 2004, 128). He mentions to the drum of Vaucanson he writes 1976, but the machine never found many other mechanic and auto- that in case of patterns with a large its way into the standard story. matic chimes from that area, rarely repeat, the drum would be too large, occurring in the history of automata unhandy, and costly. Therefore, a The crumb-machine probably because the names of the small wooden cylinder was used and Heinz Zemanek was himself a key inventors are unknown, and they an endless (circular) linen strip was technologist, building the first Weaving as binary art 183 have not been awarded patents and Besides the works of Zemanek to as many craftsmen as possible” prizes. (1976, 16, 1991a, 47, 1992, 33), (Becker 2009, 334). When referring to the prehistory there are however some German In Southern Germany and Upper of processing information Zemanek and Austrian publications on the Austria of the seventeenth century, states: “Weaving is of more interest theme where the crumb-machine is weavers and non-weavers started for information processing than we mentioned and shown. The book of to tinker with looms, patterns, and attach to it. That it is binary stems Ganzhorn and Walter was published notations and cross the boundary of from the fact that each crossing of by IBM in 1966, 1975, and 1984, weaving patterns towards weaving two threads means a natural digi- and by the last edition includes the images without using the huge tal-point. Many folkloristic weaving machine and a picture (1984, 45).15 drawlooms in use in the Italian devices—in Europe, but also in From this publication it is clear that and French workshops.17 From this Africa and Asia—are implementa- the device is located in the Weav- time and area stem the first printed tions of or tools for programmed ing Museum in Haslach (today, the weaving pattern books and the “first processes” (1976, 16). This analogy Textile Centre Haslach), and that published technical description of is not drawn just because of the the main source of information is a drawloom” (Hilts 199b, 9). Birgit binary idea. Zemanek goes farther an article of Fritz Kreindl (1935) in Schneider in her overview on weav- in making weaving a source of Melliand Textilberichte (misspelled ing as technical image processing knowledge for Computer Scien- “Melliard” in the list of sources). asks whether this context was tists by saying that “weaving is in A manuscript in the State necessary to develop a weaving particular important in our present Museum of Upper Austria from 1799, notation that could be used as data day advance from serial to parallel containing patterns for looms using fed into a control mechanism on the processing; weaving, in contrast to up to 40 shafts, mentions a method loom (Schneider 2007, 121). mathematics, is a naturally parallel to weave drawloom patterns without process and might give us more a drawboy (cf. Adam [1973] 2004, Coding Weaves: The ideas than we think” (1976, 16). 134).16 This is taken as testation for Development of Binary Pattern For Zemanek, the the use of the crumb-machine. But Notation and Control Bröselmaschine is a prime example the author, Franz Xaver Friepes, For millennia, pattern weaving was of the digital nature of weaves, of does not give any description of the done without notation. Skilled weav- which “... there are two program- device applied with this method. ers clearly did not make plans in ming units in existence, both in the In his book on pattern and loom advance, developing each and every province of Upper Austria.12 They Becker states that our knowledge of step of the process and document- were made around 1740, and there loom development in the eighteenth ing these single steps in writing. The are good indications that the inven- century outside France is scarce. The loom parts, like heddles or shafts, tion was made between 1680 and reason might be that technological store most of the necessary infor- 1690.13 Wooden bars are glued on and craft-related knowledge was mation and skilled weavers can read a closed loop strip of linen, and the usually a secret of the weaver guilds bindings and patterns directly from bars operate the weaving device” (Hilts 1990a, 13). We therefore find fabric. Fabric samples were probably (1976, 16). no technological descriptions until the best and most commonly used Zemanek does not give details of the beginning of industrializa- memory or storage for patterns. either the location of the machines tion. In Italy “the weaving centers Patricia Hilts, who prepared and or the sources he is uses for the were rival business houses, each commented on the facsimiles of the dating and description of them. guarding inventions and technical first pattern books in print, men- From his account, it all appears to improvements as business secrets. tions such a sample book in Nurem- be hearsay from the discovery of On the other hand, silk-weaving berg. It is dated to 1693, belonging an Austrian friend. This might be factories in France (Tours and Lyon) to a Barchent weaver. She knew of the reason why the machine never were state-subsidized and it was only two earlier manuscripts with entered the English-speaking his- considered useful that the technical notations: one dated to 1658 written tory of computing.14 inventions should become known by Thoman Lins, weaver in Tyrol,18 Ellen Harlizius-Klück 184

Figure 3

Crumb-machine (Bröselmaschine) from 1740. Weaving Museum Haslach, Upper Austria. Photo Courtesy Christina Leitner.

and another undated manuscript a block patterned linen damask Canada, published two facsimiles from Lucca in Tuscany, described (Hilts 1990a, 21). Another typical of the earliest printed books on and published by the historian of patterned cloth type was Kölsch or weaving technology (Hilts 199a, 13) mathematics Gino Arrighi (1986). Golsch, a linen cloth with a warp accompanied by a comprehensive This Italian manuscript shows usually colored blue and with a comment by Patricia Hilts (1990a mainly notations with integers on white weft (Hilts 1990a, 23; note and 1990b). The two books were lines resembling a musical score. 71), a type of setup that makes it written and printed in Southern Occasionally they are accompanied easier to control the design. Where Germany not very far from the area by pattern samples woven from the treadling is straight, the tie- of the crumb-machine, and among narrow paper strips. ups for a Kölsch pattern resemble others refer to the cloth type called the point-paper drawing (cf. Hilts Schachwitz that is assumed to be The first two printed books on 1990a, 30). This is not the case for woven with the machine.19 The first pattern weaving the color-and-weave-effect patterns one was written and published by Parallel to the figural and botanical where the draft does not show the Marx Ziegler, a weaver from Ulm, in motifs woven with the huge draw- color effect but only the structure 1677 (Figure 6). According to Hilts looms in Italy and France, there was of the weave. The technology for there are three extant copies in a tradition in Southern Germany, weaving Schachwitz and Kölsch is Ulm, Augsburg and Jerusalem (Hilts Switzerland and Austria where linen the context in which the standard for 1990a, 9).20 The second book was fabric was woven with complex coding patterns was then devel- a revised and extended version by geometric motifs. We already, in oped. Nathanael21 Lumscher, bookbinder the context of the crumb-machine, In 1990, the Charles Babbage from Culmbach in South Germany, heard of a fabric called Schachwitz, Research Centre in Winnipeg, published in 1708 and reprinted in Weaving as binary art 185

Figure 4 Crumb-machine. Detail with cylinder and vertical hooks. Photo Courtesy Christina Leitner.

two copies exist worldwide: one even by drafts and treadlings alone” in the Victoria and Albert (V&A) (Hilts 1990a, 32). As an advantage of Museum in London and one in the this system Hilts points to the draft- Deutsches Museum, Munich. ing method of Ziegler that “allowed Both books reflect the develop- development of intricate large-scale ment of weaving notation for the patterns with a relatively small specific situation of Southern Ger- number of shafts” (1990a, 36). The many. The block patterned twills and weavers clearly took this chance to damasks of Kölsch and Schachwitz extend the possibilities of the looms “required a distinct set of concepts considerably. and techniques,” says Hilts (1990a, “Ziegler and Lumscher included Figure 5 42) where the shafts were divided some patterns for looms with as few Detail of the pattern input strip for the crumb-maschine in the Weaving into subsets, which then controlled as eight shafts, but most of their Museum Haslach. Wooden strips and units of weave structure—a notion patterns required twelve or sixteen pegs are glued onto the linen band. that “was foreign to drawloom weav- shafts, and some called for as many One peg is lost and the linen is visible. ers” (1990a, 44). Patterns could be as thirty-two shafts” (Hilts 1990a, Photo Ellen Harlizius-Klück. determined by a complex interaction 27). The concept matured with the several editions until at least 1736.22 of loom-parts and drafts (cf. Hilts development of a draft notation that For this book Hilts states that only 1990a, 32; Schneider 2007, 93) “or is today called profile notation. (cf. Ellen Harlizius-Klück 186

Figure 6 Page from the book of Ziegler 1677 (from Schneider 2007).

Hilts 1990a, 44) Lumscher was most had shafts in the pattern harness Although both looms were used likely the one introducing this way and, as Hilts states: for weaving damask, Lumscher to mark the threading of a whole furthermore distinguished carefully unit of a weave structure by a ver- … they differed from drawlooms between the point-paper patterns tical stroke in a staff (Figure 7). The ordinarily pictured in eighteenth- for the two different looms. For the

and early nineteenths-century result in the words of Patricia Hilts: small drawloom it was necessary to works. Lumscher’s first or ‘small mark all binding points of the woven “Most important, profile notation drawloom’, was a loom having structure, whereas for the large freed weavers from thinking in terms only a pattern harness. His second drawloom only marking the pattern of single threads and allowed them or ‘large drawloom,’ had both a to think entirely in terms of units of pattern harness at the rear of the of the image was necessary because the overall satin structure of the structure” (Hilts 1990a, 44). loom, and a ground harness with a weave was provided by another har- Here we have not only a close set of five treadle-operated shafts at the front of the loom. (1990b, 12) ness (cf. Hilts 1990b, 15) (Figure 8). connection and interdependence of Hilts spent some time on com- notation and production, but also Within such compound mountings, paring the copies in London and the idea of a composition of draft the two harnesses served two Munich coming to the conclusion parts producing a variety of patterns different functions: the ground har- that the copy in the V&A in London in the algebraical manner that ness provided the structure of the is in the original state only missing Lovelace had in mind in her famous weave and ensured that the fabric a point-paper. For the facsimile, she quote. However, the larger class of would hold together whereas the took this point-paper, a depiction of drawlooms does not work this way. pattern harness lifted warp threads Abraham’s Offering, from the copy to define the pattern (Hilts 1990a, in Munich that she calls incomplete. Lumscher and the drawlooms 29). Ziegler and Lumscher accord- She furthermore states that, Lumscher considerably extended ingly distinguish between Boden because of the copy being re-bound, Ziegler’s book and among other new and Bild: Boden indicating the the placement of the point-paper is chapters included a description of weave structure and Bild the design. not clear. “For convenience, I have weaving on small and large draw- The terms roughly correspond to the placed ‘Abraham’s Offering’ at the looms as well as a how-to for con- meaning and distinction of “(back) end of Lumscher’s weaving pat- structing the small one. Both looms ground” and “image.” terns” (Hilts 1990b, 16). To Hilts, it is Weaving as binary art 187

Figure 7 Page with profile notation from Lumscher’s book (1708). Scan of copy from Deutsches Museum Munich, no. 34 (courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich.

the only drawloom pattern provided in German libraries. During my and chapters in a predetermined by Lumscher (1990a, 32). However, investigation of the Munich copy, order. But this was not the way the Munich copy also included a I found them in the Germanic books were sold in seventeenth- point-paper for a small drawloom National Museum, Nuremberg, and century Germany. From the that Hilts does not mention: the in the University Library, Göttingen. pagination style and the catch- daffodil (Figure 9).23 In both copies both point-papers words25 of the Lumscher copy we The two point-papers represent are included and the daffodil is learn that the book was sold in sec- the two different ways to pro- incorporated between the plates tions that could be patched together vide a design for a small or large 36 and 37. It also is included at the by the customer as he found it drawloom. The daffodil includes same position in the 1709 edition convenient. Such sections were sold a representation for each thread that was not known to Hilts. From in envelopes or interim covers and whereas Abraham’s Offering shows this, it is clear that the point-pa- their order was not predetermined only the threads that have to be per with the daffodil was part of as it is the case today. lifted additionally by the draw Lumscher’s book and not inserted The Munich copy is very special mechanism that cooperates with by the owner. in yet another sense. The book the basic weave that was probably a The London copy misses not only got its present binding in 1748 twill or satin setup. the two point-papers but also the with blank pages in between. The patterns g–m. Furthermore plate 32 weaver, Johann Georg Thaller from The Munich copy: a weaver’s is included twice, plate 36 is turned Oberschwarzach in Lower Frankonia journal by 180 degrees and the vignette at and two subsequent generations of That this point-paper was part of the end of the first part is different weavers, made their own designs Lumscher’s book and not inserted compared to all other copies includ- and notations on these additional by the owner of the Munich copy ing the 1709 one.24 pages (Figure 10). It was also used is clear from the fact that we We usually buy books with cover as a workshop journal including dye- today know of two further copies and a binding that keeps the pages ing recipes, short reports on politi- Ellen Harlizius-Klück 188

Figure 8 Point-paper of Abraham’s Offering from the Munich copy (courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich).

cal and private events like births of a cold winter with a lot of snow and provides a precursor for techni- children, prices of daily goods etc. It subsequent flooding.26 cal image processing. Schneider even records a darkening of the sun observes in Ziegler’s notations that in 1783 that caused a hot summer, Notation, Code, Pattern, Image already the tie-ups show which so much good wine that there were Schneider as well as Essinger are patterns could be woven (Schnei- not enough barrels to store it, and especially interested in the coding der 2007, 96), which makes them of pictures and the drawloom distinct from the Italian or French Weaving as binary art 189

Figure 9 Point-paper with daffodil from Lumscher’s book. Scan from Munich copy (courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich). Ellen Harlizius-Klück 190

ones. Where we see integers on Patricia Hilts concludes that the mechanisms and harnesses. When lines accompanied by samples in book of Ziegler has been published the Jacquard loom prevailed, this the Italian manuscript and a sort at the beginning of a period of rapid tradition lost importance and was of mechanical instruction in the development in multi-shaft trea- only carried on locally. Jacquard’s French encyclopedia, no depiction of dle-loom weaving that took place loom can weave anything, patterned the pattern itself is included.27 The 1677 to 1708 (Hilts 1990a, 10, 32, 45). or not, and by this he has put an end German weavers started to employ That Ziegler’s book appears at the to the highly algebraical weaving a binary drafting technique where beginning of this period suggests method of Kölsch or Golsch. the image is visible as tie-up or Bild, that it could have even made this which literally means “image.” development possible by introducing The Algebra of Patterns However, this is only true for the notations that referred to special Manipulation of symbols is what special case of the Schachwitz and loom parts, making it feasible to con- algebra means for us today. It is Kölsch fabrics with blue warp and nect the design process to the mech- mostly seen as a generalization of white weft and a straight treadling. anism installed in the loom. Crucially, arithmetical rules.28 Algebra allows This way to set up a loom, with the fact that the weavers worked on doing arithmetic in an algorithmic distinct colors of warp and weft, is both the weaving of images and of way. Simple algebraic notations not the usual way for checkered or patterns in one fabric makes their are for example 2n denoting any patterned fabrics. story important for the later devel- even number (where n is a natural The early books on weaving are opment of mechanisms that simply number) or 2n-1 denoting any odd not only important for notation and use the draft-paper for controlling the number. A similar generalization storage of patterns but also for the loom directly—such as the punched happens on the loom when two development of drawloom mecha- paper control of the French looms. sheds are used for making plain nisms different from the line of the The books of Ziegler and Lum- weave. All odd-numbered threads French inventors. A weaver could scher document a highly complex are collected in one shaft and all

build these devices by himself (Hilts and intellectually demanding devel- even ones in the other. That this sort 1990b, 12) or ask a local carpenter. opment of shaft weaving with draw of algebra is indeed what weavers

Figure 10 Page with notations from Johann Georg Thaller in the Lumscher copy in Munich (scan no. 75). Weaving as binary art 191 have to execute might be illustrated that the draft notations enable a as it stood was not able to perform by an instruction to calculate satin seamless connection of formalism reverse or mirrored operations: weaves for given repeats. In this and mechanism: The order of the case there is an equation system holes in the punched cards could be The mode of application of the with two unknown integers to solve: directly derived from the notations cards, as hitherto used in the art of progressing number and slope on point-paper. But this means weaving, was not found, however, number. The instruction reads: that the possibility to code a loom to be sufficiently powerful for all the simplifications which it was Factorize the repeat in two integers depended on the notation devel- desirable to attain in such varied fitting to the following conditions: oped by the shaft loom weavers. and complicated processes as As we heard, these notations were those required on order to fulfill 1. No number is equal to 1 not only meant as store or memory the purposes of an Analytical 2. The numbers are not equal to for patterns but also served as an Engine. A method was devised each other instrument for pattern generation. of what was technically desig- 3. The numbers are prime to each The block system notation parts nated backing the cards in certain other could be combined to compose new groups according to certain laws. 4. The numbers are prime to any patterns in a systematic way with The object of this extension is to third number. (Hauptmann secure the possibility of bringing 1952, 15) building blocks adding up to bigger units (Schneider 2007, 112).30 The any particular card or set of cards into use any number of times treadling and the tie-up stand also Weavers had to “calculate” like this successively in the solution of one for themselves and reflect geomet- and satin weaves store this sort of problem. … The process is alluded algebra in their structure.29 Ziegler’s rical properties of the pattern like to by M. Menabrea in page 680 block pattern principle furthermore symmetries and rotations that will and it is a very important simpli- allows a sort of calculus for pat- be composed from parts of the fication. It has been proposed to blocks by using only part of the use it for the reciprocal benefit of terns being constructed by repeats, reverting and mirroring of pattern treadling sequence in a special that art, which, while it has itself no apparent connexion with the parts. order (Schneider 2007, 112–113). domains of abstract science, has In fact, the Jacquard machine This close connection of code or yet proved so valuable to the latter, does not work algebraically. It is design and loom construction was also stressed by Hilts: “Loom-con- in suggesting the principles which, best known for the possibility of in their new and singular field of trolled pattern weaving is a distinct addressing each and every warp- application, seem likely to have branch of design in which art and thread singularly. It is this feature algebraical combinations not less that makes the machine perfect for technology are closely interrelated” completely within the province of weaving portraits—like the famous (Hilts 1990a, 27). mechanism, than are all those var- portrait of Jacquard himself to which Schneider is interested in ied intricacies of which intersecting Babbage referred when presenting weaving notations from the view- threads are susceptible. (Lovelace the idea of the Analytical Engine point of the prehistory of technical 1843, 796) of one of his soirées (cf. Essinger image processing and image coding. 2004, 1–5). Such portraits contain However, her remark on the block So, according to Ada, backing no repeats—besides the structure system makes it obvious that weav- and reverting the card chain was of the binding that is now included ers understood and took advantage a necessary improvement of the in the one-to-one address of the of the algebraical aspect of this Jacquard principle to be useful for machine and not a result of the addi- system. Ada Lovelace mentioned the Analytical Engine. She then tion of several shafts with particular such an algebraical approach to argues that this could be fed back groups of warp-threads. the patterns in her famous notes to into the art of weaving and help Schneider in her account of the Menabrea paper as a possibil- producing repeated and reverted the idea behind the punched card ity to improve weaving. She was patterns. However, the block mechanism points to the fact aware that the Jacquard machine patterns of the South German weavers and the crumb-machine Ellen Harlizius-Klück 192

of Upper Austria already imple- self-made, working and therefore successful for mechanic computa- mented such variations which are outwearing mechanisms with tion is that the punched cards made not typical for drawloom weaving untranslatable names invented and the binary basis of weaving obvious and not essential for weaving used by nameless regional weavers to non-weavers and, looking at the pictures like the Jacquard por- for weaving strange-named fabrics fabric in the second step, made trait. Ada was not a weaver and like Kölsch or Schachwitz. Such them aware of the possibilities of probably not acquainted with the tools do not enter the collections such an approach with regard to various methods of pattern weav- of national museums as long as algebra as a science of numerical ing. Presumably she thought of they are in use, and afterwards they patterns. drawlooms as the most advanced hardly ever survive. of their kind, which they are not On one hand, the books of Weaving, Music Machines and when viewed under the perspective Ziegler and Lumscher made the art Census have prepared as many of pattern algebra. Both, Babbage of weaving public, and its notation ideas for the computer as calculat- and Lovelace seem to have admired became standardized and coming devices. Only part of the history the Jacquard loom for its capacity mon. With the notation close to the of ideas is collected and described in weaving realistic images, but machine, they furthermore facili- in publications of our days and in images like portraits do not need tated mutual understanding of the our language. A lot remains to be done. (Zemanek 1976, 19) repeats or symmetry. There is no interaction between pattern drafting pattern and no algebra. and loom parts for non-weavers and through this enabled engineers and Notes Conclusion inventors to play around with the Besides the line of French inven- mechanisms finally leading to an 1. A Scholar-in-Residence Grant of tors culminating in the Jacquard automated loom. the Deutsches Museum conduct- machine, there have been success- On the other hand, it is also ed in the year 2006 allowed me ful tools developed by Austrian true that the inventive work that to investigate the weaver jour- and Southern Germany weavers weavers did day by day was and still nal. I am grateful to Helmut Hilz, to transform the drawloom with is overshadowed by the new tools head of the library, for hints and drawboy into a drawloom that and the new masters taking the information on the background could be operated by the weaver credit without being weavers. All the of book selling in the seven- alone. The crumb-machine is the algebra that weavers did is buried teenth century. Wilhelm Füßl result of a mutual development of and covered, hidden and misunder- made some wonderful weaver’s looms and weaving notations that stood as a mere binary reading of sketchbooks with block pattern culminated in the block-weaving something that is done better and notation accessible from the methods with their algebraic way easier by a mechanism scanning archives of Deutsches Museum. to organize threads in groups and punched cards. This is the reason Christina Leitner from Textile subgroups piling up to geometrical why it is necessary to object to the Culture Haslach gave me the op- symmetries. The notations make the all-too-prominent Jacquard “loom” portunity to work in the Haslach interaction between machine parts as ancestor of the computer. archive for the sources on the and the sets and groups of threads Finally, the weavers’ way to crumb-machine and made it visible. think algebraically entered the possible to see it in operation, It occurs that the mechanisms engineering of calculating mecha- to make photos and videos. The forming the historical line culmi- nisms. Punched cards are the means Arts and Humanities Research nating in the one from Jacquard by which this algebraic thinking are all more or less failures, stored was transferred from the brains of Council funded the cooperation in collections devoted to tinkering weavers to calculating engines. This with the computer scientists mechanisms of inventors like Vau- means that it is the invention of cod- and live coders Alex McLean canson’s duck or his androids. On ing algebra that really matters. The and Dave Griffiths on the the other hand, we have the cheap, reason why the loom control was so weaving-coding connection that Weaving as binary art 193

finally led to this article (Grant drum machine and thus also natural numbers (Serres and Ref. No. AH/M002403/1). from Vaucanson” (Bohnsack 38; Farouki 2001, 175). Often the dif- 2. “Mandements: de 1000 livres à author’s translation). ference of digital and analogue Basile Bouchon, maître ouvrier 7. Almut Bohnsack was professor clocks is used to explain this al- en soie, pour l’indemniser des for Textile Studies at the Univer- legedly fundamental distinction. dépenses qu’il avait faites en sity of Osnabrück and installed But analogue clocks use gears cherchant le secret de monter et a complete Jacquard workshop that are discontinuous and work faire travailler des métiers sans in the University premises with the escapement to cut the le secours du cantre et de la with card supply and punching continuous time into countable tireuse” (Schneider 131, note 13; machine. I had the opportunity pieces: tick-tock. Even Norbert author’s translation). It should to work on the loom myself. Wiener once stated: “Every digi- be mentioned that the loom still Without regular operation the tal device is really an analogical needed to be operated by two loom gets stiff and unworkable device” (cf. Pias 2003, 158). people: the weaver and someone and a lot of effort and technical 12. Zemanek gave no source. The pushing forward the punched knowledge is needed to make it two units are: (1) in the Museum cards (Bohnsack 1993, 31). ready for take-off again. of Weaving in the Textile Centre 3. Cf. Bohnsack 1993, 31 and 8. Essinger 2004, 85. He goes Haslach, Austria; and (2) in the http://history-computer.com/ on: “This type of drum was, of State Museum of Upper Austria, Dreamers/Bouchon.html with- course, the basis for the control Linz. out further reference. system of Jacques de Vaucan- 13. Randell, in a short summary of 4. Cf. Schneider 142; cf. also son’s loom.” But this is wrong. the article of Kreindl, misunder- http://history-computer.com/ As we already heard, Vaucan- stood the date of invention. The Dreamers/Vaucanson.html sons cylinder was perforated machine presented by Kreindl 4.3.2016 13:09. all over and a sheet of punched was made in 1740, but it was

5. It is often said that Jacquard as paper was wrapped around, one of the last of its kind and a child had to work as a draw- scanned by pegs that lifted the the invention must have been boy himself in the workshop respective warp threads. made considerably earlier. of his father. However, there is 9. The Jacquard loom became Kreindl suggests a date around no direct evidence and some of known in this area as “Lyon 1680 and not “in or before the stories about his youth are machine” from around 1825 1740,” as Randell says (cf. Ran- legends (Schneider 263). It is onwards. dell [1975] 1982, 484). documented, that his mother, 10. The term “mill” refers to the 14. Only Randell when referring Antoinette Rive, worked as watermills of the area and not to to Bouchon as the first to use tireuse, liseuse du dessin and textile factories. perforated tape for ornamental faiseuse de lacs in the workshop 11. The seemingly clear distinction patterns mentions the article of her husband who was a silk of digital and analog is a result of Kreindl (1935) in a footnote master weaver operating three of a long debate ending in a con- (1982, 4). The machine is not huge drawlooms. For biograph- vention not to talk about states discussed but the annotated ical information on Jacquard in-between (cf. Pias 2005). This bibliography gives a short sum- cf. Schneider 263, note 12, and then enables a distinct definition mary (cf. note 13). Essinger 2004, 22–25. as well as the often-stated high- 15. Ganzhorn and Walther call 6. “He took the idea of holes in er precision of digital signals. the parts of the programming paper as means of transmitting In the information sciences and mechanism “wooden pegs” information from Bouchon, technology, a signal is called (Holzbrettchen) similar to the the punched cards and the analog if it transmits the infor- ones in Falcon’s machine (1984, hooks from Falcon, the idea of mation by means of a propor- 45; cf. for Falcon 1975, 34 and a self-acting machine from Vau- tional ratio. Signals are digital 1985, 43). canson and its implementation and containers of information 16. The manuscript was written by as an additional device from the when they are solely coded as the weaver Franz Xaver Friepes Ellen Harlizius-Klück 194

around 1799 and contains an However, there is also an edi- geweßen seynt/geweßen dar introduction, more than 300 tion from 1709 and an edition auff ist Nun erfolgt ein so differ/ threading drafts, more than 400 with minor corrections from schnee den Winder Zum Denck tie-ups and around 200 draw- 1708. If we do not consider the mahl ist Bett stund an/gestelt downs for weaving Schachwitz, last one as an edition in itself, worten Zu Besorgen ein großes a fabric decorated with flowers the first editions from 1708, Waßer wie/Nun auch”. Obvi- and ornaments in the typical ge- 1709 and 1711 span over only ously, this refers to the effects ometrical style of the region (cf. three years which makes the of the eruption of the Laki, Oberösterreichischer Musealv- sales an even better success. a volcanic fissure in Iceland erein 1937, 29–30). 23. The copy in Munich is listed in that caused eight months of 17. Essinger wrongly assumes the library catalogue with Marx emissions of sulfuric aerosols that the drawloom is the first Ziegler as author and Nathanael and ash blown southeast as a loom “that made it possible to Lumscher as publisher. The fog so thick that ships could create a pattern” (2004, 10). whole book and manuscript is not navigate. The book clear- Obviously, he employs the term presented online at ly demonstrates that local “pattern” with the meaning of http://digital.bib-bvb.de/web- weavers were not as poor and “image.” Patterns can of course client/DeliveryManager?cus- illiterate as some histories of be created with simple shaft tom_att_2=simple_view- the trade suggest. looms. And to weave repeated er&pid=2398723. A short 27. Schneider (2007, 83–124) “images” that is: patterns that introduction and overview gives compares different notation depict something like stars or Harlizius-Klück 2007. systems for weaving under the flowers, is also possible with 24. Dorothea Peters suggests that perspective of technical image shaft looms. the V&A vignette was printed processing. 18. Cf. Library of The Austrian Mu- from a fragile woodcut that 28. There is, however, a discussion

seum of Folk Life and Folk Art, broke and was subsequently about the relationship of arith- Vienna. replaced by the sturdier one we metic and algebra showing that 19. Cf. Adam 1973, 134 and note see in the other copies and also different cultures have different [16]. later in the 1709 print (conver- traditions and concepts of alge- 20. The catalogue of the exhibition sation at Deutsches Museum in bra. For example, Subramaniam “Textiles Open Letter” pretends 2007). and Banerjee (2011) state that to present a copy of Ziegler’s 25. On the text pages the first word algebra is rather a founda- book from 1677 on pp. 242 and of a page is printed at the end tion than a generalization of 243 belonging to the CSROT of a separate last line on the arithmetic. Possible historical library of Seth Siegelaub. How- preceding page (in German: and cultural dependencies of ever, as the title page presented Kustoden). the algebra of patterns and the in the catalogue shows, this is a 26. The transcription reads: development of algebra will be late edition of Lumscher’s book “Im Jahr 1783: ist die Sonn pursued in an ERC Consolidator from 1725 (Frank and Watson den Somer so Verfinster/=t Grant at the Deutsches Museum 2015, 242). There is no depic- geweßen und einen Nebell und in Munich (PENELOPE-682711, tion of a loom in Ziegler’s book. gehab daß es einen/schrecken principal investigator: Ellen 21. Throughout the two publications un der dem Volck gemacht habe Harlizius-Klück). Hilts misspells the name as und war/ein solges thüres Jahr 29. There is a so-called geometri- “Nathaniel”. daß Mann glaubte es müste/ cal algebra in Ancient Greece, 22. Patricia Hilts knows the editions Nun alles Verterben und war ein based on a specific number from 1708, 1711, and 1720 and so gutes Wein/Jahr daß Nun Faß theory called dyadic arithmetic argues that Lumscher refers Zu Wenig waren einzuthuen/Der or “theory of odd and even.” to these when he writes in the Eimer habe gegolten .2. gulten It includes all arithmetical edition of 1725 that 4000 copies .2. taller und war/so gut daß rules necessary for pattern were sold in three editions. die trauben wie die Roßinen calculations and the fact that Weaving as binary art 195

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